Editing Callisthenes

{{Short description|Greek historian ({{circa}} 360–327 BCE)}}
{{Other uses}}

'''Callisthenes of Olynthus''' ([[Help:IPA/English|/kəˈlɪsθəˌniːz/]]; [[Greek language|Greek]]: Καλλισθένης; {{Circa}} 360 – {{Circa}} 327 BCE)<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Callisthenes of Olynthus - Livius |url=https://www.livius.org/articles/person/callisthenes-of-olynthus/ |access-date=2023-06-05 |website=www.livius.org}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book |last=Chrisholm |first=Hugh |url=https://archive.org/stream/EncyclopaediaBritannicaDict.a.s.l.g.i.11thed.chisholm.1910-1911-1922.33vols/05.EncycBrit.11th.1910.v.5.CAL-CHA._djvu.txt |title=Encyclopædia Britannica |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1911 |volume=5 |pages=57}}</ref> was a [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] historian in [[Macedonia (ancient kingdom)|Macedon]] with connections to both [[Aristotle]] and [[Alexander the Great]]. He accompanied Alexander the Great during his Asiatic expedition and served as his historian and publicist. He later opposed Alexander’s adoption of Persian culture and was arrested after being implicated in a plot on the king's life; he died in prison. During his life, he authored several works on Greek history and a biography of Alexander the Great.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt19893tw |title=Greece, Macedon and Persia |date=2015 |publisher=Oxbow Books |isbn=978-1-78297-923-4 |pages=114|doi=10.2307/j.ctt19893tw |jstor=j.ctt19893tw }}</ref>

==Early life==
[[File:Olympias presenting the young Alexander the Great to Aristotle by Gerard Hoet before 1733 MH.jpg|thumb|[[Olympias]] presenting the young Alexander the Great to Aristotle by Gerard Hoet, before 1733]]
Callisthenes was born in [[Olynthus]] sometime during 360 BCE. Little is known of his early childhood except that his mother Hero was the niece of Aristotle, and daughter of [[Proxenus of Atarneus]] and [[Arimneste]]; which made Callisthenes the great-nephew of Aristotle by his sister Arimneste, Callisthenes's grandmother. It is also known that Callisthenes was in the care of Aristotle by 347 BCE and studied under him as his student. Callisthenes spent much of his early life writing and traveling with Aristotle. His first literary work was an [[encomium]] to [[Hermias of Atarneus]], but by 334 BC, he had written a few works including a series on Greek history and antiquarian writings, such as a registry of competitors for the [[Pythian Games]] for which Aristotle and Callisthenes are thanked.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Brown |first=Truesdell S. |date=1949 |title=Callisthenes and Alexander |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/291475 |journal=The American Journal of Philology |volume=70 |issue=3 |pages=225–233 |doi=10.2307/291475 |jstor=291475 |issn=0002-9475}}</ref> Based on the fact that a reference by Diodorus Siculus mentions Callisthenes’ historical accounts of Greek history, it can be assumed that Callisthenes was a historian of some repute before he began working with Alexander the Great.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Diodorus Siculus, Library, Book XIV, chapter 117 |url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0083:book=14:chapter=117 |access-date=2023-06-05 |website=www.perseus.tufts.edu}}</ref> Callisthenes first met Alexander the Great, when Alexander began being tutored by Aristotle around the age of thirteen. Aristotle had been tasked by [[Philip II of Macedon]] to tutor the young Alexander in Mytilene. While both studying under Aristotle, Callisthenes and Alexander would have come to know each other as fellow students and pupils of Aristotle.<ref name=":2" />

