Editing Carnuntum

{{short description|Ancient Roman military outpost in modern Austria}}
{{Lead too short|date=April 2018}}
{{Infobox ancient site
| name = Carnuntum
| native_name = 
| alternate_name = 
| image = Carnuntum map Roman city.png
| alt = 
| caption = The legionary fortress, auxiliary fort and town ({{lang|la|[[canaba]]e}})
| map_type = Austria
| map_alt = 
| map_size = 
| relief = 
| coordinates = {{Wikidatacoord|Q508815|display=inline,title}}
| location = [[Lower Austria]], Austria
| region = [[Pannonia Superior]]
| type = {{lang|la|[[Castrum]]}}
| part_of = 
| length = 
| width = 
| area = 
| height = 
| builder = 
| material = 
| built = 
| abandoned = 
| epochs = [[Roman Empire]]
| cultures = 
| dependency_of = 
| occupants = 
| event = 
| excavations = 
| archaeologists = 
| condition = 
| ownership = 
| management = 
| public_access = 
| website = 
| embedded = {{Infobox UNESCO World Heritage Site
 |child    = yes
 |Part_of  = [[Danubian Limes|Frontiers of the Roman Empire – The Danube Limes (Western Segment)]]
 |ID       = 1608bis-071
 |Year     = 2021
 |Criteria = Cultural: ii, iii, iv
 }}
}}
[[File:Legionslager Carnuntum Uebersichtsplan.jpg|thumb|Plan of legionary fortress]]

'''Carnuntum''' ({{ety|grc|''Καρνοῦς'' (Carnous)}} according to [[Ptolemy]]) was a [[Roman legion]]ary fortress ({{langx|la|[[castra]] legionis}}) and headquarters of the [[Roman navy|Pannonian fleet]] from 50&nbsp;AD. After the 1st century, it was capital of the [[Pannonia Superior]] province. It also became a large city of approximately 50,000 inhabitants.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ilyK1_1f0zYC&pg=PA54 |page=54&–55 |title=Historical Dictionary of Austria |first=Paula |last=Sutter Fichtner |publisher=[[Scarecrow Press]] |date=2009 |isbn=9780810863101}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BtncoXdlxdkC&pg=PA109 |page=109 |title=The Danube: A Cultural History |first=Andrew |last=Beattie |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |date=2010 |isbn=9780199768356}}</ref>

Its impressive remains are situated on the Danube in [[Lower Austria]] halfway between [[Vienna]] and [[Bratislava]] in the Carnuntum Archaeological Park extending over an area of 10&nbsp;km<sup>2</sup> near today's villages of [[Petronell-Carnuntum]] and [[Bad Deutsch-Altenburg]].

==History==
===Military history===
Carnuntum first occurs in history during the reign of [[Augustus]] (6 AD), when [[Tiberius]] made it his base of operations as a Roman fort ({{lang|la|[[castrum]]}}) in the campaigns against [[Maroboduus]] (Marbod).<ref name="EB1911">{{EB1911|inline=y|wstitle=Carnuntum|volume=5|page=378}}</ref>

====Legio XV {{lang|la|Apollinaris}}====
Significant Romanisation happened when the town was selected as the garrison of the [[Legio XV Apollinaris|Legio XV {{lang|la|nocat=y|Apollinaris}}]] before 14 AD.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.livius.org/articles/legion/legio-xv-apollinaris/ |title=Legio XV Apollinaris – Livius |website=Livius.org |access-date=27 December 2018 |archive-date=26 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181226064519/http://www.livius.org/articles/legion/legio-xv-apollinaris/ |url-status=live }}</ref> A few years later, it became the centre of the Roman fortifications along the [[Danube]] from [[Vindobona]] (now [[Vienna]]) to [[Brigetio]] ([[Szőny|Ó-Szőny]]).<ref name="EB1911"/> According to [[Tacitus]],<ref>Tacitus, ''Annals'', XII, 29.2</ref> the emperor [[Claudius]] ordered the governor of Pannonia "to have a legion with an [[auxilia]]ry on the bank of the Danube" to protect the losers of a dispute between [[Germania|Germanic]] tribes (the [[Quadi]] and [[Marcomanni]]) and deter the victors from the temptation to invade Pannonia. To this period (about 50&nbsp;AD) belongs the auxiliary {{lang|la|castrum}} of a cavalry [[Ala (Roman cavalry unit)|{{lang|la|nocat=y|ala}}]] 1.5&nbsp;km south-west of the legionary fortress.<ref>{{cite book |first=Jenő |last=Fitz |chapter=The Danubian Provinces |title=History of the Greeks and Romans, Volume 16: The Principles of Rome, from Augustus to Alexander Severus |location=Milan |date=2008 |page=495}}</ref>

