Editing Blackberry

{{short description|Fruit of Rubus species}}
{{about|the bramble fruit|the handheld electronics brand|BlackBerry|other uses}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2024}}
{{automatic taxobox
| name = Blackberry
| image = Ripe, ripening, and green blackberries.jpg
| image_caption = Ripe, ripening, and unripe Allegheny blackberries (''[[Rubus allegheniensis]]'')
| image2 = Rubus fruticosus Luc Viatour.JPG
| image2_caption = Blackberry flower, ''[[Rubus fruticosus]]'' [[species aggregate]]
| taxon = Rubus subg. Rubus
| authority =
| synonyms = ''Rubus'' subg. ''Eubatus''
| subdivision_ranks = Species
| subdivision = *''[[Rubus ursinus]]''
* ''[[Rubus laciniatus]]''— Evergreen blackberry
* ''[[Rubus argutus]]''
* ''[[Rubus armeniacus]]''— Himalayan blackberry
* ''[[Rubus plicatus]]''
* ''[[Rubus ulmifolius]]''
* ''[[Rubus allegheniensis]]''
* ''[[Rubus violaceifrons]]''
And hundreds more [[microspecies]]<br />
(the subgenus also includes the [[dewberry|dewberries]])
}}

The '''blackberry''' is an edible fruit produced by many [[species]] in the genus ''[[Rubus]]'' in the [[family (biology)|family]] [[Rosaceae]], hybrids among these species within the subgenus ''Rubus'', and hybrids between the subgenera ''Rubus'' and ''Idaeobatus''. The taxonomy of blackberries has historically been confused because of [[hybrid (biology)|hybridization]] and [[apomixis]] so that species have often been grouped together and called [[species aggregate]]s.

Blackberry fruit production is abundant with annual volumes of {{convert|20000|lb|kg}} per {{convert|1|acre}} possible, making this plant commercially attractive.<ref name="carroll">{{cite web |author1=Carroll B |title=Commercial Blackberry Production |url=https://extension.okstate.edu/fact-sheets/commercial-blackberry-production.html |publisher=Division of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources, Oklahoma State University |access-date=10 April 2024 |date=February 2017}}</ref>

''[[Rubus armeniacus]]'' ("Himalayan" blackberry) is considered a [[noxious weed]] and [[invasive species]] in many regions of the [[Pacific Northwest]] of Canada and the United States, where it grows out of control in urban and suburban parks and woodlands.<ref name="iscbc">{{cite web |title=Himalayan blackberry |url=https://bcinvasives.ca/invasives/himalayan-blackberry/ |publisher=Invasive Species Council of BC |access-date=13 August 2021 |date=2021}}</ref><ref name="king">{{cite web |title=Himalayan blackberry: identification and control |url=https://kingcounty.gov/services/environment/animals-and-plants/noxious-weeds/weed-identification/blackberry.aspx |publisher=King County, Washington: Noxious Weed Control Program |access-date=13 August 2021 |date=16 February 2021}}</ref>

==Description==
The blackberry looks similar to its [[raspberry]] relatives. What distinguishes the blackberry is the connection between the berry and the torus ([[receptacle (botany)|receptacle]] or stem). When a raspberry is picked, the torus remains on the vine. This is why there is a hollow core in the raspberry fruit. When a blackberry is picked, the torus stays with the fruit.<ref>{{cite web |author1=Gina Fernandez |author2=Elena Garcia |author3=David Lockwood |title=Fruit development |url=https://content.ces.ncsu.edu/southeast-regional-caneberry-production-guide/fruit-development |publisher=North Carolina State University, Cooperative Extension |access-date=9 August 2018}}</ref>
{{gallery
|align=center
|File:Halved blackberry (Rubus fruticosus).jpg|Halved blackberry with present torus
|File:Raspberry - halved (Rubus idaeus).jpg|Halved raspberry with absent torus, for contrast
|File:Blackberries-6383.jpg|Wild blackberries picked in May in Texas
|File:Blackberry from Srem, Serbia (Sremska kupine, selo Dobrinci).jpg|Blackberries from [[Syrmia|Srem]], Serbia
}}
{{clear|left}}
The term ''[[bramble]]'', a word referring to any impenetrable [[thicket]], has in some circles traditionally been applied specifically to the blackberry or its products,<ref>{{cite book|title=Shorter Oxford English Dictionary |edition=6th |year=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford, UK |isbn=978-0199206872|page=3804}}</ref> though in the United States it applies to all members of the genus ''Rubus''. In the western US, the term ''caneberry'' is used to refer to blackberries and raspberries as a group rather than the term bramble. ''[[thicket|Briar]]'' or ''brier'' may be used to refer to the dense vines of the plant, though this name is used for other thorny thickets (such as ''[[Smilax]]'') as well.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Harrison |first=Les |title=Wicked weeds: A tangled tale of thorny smilax |url=https://www.tallahassee.com/story/life/home-garden/2016/12/29/wicked-weeds-tangled-tale-thorny-smilax/95874480/ |access-date=2024-05-26 |website=Tallahassee Democrat |language=en-US}}</ref>

