Editing Carambola

{{short description|Fruit}}
{{Redirect|Starfruit|the marsh plant|Damasonium}}
{{About|the fruit}}
[[File:Averrhoa carambola ARS k5735-7.jpg|thumb|Unripe carambolas on the tree]]
[[File:Carambola 1z .jpg|thumb|Carambola before pruning]]
[[File:Carambola 2z .jpg|thumb|Carambola after pruning]]
'''Carambola''', also known as '''star fruit''', is the fruit of ''[[Averrhoa carambola]]'', a species of tree native to tropical [[Southeast Asia]].<ref name="jm">{{Cite web|author=Julia F. Morton|title =Carambola (''Averrhoa carambola''); In: Fruits of Warm Climates|date=1987|pages=125–128|url =http://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/morton/carambola.html|publisher=NewCROP, New Crop Resource Online Program, Center for New Crops & Plant Products, Purdue University}}</ref><ref name=cabi/><ref name="Gepts"/> The edible fruit has distinctive ridges running down its sides (usually 5–6).<ref name=jm/> When cut in cross-section, it resembles a [[star polygon|star]], giving it the name of ''star fruit''.<ref name=jm/><ref name=cabi/> The entire fruit is edible, usually raw, and may be cooked or made into [[relish]]es, preserves, [[garnish (food)|garnish]], and juices.<ref name=jm/> It is commonly consumed in [[Southeast Asia]], [[South Asia]], the [[Oceania|South Pacific]], [[Micronesia]], parts of [[East Asia]], the [[United States]], parts of [[Latin America]], and [[Caribbean|the Caribbean]]. The tree is cultivated  throughout tropical areas of the world.<ref name="cabi">{{cite web |title=''Averrhoa carambola'' (carambola) |url=https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/8082 |publisher=CABI |access-date=5 October 2018 |date=27 September 2018}}</ref>

Carambola fruits contain [[oxalic acid]] and the neurotoxin [[caramboxin]]. Consuming large quantities of the fruit,   especially for individuals with some types of [[kidney disease]], can result in serious adverse health effects.

==Origins and distribution==
{{Main article|Averrhoa carambola}}
[[File:Carambolas765pt.jpg|thumb|Sliced carambolas having 7, 6, and the usual 5 points]]

The [[center of diversity]] and the original range of ''Averrhoa carambola'' is tropical [[Southeast Asia]], where it has been cultivated over centuries.<ref name=jm/><ref name="Gepts">{{cite book |last1=Gepts |first1=Paul |editor1-last=Moore |editor1-first=Paul H. |editor2-last=Ming |editor2-first=Ray |chapter=Tropical environments, biodiversity, and the origins of crops |date=2008 |publisher=Springer |title=Genomics of Tropical Crop Plants |url=https://archive.org/details/genomicstropical00moor_136 |url-access=limited |isbn=9780387712192 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/genomicstropical00moor_136/page/n22 1]-20}}</ref><ref name="Duke">{{cite book |last1=Duke |first1=James A. |last2=duCellier |first2=Judith L. |title=CRC Handbook of Alternative Cash Crops |date=1993 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=9780849336201 |pages=59–60}}</ref><ref name="Arora">{{cite book |url=https://www.bioversityinternational.org/fileadmin/user_upload/online_library/publications/pdfs/Diversity_in_Underutilized_Plant_Species_An_Asia-Pacific_Prespective_1938.pdf|last1=Arora |first1=R.K. |title=Diversity in Underutilized Plant Species – An Asia-Pacific Perspective |date=2014 |publisher=Bioversity International |isbn=9789292550073 |page=59}}</ref> It was introduced to the [[Indian Subcontinent]] and [[Sri Lanka]] by [[Austronesian peoples|Austronesian]] traders, along with ancient Austronesian [[cultigen]]s like [[langsat]], [[noni]], and [[Santol (fruit)|santol]].<ref name="Blench2009">{{cite book |last1=Blench |first1=Roger |editor1-last=Evans |editor1-first=Bethwyn |chapter=Remapping the Austronesian expansion |date=2009 |publisher=Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University |title=Discovering history through language: Papers in honour of Malcolm Ross |url=http://www.rogerblench.info/Language/Austronesian/General/Blench%20Ross%20Festschrift%20paper%20revised.pdf}}</ref> They remain common in those areas and in [[East Asia]] and throughout [[Oceania]] and the [[Pacific Islands]].<ref name=jm/><ref name=cabi/> They are cultivated commercially in [[India]], Southeast Asia, southern [[China]], [[Taiwan]], and 
the southern [[United States]]. They are also grown in [[Central America]], [[South America]], and the U.S. state of [[Hawaii]], [[Caribbean|the Caribbean]], and parts of [[Africa]].<ref name=jm/><ref name=cabi/> They are grown as [[ornamental plant|ornamentals]].<ref name="jm"/> Carambola is considered to be at risk of becoming an [[invasive species]] in many world regions.<ref name=cabi/>