In 71&nbsp;AD, after several campaigns, the Legio XV ''Apollinaris'' returned to Carnuntum and rebuilt its fortress. While some of the legion fought in [[Trajan's Dacian Wars]], the main body of the legion remained in Pannonia.

====Legio X {{lang|la|Gemina}}====
[[Legio X Gemina|Legio&nbsp;X {{lang|la|nocat=y|Gemina}}]] was sent to Carnuntum for a few years from about 63&nbsp;AD.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.livius.org/articles/legion/legio-x-gemina/ |title=Legio X Gemina - Livius |access-date=20 August 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160820205115/https://www.livius.org/articles/legion/legio-x-gemina/ |archive-date=20 August 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> During the brief reign of [[Galba]] (68–69), it was transferred back to Hispania.

====Legio VII {{lang|la|Gemina}}====
[[Legio VII Gemina|Legio VII {{lang|la|nocat=y|Gemina}}]], newly founded by [[Galba]] in 68&nbsp;AD, was allocated to Carnuntum until about 71 AD after his defeat by [[Vespasian]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.livius.org/articles/legion/legio-vii-gemina/? |title=Legio VII Gemina – Livius |website=Livius.org |access-date=27 December 2018 |archive-date=27 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181227085131/http://www.livius.org/articles/legion/legio-vii-gemina/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

====Legio XIV {{lang|la|Gemina}}====
In 117–118 AD,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.livius.org/articles/legion/legio-xiiii-gemina/ |title=Legio XIIII Gemina – Livius |website=Livius.org |access-date=27 December 2018 |archive-date=16 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231116064334/https://www.livius.org/articles/legion/legio-xiiii-gemina/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Carnuntum became the permanent quarters of [[Legio XIV Gemina|Legio&nbsp;XIV {{lang|la|nocat=y|Gemina}}]] where it stayed for three centuries until the frontier collapsed in 430.

===History of the city===
In Roman times, Carnuntum had a history as a major trading centre for [[amber]], brought from the north to traders who sold it in [[Italy]]; the main arm of the [[Amber Road]] crossed the Danube at Carnuntum.

As {{lang|la|italics=no|Aelium Carnuntum}}, the capital of [[Pannonia Superior]], it was made a {{lang|la|[[municipium]]}} by Hadrian. Its importance is indicated by the fact that [[Marcus Aurelius]] resided there for three years (172–175) during the war against the [[Marcomanni]], and wrote part of his ''[[Meditations]]'' there. Also [[Septimius Severus]], at the time governor of Pannonia, was proclaimed emperor there by his soldiers (193),<ref name="EB1911"/> to replace Emperor [[Pertinax]], who had been murdered.