The usually black fruit is not a [[berry (botany)|berry]] in the [[botanical]] sense, as it is termed botanically as an [[aggregate fruit]], composed of small [[drupe]]lets. It is a widespread and well-known group of over 375 species, many of which are closely related [[apomixis|apomictic microspecies]] [[native plant|native]] throughout Europe, northwestern Africa, [[temperateness|temperate]] western and central Asia and North and South America.<ref name=rhs>{{cite book | last=Huxley | first=Anthony|year=1992 | title=Dictionary of gardening | publisher=Macmillan Press Stockton Press | location=London New York | isbn=978-0-333-47494-5 | oclc=25202760 }}</ref>

=== Plants ===
[[File:PRubus primocanes and floricanes.jpg|thumb|Second-year flowering, fruiting floricanes to the left. First-year primocanes without flowers or fruit growing on the right.]]

Blackberries are [[perennial]] plants bearing [[biennial plant|biennial]] stems (called ''canes'') from their roots.<ref name=uga>{{cite web |url=http://www.ugaextension.com/cobb/anr/Documents/BlackberriesandRaspberriesUGA.pdf |author1=Krewer, Gerard |author2=Fonseca, Marco |author3=Brannen, Phil |author4=Horton, Dan |year=2004 |title=Home Garden: Raspberries, Blackberries |publisher=Cooperative Extension Service/The University of Georgia College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131126233205/http://www.caes.uga.edu/extension/cobb/anr/Documents/BlackberriesandRaspberriesUGA.pdf |archive-date=26 November 2013}}</ref>

In its first year, a new stem, the ''primocane'', reaches a full length of about {{convert|3|-|6|m|abbr=off}} trailing on the ground and bearing large [[leaf shape|palmate compound]] [[leaf|leaves]] with 5–7 new leaves; it does not produce any flowers.<ref name=uga/> In its second year, the cane is a ''floricane'' with a non-growing stem.<ref name=uga/> The lateral buds open to produce flowering laterals.<ref name=uga/> First- and second-year shoots produce short-curved, sharp [[Thorns, spines, and prickles|thorns]].<ref name=uga/> Thornless cultivars have been developed during the early 21st century.<ref name=uga/><ref name="usda18" />

Unmanaged plants tend to aggregate in a dense tangle of stems and branches,<ref name=king/> which can be controlled in gardens or farms using [[trellis (architecture)|trellises]].<ref name=carroll/><ref name=uga/> Blackberry shrubs can tolerate poor [[soil]]s, spreading readily in wasteland, ditches, and roadsides.<ref name=king/><ref name=rhs/><ref name=blamey>{{cite book | last=Blamey | first=Marjorie | title=The illustrated flora of Britain and northern Europe | publisher=Hodder & Stoughton | year=1989 | isbn=978-0-340-40170-5 | oclc=41355268 }}</ref>

The [[flower]]s bloom in late spring and early summer on the tips of branches.<ref name=rhs/><ref name=uga/> Each flower is about {{convert|2|-|3|cm|abbr=off|frac=4}} in diameter, with five white-pink [[petal]]s.<ref name=rhs/><ref name=uga/> The fruit only develops around ovules fertilized by the male [[gamete]] from a pollen grain.{{cn|date=April 2024}} The most likely cause of undeveloped ovules is inadequate [[pollinator]] visits.<ref>{{cite web | title=Blackberry Pollination Images | website=The Pollination Home Page | url=http://www.pollinator.com/blackberry.htm |author=Green, David L. }}</ref> Incomplete drupelet development can signal infection with [[raspberry bushy dwarf virus]].{{cn|date=October 2023}}
[[File:2020 year. Herbarium. Blackberries. img-011.jpg|thumb|150px|Leaf: ''adaxial'' side]]

=== Genetics ===
The [[Locus (genetics)|loci]] controlling the primocane fruiting was mapped in the F Locus, on LG7, whereas thorns/thornlessness was mapped on LG4.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Castro |first1=P. |last2=Stafne |first2=E. T. |last3=Clark |first3=J. R. |last4=Lewers |first4=K. S. |date=16 July 2013 |title=Genetic map of the primocane-fruiting and thornless traits of tetraploid blackberry |journal=Theoretical and Applied Genetics |publisher=Springer Nature |volume=126 |issue=10 |pages=2521–2532 |doi=10.1007/s00122-013-2152-3 |pmid=23856741 |s2cid=16250883}}</ref> Better understanding of the genetics is useful for genetic screening of cross-breds, and for genetic engineering purposes.{{cn|date=October 2023}}