==Description==
The carambola tree has a short trunk with many branches, reaching up to {{cvt|30|ft|m|0|order=flip}} in height.<ref name=jm/> Its deciduous leaves are {{cvt|6|-|10|in|cm|0|order=flip}} long, with 5 to 11 [[ovate (leaf)|ovate]] leaflets medium-green in color.<ref name=jm/> Flowers are [[lilac (color)|lilac]] in color, with purple streaks, and are about {{cvt|1/4|in|mm|round=5|order=flip}} wide. 

The showy fruits have a thin, waxy [[pericarp]], orange-yellow skin, and crisp, yellow flesh with juice when ripe.<ref name=jm/> The fruit is about {{cvt|2|to|6|in|cm|0|order=flip}} in length and is an oval shape. It usually has five or six prominent longitudinal ridges.<ref name=jm/> In cross-section, it resembles a star.<ref name=jm/><ref name=cabi/> The flesh is translucent and light yellow to yellow in color. Each fruit can have 10 to 12 flat light brown seeds about {{cvt|1/4|-|1/2|in|mm|round=5|order=flip|abbr=on}} in width and enclosed in gelatinous [[aril]]. Once removed from the fruit, they lose viability within a few days.<ref name="crfg"/><ref name="crane">{{Cite book |author =Jonathan H. Crane |title =The Carambola (Star Fruit) |publisher =Florida Cooperative Extension Service, University of Florida |series =Fact Sheet HS-12 |year =1994 |url =http://university.uog.edu/cals/people/PUBS/Carambol/MG26900.pdf |access-date =2012-08-08 |archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20121119035539/http://university.uog.edu/cals/people/PUBS/Carambol/MG26900.pdf |archive-date =2012-11-19 |url-status =dead}}</ref><ref name="fi">{{Cite web |url=http://www.fruitsinfo.com/StarFruit-Exotic-fruits.php |title=Star Fruit |publisher=Fruitsinfo |access-date=August 9, 2012}}</ref>

Like the closely related [[Averrhoa bilimbi|bilimbi]], there are two main types of carambola: the small sour (or tart) type and the larger sweet type. The sour varieties have a higher [[oxalic acid]] content than the sweet type. A number of cultivars have been developed in recent years. The most common cultivars grown commercially include the sweet types "Arkin" ([[Florida]]), "Yang Tao" ([[Taiwan]]), "Ma fueng" ([[Thailand]]), "Maha" ([[Malaysia]]), and "Demak" ([[Indonesia]]) and the sour types "Golden Star", "Newcomb", "Star King", and "Thayer" (all from Florida). Some of the sour varieties like "Golden Star" can become sweet if allowed to ripen.<ref name=jm/><ref name="crfg">{{Cite web |url=http://www.crfg.org/pubs/ff/carambola.html |title=''Averrhoa carambola'' L. |publisher=California Rare Fruit Growers, Inc. |access-date=August 9, 2012 |archive-date=August 22, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120822154541/http://www.crfg.org/pubs/ff/carambola.html |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="crane"/>