In the [[Severan dynasty]] (193–235), Carnuntum experienced an economic boom, the {{lang|la|canabae}} reaching their maximum size. [[Caracalla]] elevated it to {{lang|la|[[Colonia (Roman)|colony]]}} status as {{lang|la|italic=no|Septimia Colonia Aurelia Antoniana.<ref>{{cite book |first=Jenő |last=Fitz |title=The Great Age of Pannonia |location=Budapest |date=1982 |page=14}}</ref> During the reign of [[Gallienus]], the Pannonians rebelled by electing the usurper [[Regalianus]], who established a mint with coins depicted him and his wife Sulpicia Dryantilla}}. He was killed shortly afterwards by his own soldiers, probably at Carnuntum.<ref>{{cite book |first1=J. |last1=Morris |first2=A. H. M. |last2=Jones |first3=J. R. |last3=Martindale |title=The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |date=1992 |page=273 |isbn=0521072336}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |language=de |first1=Hildegard |last1=Temporini |first2=Wolfgang |last2=Haase |title=Aufstieg und Niedergang römischen der Welt |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |page=852 |isbn=3110049716}}</ref>

In 308, during the [[Civil wars of the Tetrarchy]], the Emperor emeritus [[Diocletian]] chaired a historic meeting there, the [[Conference of Carnuntum]], with his co-emperors [[Maximian]] and [[Galerius]], to solve the rising tensions within the [[tetrarchy]].<ref>Zosimus, ''New History'', II, 10, 4</ref><ref>{{cite book |first=Santo |last=Mazzarino |title=The Roman Empire |location=Rome |publisher=Bari |date=1973 |volume=II |page=598}}</ref>

Around 350 Carnuntum suffered severe earthquake damage.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Decker |first1=Kurt |last2=Gangl |first2=Georg |last3=Kandler |first3=Manfred |date=1 October 2006 |title=The earthquake of Carnuntum in the fourth century a.d. – archaeological results, seismologic scenario and seismotectonic implications for the Vienna Basin fault, Austria |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10950-006-9032-0 |journal=Journal of Seismology |language=en |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=479–495 |doi=10.1007/s10950-006-9032-0 |bibcode=2006JSeis..10..479D |issn=1573-157X |access-date=12 October 2023 |archive-date=9 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240409144158/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10950-006-9032-0 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 374, it was destroyed by Germanic invaders, the [[Quadi]] and [[Iazyges]]. Although partly restored by [[Valentinian I]],<ref>Ammianus, ''Stories'', XXX, 5.2</ref> it never regained its former importance, and [[Vindobona]] became the chief military centre.<ref name="EB1911"/> During the [[Barbarian Invasions]], Carnuntum was eventually abandoned and used as a cemetery and source of building material for building projects elsewhere. Eventually, its remains became buried and forgotten.
[[File:Claudio 41 - 54dC jpg.jpg|thumb|400px|Map of Roman legions in 50&nbsp;AD: Legio&nbsp;XV {{lang|la|Apollinaris}} at Carnuntum]]

==Today==
The Archaeological Park Carnuntum comprises three sites:
* Museum, [[Heidentor]] and [[amphitheatre]] near Petronell
* Excavations in the garden of [[Petronell Castle]]
* [[#Museum Carnuntinum|Museum Carnuntinum]]

===Civilian city===
[[File:Amphitheater carnuntum.JPG|thumb|Remains in Carnuntum – amphitheatre]]
The remains of the civilian city extend around the village [[Petronell-Carnuntum]]. There are several places to see in the city: Roman city quarter in the open-air museum, palace ruins, [[amphitheatre]], and Heidentor.

The Roman city ruins are exposed in the open-air museum directly in the present village. One of the ancient houses, called the House of Lucius, has been rebuilt using traditional techniques. It was opened to the public on 1 June 2006.

The {{lang|la|[[Forum (Roman)|forum]]}} was next to the palace ruins, also referred to as the large [[public bath]]s.

Some way outside the city was a large amphitheatre, which had room for about 15,000 spectators.
A plate with an inscription found at the site claims that this building was the fourth largest amphitheatre in the whole Roman Empire.