== Campaign with Alexander the Great ==
Around 334 BCE, Callisthenes was invited to accompany Alexander the Great in his Asiatic expedition. There were many factors as to why Callisthenes chose to accompany Alexander. First, being that he had already established a relationship with Alexander during their time as students of Aristotle and as a historian and antiquarian might have appreciated a chance at traveling. Another potential reason is that Callisthenes’ birthplace of Olynthus was destroyed by Phillip II of Macedon, and such might have been looking to better himself in the eyes of Alexander and thus Phillip II’s court, in order to aid in its reconstruction.<ref name=":2" />
[[File:MacedonEmpire.jpg|thumb|A map of Alexander the Great's empire at its largest extent c.323 BCE including details of key roads, location, and battles.]]
During this expedition, Callisthenes was tasked with being the official historian for the campaign. While he occupied this role, he compiled his narrative on the events that transpired during the campaign. Much of the work is dedicated to praising Alexander and upholding his authority as the king and his army penetrated further into Asia. While much of his time during the campaign was spent working on his account of the expedition. But, Callisthenes was also sent on scientific expeditions, to places such as Kush or [[Babylon]].<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bosworth |first=A. B. |date=1970 |title=Aristotle and Callisthenes |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4435151 |journal=Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=410 |jstor=4435151 |issn=0018-2311}}</ref> Callisthenes had an affinity for the natural sciences and is known to have written several scientific works, including astronomical diaries and his own theories for the source of the [[Nile|Nile River]]. Although these theories later received pushback from Alexander the Great.<ref name=":2" />

== Opposition to Alexander the Great ==
The dramatic conflict between Alexander the Great and Callisthenes was a result of years of tensions between many of Alexander’s court members, including Callisthenes that came to a head. Throughout Alexander’s campaign, he acquired an interest in taking on Persian customs and aristocrats. By 328 BCE, Alexander had allowed a handful of Persian aristocrats to join his entourage, a choice that deeply upset the Macedonians who were close to Alexander. That same year a confrontation occurred between Alexander and [[Cleitus the Black]] an officer in Alexander’s army. During a banquet Cleitus expressed his displeasure at the current state of Alexander’s contingent. An argument broke out between the two, ending in a physical confrontation and Cleitus’ demise at Alexander’s hand. After this conflict Alexander was distraught and brought on his trusted friends, one of which being Callisthenes to provide counsel to the king after he killed Cleitus.<ref name=":3">{{Cite book |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvckq3sm |title=Alexander the Great and the East: History, Art, Tradition |date=2016 |publisher=Harrassowitz Verlag |isbn=978-3-447-10710-5 |edition=1 |pages=247–254 |doi=10.2307/j.ctvckq3sm|jstor=j.ctvckq3sm }}</ref>

By the next year Alexander’s fascination with Persian culture had only grown and in 327 BCE, he attempted to introduce the Persian servile ceremony of [[proskynesis]]. Callisthenes was sharply critical of Alexander’s new Persian practices. During a banquet held shortly before Alexander’s expedition left for India, Callisthenes gave a speech arguing against the adoption of proskynesis. Callisthenes argued that Alexander was not entitled to receive divine honors, such as the proskynesis from his followers. Alexander witnessed this speech and knowing Callisthenes was correct chose not to continue with the practice.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Arrian on the introduction of proskynesis - Livius |url=https://www.livius.org/sources/content/arrian/anabasis/the-introduction-of-proskynesis/ |access-date=2023-06-05 |website=www.livius.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bowden |first=Hugh |date=2013 |title=On Kissing and Making up: Court Protocol and Historiography in Alexander the Great's 'Experiment with "Proskynesis"' |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44254132 |journal=Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies |volume=56 |issue=2 |pages=74 |doi=10.1111/j.2041-5370.2013.00058.x |jstor=44254132 |issn=0076-0730}}</ref>

Another account by [[Plutarch]] claims that during this banquet Alexander offers a cup to a colleague who performs the proskynesis ceremony, kisses Alexander, and then drinks from the cup. While all of the other members of the court performed the ceremony Callisthenes blatantly refused to act out the proskynesis. This direct opposition to Alexander won Callisthenes favor by the Macedonians but severely destroyed the relationship between Callisthenes and Alexander.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last=Milns |first=Robert D. |date=2006 |title=Callisthenes on Alexander |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24668207 |journal=Mediterranean Archaeology |volume=19/20 |pages=233–237 |jstor=24668207 |issn=1030-8482}}</ref> Callisthenes eventually left the king’s court as he had lost favor with Alexander. After Callisthenes fall from grace, he became increasingly politically isolated from the remaining members of Alexander’s court. Alexander continued to introduce more Persian recruits, further displeasing the remaining Macedonians in his court.<ref name=":3" />