===Common names===
Carambola is known by many names across its regions of cultivation, including ''khế'' in [[Vietnam]], ''balimbing'' in the [[Philippines]], ''belimbing'' in [[Indonesia]] and [[Malaysia]], ''ma fen'' in [[China]], ''kamaranga'' in India, and ''carambolo'' in Spanish-speaking countries.<ref name=jm/><ref name=cabi/>

==Culinary==
[[File:Carambola Starfruit.jpg|thumb|left|Vertical, end view, and cross section of the ripe carambola]]
{{nutritional value | name=Carambola, (star fruit), raw
| kJ=128
| water=91.4 g
| protein=1.04 g
| fat=0.33 g
| carbs=6.73 g
| fiber=2.8 g
| sugars=3.98 g
| calcium_mg=3
| iron_mg=0.08
| magnesium_mg=10
| phosphorus_mg=12
| potassium_mg=133
| sodium_mg=2
| zinc_mg=0.12
| manganese_mg=0.037
| vitC_mg=34.4
| thiamin_mg=0.014
| riboflavin_mg=0.016
| niacin_mg=0.367
| pantothenic_mg=0.391
| vitB6_mg=0.017
| folate_ug=12
| choline_mg=7.6
| lutein_ug=66
| vitE_mg=0.15
| source_usda = 1
| note=[https://web.archive.org/web/20170912192615/https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/search/list?qlookup=09060&format=Full Link to USDA Database entry]
}}
The entire fruit is edible, including the slightly waxy skin. The flesh is crunchy, firm, and extremely juicy.<ref name=cabi/> It does not contain [[Fiber|fibers]] and has a texture similar in consistency to that of [[grape]]s. Carambolas are best consumed shortly after they ripen when they are yellow with a light shade of green, or just after all traces of green have disappeared. They will also have brown ridges at the edges and feel firm. Fruits picked while still slightly green will turn yellow in storage at room temperature, but will not increase in sugar content. Overripe carambola will be yellow with brown spots and can become blander in taste and soggier in consistency.<ref name="crane"/><ref name="buzzle">{{Cite web|url=http://www.buzzle.com/articles/star-fruit-how-to-eat-star-fruit.html|title=How to Eat Star Fruit|publisher=Buzzle|access-date=August 5, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110110204152/http://www.buzzle.com/articles/star-fruit-how-to-eat-star-fruit.html|archive-date=January 10, 2011|url-status=usurped}}</ref>

Ripe sweet type carambolas are sweet without being overwhelming as they rarely have more than 4% sugar content. They have a tart, sour undertone, and an oxalic acid odor. The taste is difficult to match, but it has been compared to a mix of [[apple]], [[pear]], [[grape]], and [[Rutaceae|citrus family]] fruits. Unripe star fruits are firmer and sour, and taste like green apples.<ref name="crfg"/><ref name="fg">{{Cite web |url=http://floridagardener.com/pom/Carambola.htm |title=Carambola or Star Fruit |publisher=FloridaGardener.com |access-date=August 5, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120727003227/http://www.floridagardener.com/pom/Carambola.htm |archive-date=July 27, 2012 }}</ref>

Ripe carambolas may also be used in cooking. In Southeast Asia, they are usually stewed in [[clove]]s and sugar, sometimes with [[apple]]s. In China, they are cooked with fish. In Australia, they may be cooked as a vegetable, pickled, or made into jams. In [[Jamaica]] they are sometimes dried.<ref name="jm"/>

Unripe and sour type carambolas can be mixed with other chopped spices to make relishes in Australia.<ref name="jm"/> In the Philippines, unripe carambolas are eaten dipped in [[rock salt]].<ref name="mm">{{Cite web|url=http://www.marketmanila.com/archives/balimbing-carambola-star-fruit|title=Balimbing / Carambola / Star Fruit|date=21 November 2006|publisher=Market Manila|access-date=August 5, 2012}}</ref> In Thailand, they are cooked together with shrimp.<ref name="jm"/>