===Heidentor===
Between 354&nbsp;AD and 361&nbsp;AD, a huge triumphal monument was erected next to the camp and city. Contemporary reports suggest that Emperor [[Constantius II]] had it built to commemorate his victories. When the remains of Carnuntum disappeared after the Migration Period the monument remained as an isolated building in a natural landscape and led Medieval people to believe it was the tomb of a pagan giant. Hence, they called it {{lang|la|italics=no|[[Heidentor]]}} ('Heathens' Gate' or 'Pagans' Gate').

===Fortress===
[[File:Ancient Roman amphitheatre in Bad Deutsch-Altenburg.JPG|thumb|Remains of the fortress – amphitheatre]]
The only remaining building of the fortress is an amphitheatre, located just outside the fortress. Today, a small adjacent museum shows the history of [[gladiator]]s.

==Culture==
[[The World Theatre Festival Art Carnumtum]] ({{langx|de|[[Art Carnuntum Welttheater Festival]]}}<ref name=hw/>) is held each year in the ancient amphitheatre. [[Art Carnuntum]] is a cultural organisation that aims support the cultural and philosophical heritage of Europe and promotes [[Theatre of ancient Greece|classical drama]] in both traditional and contemporary styles.<ref name=about/> The festival was founded around 1988<ref name=hw/> by the italian artist [[Piero Bordin]],<ref name=about>{{cite web |title=About us |website=Home |url=https://www.artcarnuntum.com/en/ABOUT-US/ |access-date=14 December 2021 |archive-date=14 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211214065825/https://www.artcarnuntum.com/en/ABOUT-US/ |url-status=dead}}</ref> who died suddenly in March 2021. Since 2021 [[Constantina Bordin]] is the new artistic director.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.noen.at/niederoesterreich/kultur-festivals/nachgefragt-constantina-bordin-jede-sekunde-war-eine-sternstunde-petronell-carnuntum-art-carnuntum-constantina-bordin-nachgefragt-print-287139666 |title=Constantina Bordin: "Jede Sekunde war eine Sternstunde" |work=NÖN.at |date=26 August 2021 |access-date=11 July 2023 |archive-date=16 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230516003932/https://www.noen.at/niederoesterreich/kultur-festivals/nachgefragt-constantina-bordin-jede-sekunde-war-eine-sternstunde-petronell-carnuntum-art-carnuntum-constantina-bordin-nachgefragt-print-287139666 |url-status=live }}</ref> Collaborators from Greece include Irini Pappas, Michalis Kakogianis, and Theodoros Terzopoulus, and the popular festival has become known as an international centre for ancient drama as well as European classical and modern music.<ref name=hw/>

The festival was held in August in 2021.<ref name=hw>{{cite web |title=Art Carnuntum Welttheater Festival 2021 |website=Hephaestus Wien |date=26 July 2021 |first=Georg |last=Gstrein |url=https://hephaestuswien.com/art-carnuntum-welttheater-festival-2021/ |language=de |access-date=14 December 2021 |archive-date=14 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211214080959/https://hephaestuswien.com/art-carnuntum-welttheater-festival-2021/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Gladiator school===
In September 2011 aerial photographs and ground-penetrating radar led to the discovery of the typical contours of an ancient Roman gladiator school to the south of the Roman settlement, a {{lang|la|[[ludus gladiatorius|ludus]]}} rivaling the [[Ludus Magnus|Ludus Magnus school]] and covering an area of some {{convert|3350|sqyd|ha}}.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.nbcnews.com/id/44411139 |work=NBC News |agency=Associated Press |title=Unique Roman Gladiator School Unearthed |first=George |last=Jahn |access-date=2019-11-17 |archive-date=2024-04-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240409144203/https://www.nbcnews.com/id/wbna44411139 |url-status=dead }}</ref> This approach of aerial photography and modern remote sensing has allowed for a detailed virtual recreation of the gladiator school.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-26359012 |title=Roman 'gladiator school' recreated |first=James |last=Morgan |date=26 February 2014 |access-date=27 December 2018 |website=Bbc.com |archive-date=27 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181227142308/https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-26359012 |url-status=live }}</ref> The aerial photographs used in the recreation were acquired with a radio-controlled Microdrone md4-1000 quadrocopter, which captured a sufficient number of photographs to create an overlap among them. Then, using a technique called ''[[structure from motion]] (SfM)'', a 3D model of the school was calculated using the sharpest images.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.academia.edu/3791286 |website=Academia.edu |title=The Amphitheater of Carnuntum-Towards a complete 3D model using airborne structure from motion and dense image matching |access-date=2014-11-19 |archive-date=2023-10-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231012114049/https://www.academia.edu/3791286 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The school, along with the amphitheater, was located outside of the town's walls. The school had training grounds, bathing facilities, an assembly hall and dormitories for the gladiators. The school also had a courtyard which housed a training area for gladiators. The school was attached to an open campus which was most likely used for chariot races.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.academia.edu/3791251 |website=Academia.edu |title=The discovery of a gladiatorial school at Carnuntum |access-date=2014-11-17 |archive-date=2023-10-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231012115123/https://www.academia.edu/3791251 |url-status=live }}.</ref>