==Death==
During an incident during a royal boar hunt in which [[Hermolaus of Macedon]], one of Alexander’s royal pages and Callisthenes former pupil, broke royal protocol and assisted Alexander in killing the boar. For this Hermolaus was publicly humiliated by flogging as well as the removing of his horse. This led Hermolaus and several other royal pages to create a conspiracy to assassinate Alexander. Yet, the conspiracy was discovered, and the young nobles faced arrest, torture and interrogation.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Carney |first=Elizabeth |date=1981 |title=The Conspiracy of Hermolaus |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3297324 |journal=The Classical Journal |volume=76 |issue=3 |pages=228 |jstor=3297324 |issn=0009-8353}}</ref>

While under torture, Hermolaus implicated Callisthenes as a part of the plot against Alexander. Because of Callisthenes’ previous opposition to Alexander, as well as his previous role as Hermolaus’s instructor, Alexander found Callisthenes guilty of treason and ordered his subsequent arrest. Callisthenes was subsequently thrown into prison where he died seven months later. There are several different accounts of how he died or was executed. [[Crucifixion]] is the method suggested by [[Ptolemy]], but [[Chares of Mytilene]] and [[Aristobulus of Cassandreia]] both claim that Callisthenes died of natural causes while in prison.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Smith |first=William |url=http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/0585.html |title=Dictionary of Greek & Roman Biography & Mythology |year=1870 |volume=1 |pages=576 |access-date=2017-12-07 |archive-date=2012-10-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121019132956/http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/0585.html |url-status=usurped }}</ref>

Callisthenes's death was commemorated in a special treatise (''Callisthenes or a Treatise on Grief'') by his friend [[Theophrastus]], whose acquaintance he made during a visit to [[Athens]]. In this eulogy Theophrastus condemns Alexander for the torture and execution of Callisthenes. He also references the acts of mourning and grief enacted by those who were close to Callisthenes and advises the bereaved on how to cope with the loss. Theophrastus also upholds Callisthenes as a figure of traditional piety and civic freedom.<ref>{{Citation |last=White |first=Stephen A. |title=Chapter Twelve. Theophrastus And Callisthenes |date=2007-01-01 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/edcoll/9789047419525/Bej.9789004156685.i-286_015.xml |work=Influences on Peripatetic Rhetoric |pages=211–230 |access-date=2023-06-05 |publisher=Brill |language=en |doi=10.1163/ej.9789004156685.i-286.49 |isbn=978-90-474-1952-5}}</ref>

==Writings==
Callisthenes' most well-known work was an account of Alexander's expedition up to the time of Callisthenes’ own execution. ''Deeds of Alexander'' or ''Praxeis Alexandrou'' (330 BCE) was biographical-style series of works detailing the campaign of Alexander the Great. Although copies of the work do not survive today, some knowledge of it can be inferred from references by other authors. The book was intended as propaganda and glorified Alexander the Great’s military achievements and claims to divinity as the son of [[Zeus]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hornblower |first=Simon |url=https://ia902909.us.archive.org/2/items/hornblower-simon-spawforth-antony-the-oxford-classical-dictionary-1999/HORNBLOWER%2C%20Simon%3B%20SPAWFORTH%2C%20Antony%20-%20The%20Oxford%20Classical%20Dictionary%20%5B1999%5D.pdf |title=The Oxford Classical Dictionary |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1999 |edition=3rd |location=New York |pages=278}}</ref> According to Polybius, much of Callisthenes' military accounts were over-glorified to the point of impossibility. [[Polybius]] claims that Callisthenes’ descriptions of Alexander’s military are impossible and would not fit in the locations, such as the country outside of [[Cilicia]], that Callisthenes describes.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Polybius. Histories. Book 12 |url=http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/e/roman/texts/polybius/12*.html |access-date=2023-06-05 |website=penelope.uchicago.edu}}</ref> It contained many references to [[Iliad|Homer’s ''Iliad'']] and also described locations in the ''Iliad'' that Alexander had visited. It applauded Alexander as a standard for Greek masculinity; and condemned the Persians as weak and effeminate.<ref name=":0" /> It is said to have been used as justification for the Panhellenic crusade and as a means of recruiting potential supporters for Alexander’s crusade.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Prentice |first=William Kelly |date=1923 |title=Callisthenes, the Original Historian of Alexander |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/282843 |journal=Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association |volume=54 |pages=75 |doi=10.2307/282843 |jstor=282843 |issn=0065-9711}}</ref>