The juice from carambolas is also used in iced drinks, particularly the juice of the sour varieties. In the Philippines, they can be used as a seasoning. In India, the juice is bottled for drinking.<ref name="jm"/>

===Nutrition===
Raw carambola is 91% water, 7% [[carbohydrate]]s, 1% [[protein]], and has negligible [[fat]] (table). A 100-gram reference amount of raw fruit supplies {{convert|128|kJ|kcal|abbr=off}} of [[food energy]] and a rich content of [[vitamin C]] (41% of the [[Daily Value]]), with no other [[micronutrient]]s in significant content (table).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tint Khine Aye, Moet Moet Khaing, Thin Ei Ei Zaw|title=A Study on Preliminary Phytochemical Investigation and Nutritional Values of Averrhoa carambola L.|url=https://www.dagonuniversity.edu.mm/wp-content/uploads/2019/08/47-Thint-Khaing-AyeMoet-Khaing-1.pdf|journal=2nd Myanmar Korea Conference Research Journal}}</ref>

==Health risks==
Carambolas contain [[caramboxin]]<ref name="auto">{{Cite journal | last1 = Garcia-Cairasco | first1 = N. | last2 = Moyses-Neto | first2 = M. | last3 = Del Vecchio | first3 = F. | last4 = Oliveira | first4 = J. A. C. | last5 = Dos Santos | first5 = F. L. | last6 = Castro | first6 = O. W. | last7 = Arisi | first7 = G. M. | last8 = Dantas | first8 = M. R. | last9 = Carolino | first9 = R. O. G. | last10 = Coutinho-Netto | first10 = J. | last11 = Dagostin | first11 = A. L. A. | last12 = Rodrigues | first12 = M. C. A. | last13 = Leão | first13 = R. M. | last14 = Quintiliano | first14 = S. A. P. | last15 = Silva | first15 = L. F. | last16 = Gobbo-Neto | first16 = L. | last17 = Lopes | first17 = N. P. | title = Elucidating the Neurotoxicity of the Star Fruit | doi = 10.1002/anie.201305382 | journal = Angewandte Chemie International Edition | volume = 52 | issue = 49 | pages = 13067–70 | year = 2013 | pmid = 24281890}}</ref> and [[oxalic acid]].<ref name=jm/><ref name="muthu">{{cite journal|pmc=5357571|year=2016|last1=Muthu|first1=N.|title=Nutritional, Medicinal and Toxicological Attributes of Star-Fruits (Averrhoa carambola L.): A Review|journal=Bioinformation|volume=12|issue=12|pages=420–424|last2=Lee|first2=S. Y.|last3=Phua|first3=K. K.|last4=Bhore|first4=S. J.|pmid=28405126|doi=10.6026/97320630012420}}</ref> Both substances are harmful to individuals suffering from [[kidney failure]], [[kidney stone]]s, or those under [[kidney dialysis]] treatment.<ref name=muthu/> Consumption by those with kidney failure can produce [[hiccups]], [[vomiting]], [[nausea]], mental confusion, and sometimes death.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Chang CT, Chen YC, Fang JT, Huang CC |title=Star fruit (''Averrhoa carambola'') intoxication: an important cause of consciousness disturbance in patients with renal failure|journal=Ren Fail|year=2002|volume=24|issue=3|pages=379–82|pmid=12166706|doi=10.1081/JDI-120005373|s2cid=23916956|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref name="Neto2003">{{Cite journal|vauthors=Neto MM, da Costa JA, Garcia-Cairasco N, Netto JC, Nakagawa B, Dantas M |title=Intoxication by star fruit (''Averrhoa carambola'') in 32 uraemic patients: treatment and outcome|journal=Nephrol Dial Transplant|year=2003|volume=18|issue=1|pages=120–5|pmid=12480969|doi=10.1093/ndt/18.1.120|doi-access=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.nutritionatc.hawaii.edu/HO/2003/202.htm|title=Kidney patients should avoid star fruit|author=Titchenal A & Dobbs J|publisher=Nutrition ATC|date=2003-04-28|access-date=2008-10-16}}</ref> Caramboxin is a [[neurotoxin]] which is structurally similar to [[phenylalanine]], and is a [[glutamate|glutamatergic]] agonist.<ref name="auto"/>