===Museum Carnuntinum===
[[Image:Carnuntum Museum Carnuntinum.jpg|thumb|180px|Museum Carnuntinum]]
The archaeological museum Carnuntinum, which is situated in the village of [[Bad Deutsch-Altenburg]] on the river [[Danube]], exhibits important archeological finds from the ancient city.

==In fiction==
[[Völkisch movement|Völkisch]] author [[Guido von List]] was so impressed with the ruins that he based his first novel, ''Carnuntum'', on the subject. Another novel, ''[[Household Gods (novel)|Household Gods]]'', by [[Harry Turtledove]] and [[Judith Tarr]], is set in Carnuntum during the reign of [[Marcus Aurelius]], from the point of view of a modern American [[Time travel|time traveler]].

In [[Frank Tallis]]'s crime novel ''Vienna Blood'', both Guido von List and his novel ''Carnuntum'' appear, together with an eponymous opera based on the novel.

{{Clear}}

==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:Carnuntum Palace Ruins.jpg|The palace ruins near [[Petronel-Carnuntum|Petronell]]
File:Petronell - Heidentor (3).JPG|Heidentor (so-called Heathens' Gate)
File:Modell Carnuntum 8 Zivilstadt.jpg|Scale Model of Carnuntum in Roman times
File:Modell Carnuntum 5 Amphitheater.jpg|Scale Model of Carnuntum in Roman times (amphitheatre and region outside city walls)
File:Grabstein Titus Calidius Carnuntum.jpg|Tombstone of Titus Calidius Severus, [[centurion]] of the [[Legio XV Apollinaris|Fifteenth Legion]], depicting a horse, centurion's helmet and armour, found in Carnuntum
File:Jupiter dolichenus 3rd century Carnuntum.jpg|Statue of the god [[Jupiter Dolichenus]]
File:Carnuntum_thermae_2011a.jpg|Reconstructed Thermae
</gallery>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons}}
* [http://www.carnuntum.co.at/ Archaeological Park Carnuntum]
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:AD 6 establishments]]
[[Category:0s establishments in the Roman Empire]]
[[Category:374 disestablishments]]
[[Category:370s disestablishments in the Roman Empire]]
[[Category:Populated places established in the 1st century]]
[[Category:Populated places disestablished in the 4th century]]
[[Category:Roman towns and cities in Austria]]
[[Category:Archaeological sites in Austria]]
[[Category:Former populated places in Austria]]
[[Category:Geography of Lower Austria]]
[[Category:Buildings and structures in Lower Austria]]
[[Category:Archaeological parks]]
[[Category:Roman amphitheatres]]
[[Category:Roman legionary fortresses in Austria]]
[[Category:Roman fortifications in Pannonia Superior]]
[[Category:Tiberius]]
[[Category:Quadi]]
[[Category:Populated places in Pannonia]]