In addition to his work on Alexander the Great, he also authored another major work, a 10 book long historical anthology of Greece. ''Hellenica'' covered the periods from the [[Peace of Antalcidas]] (387 BCE) to the start of the [[Third Sacred War|Phocian war]] (357 BCE). His other works include; the list of winners from the Pythian games that he co-authored with Aristotle, writings on astronomy including a description of the [[Great Comet of 371 BC]], a work covering the [[First Sacred War|first Sacred war]] of 600 BCE titled ''On the Sacred War'', a tribute ''Hermias'' to Atarneaus and Assos who were killed by Persians, a book on witty sayings, a ''Diakosmos Battle Order'' which covers ships in Homers ''Iliad,'' and a [[Periplus]] covering the [[Black Sea]].<ref name=":4" />

=== Pseudo-Callisthenes ===
Additionally, many works have been ascribed to Callisthenes mistakenly, resulting in their authorship commonly known as Pseudo-Callisthenes. One of the more well-known examples is the [[Alexander Romance]], the basis of all the Alexander legends of the [[Middle Ages]]. It originated during the time of the [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Ptolemies]], but in its present form belongs to the 3rd century CE. The Latin translation for the text is usually attributed to [[Julius Valerius Alexander Polemius]] (early 4th century). The work has also been said to be authored by several other people beyond Callisthenes, including; [[Aesopus (historian)|Aesopus]], [[Aristotle]], [[Antisthenes of Rhodes|Antisthenes]], [[Onesicritus]], and [[Arrian]]. There are also Syrian, Armenian, and Slavonic versions, in addition to four [[Greek language|Greek]] versions (two in prose and two in verse) in the Middle Ages (see [[Karl Krumbacher|Krumbacher]], ''Geschichte der byzantinischen Literatur'', 1897, p.&nbsp;849).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Von Christ |first=Whilhelm |title=Geschichte der griechischen Litteratur |year=1898 |pages=849}}</ref> [[Julius Valerius Alexander Polemius|Valerius]]'s translation was completely superseded by that of [[Leo of Naples|Leo, archpriest of Naples]] in the 10th century, the so-called ''Historia de Preliis''.<ref name=":1" />

In addition to the ''Alexander Romance'', Pseudo-Callisthenes is also credited with several other works. Including; a work titled ''Metamorphoses'', a work on Macedonian history, a ''History of Thrace'', and treatise on the subject of hunting.<ref name=":4" /> There has also been a collection of letters, written in Greek originally attributed to Callisthenes, yet later disputed as the dates of the letters range far beyond the time period that Callisthenes was alive. Many of these were originally attributed to Callisthenes due to their assumed time period aligning with Callisthenes’s active years as an author, as well as their subject matter being on topics Callisthenes was known to have written about. As of now, there are no intact copies of Callisthenes’s works known to have survived.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Foundation |first=Encyclopaedia Iranica |title=Encyclopaedia Iranica. Callisthenes |url=https://iranicaonline.org/articles/callisthenes-the-name-of-a-greek-historian-of-the-period-of-alexander-the-great-q |access-date=2023-06-05 |website=iranicaonline.org |language=en-US}}</ref>

==References==
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==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110608214408/http://www.pothos.org/content/index.php?page=callisthenes Pothos.org: Callisthenes]
*[https://www.livius.org/caa-can/callisthenes/callisthenes.html Livius.org: Callisthenes of Olynthus] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141104083614/http://www.livius.org/caa-can/callisthenes/callisthenes.html |date=2014-11-04 }}
*[https://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander_z1b.html Livius.org: Alexander the Great: the 'good' sources – Official propaganda: Callisthenes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161204170928/https://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander_z1b.html |date=2016-12-04 }}

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[[Category:360s BC births]]
[[Category:320s BC deaths]]
[[Category:4th-century BC Greek historians]]
[[Category:Conspirators against Alexander the Great]]
[[Category:People executed by Alexander the Great]]
[[Category:Ancient Olynthians]]
[[Category:Historians who accompanied Alexander the Great]]