===Drug interactions===
Like the [[grapefruit]], carambola is considered to be a potent inhibitor of seven [[cytochrome P450]] isoforms.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.hktmc.com/ChineseMedia/Magazine/Medicine/ajdmpk/AJDMPK-2006-3/asian6-3(248-261)(DM).doc |title=Abstracts: Metabolism and metabolic enzymes studies for the 8th National Congress on Drug and Xenobiotic Metabolism in China |access-date=2007-04-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928013636/http://www.hktmc.com/ChineseMedia/Magazine/Medicine/ajdmpk/AJDMPK-2006-3/asian6-3(248-261)(DM).doc |archive-date=2007-09-28 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>[http://www.theannals.com/cgi/content/full/40/7/1472-a Potential Drug-Food Interactions with Pomegranate Juice] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070321221751/http://www.theannals.com/cgi/content/full/40/7/1472-a |date=March 21, 2007 }}</ref> These enzymes are significant in the [[drug metabolism|first-pass elimination]] of many medications, and, thus, the consumption of carambola or its juice in combination with certain prescription medications can significantly increase their effective dosage within the body.

==Cultivation==
[[File:Carambola star fruit at organic food mela Bangalore Karnataka India.jpg|right|thumb|Unripe Indian carambola]]
[[File:Sliced Indian Carambola Star fruit with Indian spices.jpg|thumb|Ripe carambola fruit with Indian spices]]
The carambola is a tropical and subtropical fruit which can be grown at elevations up to {{convert|4,000|ft|order=flip|abbr=off}}. It prefers full sun exposure, but requires enough humidity and annual rainfall of at least {{convert|70|in|mm|abbr=on|order=flip}}.<ref name=jm/><ref name=cabi/> It does not have a soil type preference, but will thrive in [[loam]] and requires good drainage.<ref name=jm/> Moderate irrigation supports its growth during dry seasons.<ref name=jm/> Heavy rains may inhibit fruit production.<ref name=jm/>

Carambola trees are planted at least {{convert|20|ft|m|0|order=flip|abbr=on}} from each other and typically are fertilized three times a year.  The tree grows rapidly and typically produces fruit at four or five years of age. The large amount of rain during spring actually reduces the amount of fruit, but, in ideal conditions, carambola can produce from {{convert|200|to|400|lb|kg|order=flip|abbr=off|-1}} of fruit a year. The carambola tree flowers throughout the year, with main fruiting seasons from April to June and October to December in Malaysia,<ref name="ippc">{{Cite book|author =Crop Protection & Plant Quarantine Services Division|title =Technical Document for Market Access on Star Fruit (Carambola)|publisher =The Ministry of Agriculture and Agro-based Industry, Malaysia|year =2004|url =https://www.ippc.int/file_uploaded/1115281083940_Technical_Document_Carambola.pdf|archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20110909055104/https://www.ippc.int/file_uploaded/1115281083940_Technical_Document_Carambola.pdf|url-status =dead|archive-date =September 9, 2011}}</ref> for example, but fruiting also occurs at other times in some other locales, such as South Florida.<ref name=jm/><ref name="crane"/>

Growth and leaf responses of container-grown 'Arkin' carambola (''Averrhoa carambola'' L.) trees to long-term exposure of 25%, 50%, or 100% sunlight showed that shading increased [[rachis]] length and leaflet area, decreased leaflet thickness, and produced more horizontal branch orientation.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Marler|first1=Thomas E.|last2=Schaffer|first2=Bruce|last3=Crane|first3=Jonathan H.|date=1994-07-01|title=Developmental Light Level Affects Growth, Morphology, and Leaf Physiology of Young Carambola Trees|journal=Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science|language=en|volume=119|issue=4|pages=711–718|doi=10.21273/JASHS.119.4.711|issn=0003-1062|doi-access=free}}</ref> 

Major pests are [[carambola fruit flies]], fruit moths, ants, and birds.<ref name=jm/><ref name="crfg"/><ref name="ippc"/> Crops are also susceptible to frost.<ref name="crfg"/>

Top producers of carambola in the world market include Australia, [[Guyana]], India, [[Israel]], [[Malaysia]], the Philippines, Taiwan, and the United States.<ref name="crane"/> Malaysia is a global leader in star fruit production by volume and ships the product widely to Asia and Europe.<ref name="ippc"/> Due to concerns over pests and pathogens, however, whole star fruits cannot yet be imported to the US from Malaysia under current [[United States Department of Agriculture]] regulations. In the United States, carambolas are grown in tropical and semitropical areas, including parts of Florida and Hawaii.<ref name="jm"/><ref name="bilj">{{Cite web|url=http://www.bijlmakers.com/fruits/starfruit.htm|title=Star Fruit|author=Hein Bijlmakers|publisher=Tropical Fruits|access-date=August 9, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120626140136/http://www.bijlmakers.com/fruits/starfruit.htm|archive-date=2012-06-26|url-status=dead}}</ref>

In the United States, commercial cultivation and broad consumer acceptance of the fruit only date to the 1970s, attributable to [[Morris Arkin]], a backyard [[horticultural]]ist, in [[Coral Gables, Florida]]. The 'Arkin' variety represented 98% of the acreage in South Florida in the early 21st century.<ref name="knight">{{Cite journal|author1=Robert J. Knight|author2=Jonathan H. Crane|year=2002|title=The 'Arkin' Carambola in Florida|journal=Proc. Fla. State Hort. Soc.|volume=115|pages=92–93|url=http://www.fshs.org/Proceedings/Password%20Protected/2002%20Vol.%20115/92-93(Knight).pdf}}{{dead link|date=July 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

==In popular culture==
[[File:Star fruit photo.jpg|right|thumb|Carambola, photo taken in Assam]]
The trees are also grown as ornamentals for their abundant brightly colored and unusually shaped fruits, as well as for their attractive dark green leaves and their lavender to pink flowers.<ref name="crane"/>

Like the bilimbi, the juice of the more acidic sour types can be used to clean [[rust]]y or [[tarnish]]ed metal (especially [[brass]]) as well as bleach rust stains from cloth. They may also be used as a [[mordant]] in [[dye]]ing.<ref name="jm"/>

The farming video game ''[[Stardew Valley]]'' allows the player to cultivate and grow carambola,<ref>{{Cite news | url=https://stardewvalleywiki.com/Starfruit | title=Starfruit | newspaper=Stardew Valley Wiki }}</ref> in this setting known as "starfruit". They are the most valuable crop in the game. The in-game icon erroneously depicts the fruit as resembling its real-life cross-section, and the plant itself as a single-harvest crop instead of a tree.

The Filipino word for the starfruit, ''balimbing'', due to its many-faced shape, has acquired the meaning in Philippine political discourse of a [[turncoat]], someone who switches political allegiances not out of principle but for their own self-interest.<ref>{{Cite web|author=Now You Know PH|title=ML@50: Martial Law Word of the Day — "Balimbing"|url=https://nowyouknowph.rappler.com/2022/09/16/ml50-martial-law-word-of-the-day-balimbing/|publisher=[[Rappler]]|access-date=2022-09-16|archive-date=2022-09-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220920170625/https://nowyouknowph.rappler.com/2022/09/16/ml50-martial-law-word-of-the-day-balimbing/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Averrhoa carambola (fruit)}}
* {{wikispecies-inline|Averrhoa|Carambola}}

[[Category:CYP3A4 inhibitors]]
[[Category:Flora of tropical Asia]]
[[Category:Tropical agriculture]]
[[Category:Tropical fruit]]