== Ecology ==
[[File:Bee pollinating Blackberry.jpg|thumb|A tree bumblebee ''([[Bombus hypnorum]])'' pollinating blackberries]]

Blackberry leaves are food for certain [[caterpillar]]s; some grazing mammals, especially deer, are also very fond of the leaves. Caterpillars of the [[concealer moth]] ''[[Alabonia geoffrella]]'' have been found feeding inside dead blackberry shoots. When mature, the berries are eaten and their seeds dispersed by mammals, such as the red fox, American black bear, and the Eurasian badger, as well as by small birds.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Fedriani|first1=José M.|last2=Delibes|first2=Miguel|title=Functional diversity in fruit-frugivore interactions: a field experiment with Mediterranean mammals|journal=Ecography|volume=32|issue=6|year=2009|pages=983–992|jstor=20696310|doi=10.1111/j.1600-0587.2009.05925.x|bibcode=2009Ecogr..32..983F |hdl=10261/50153|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

[[File:Basket of wild blackberries.JPG|thumb|A wild blackberry harvest]]
Blackberries grow wild throughout most of Europe. They are an important element in the ecology of many countries, and harvesting the berries is a common pastime. However, their vigorous growth and tendency to grow unchecked if not managed correctly mean that the plants are also considered a weed, sending down [[Layering|roots from branches that touch the ground]], and sending up [[Sucker (botany)|suckers]] from the roots. In some parts of the world, such as in Australia, Chile, New Zealand, and the [[Pacific Northwest]] of North America, some blackberry species, particularly ''[[Rubus armeniacus]]'' (Himalayan blackberry) and ''[[Rubus laciniatus]]'' (evergreen blackberry), are [[naturalisation (biology)|naturalized]] and considered an [[invasive species]] and a [[noxious weed]].<ref name=iscbc/><ref name=king/><ref name=rhs/>

Blackberry fruits are red when unripe, leading to an old expression that "blackberries are red when they're green".<ref>{{cite book |last=Palmatier |first=Robert Allen |date=30 August 2000 |title=Food: A Dictionary of Literal and Nonliteral Terms |page=[https://archive.org/details/fooddictionaryof00palm/page/26 26] |publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group|Greenwood]] |location=Santa Barbara, Calif. |url=https://archive.org/details/fooddictionaryof00palm |url-access=registration |access-date=17 March 2018 |isbn=9780313314360}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Marrone|first=Teresa|title=Indiana, Kentucky, and Ohio wild berries & fruits|publisher=Teresa Marrone|year=2011|pages=272}}</ref>

== Cultivation ==
Worldwide, Mexico is the leading producer of blackberries, with nearly the entire crop being produced for export into the off-season fresh markets in North America and Europe.<ref name="perry">{{cite web |author1=Perry, Mark J. |date=7 October 2017 |title=Mexico's berry bounty fuels trade dispute – U.S. consumers dismiss U.S. berry farmers' complaints as 'sour berries' |url=http://www.aei.org/publication/mexicos-berry-bounty-fuels-trade-dispute-u-s-consumers-dismiss-u-s-berry-farmers-complaints-as-sour-berries/ |access-date=21 June 2019 |publisher=American Enterprise Institute, Washington, DC}}</ref> Until 2018, the Mexican market was almost entirely based on the cultivar 'Tupy' (often spelled 'Tupi', but the EMBRAPA program in Brazil from which it was released prefers the 'Tupy' spelling), but Tupy fell out of favor in some Mexican growing regions.<ref name="tupy">{{cite web |date=10 May 2018 |title=Tupy blackberry, at risk due to lack of interest in its production |url=https://www.freshplaza.com/article/2194285/tupy-blackberry-at-risk-due-to-lack-of-interest-in-its-production/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190621162401/https://www.freshplaza.com/article/2194285/tupy-blackberry-at-risk-due-to-lack-of-interest-in-its-production/ |archive-date=21 June 2019 |access-date=21 June 2019 |publisher=FreshPlaza}}</ref> In the US, [[Oregon]] is the leading commercial blackberry producer, producing {{convert|42600000|lb|kg|order=flip|abbr=off}} on {{convert|6300|acre|ha|order=flip}} in 2017.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Press Release June 27, 2018 |url=https://www.nass.usda.gov/Statistics_by_State/Oregon/Publications/Fruits_Nuts_and_Berries/2018/FR06_01.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190220002859/https://www.nass.usda.gov/Statistics_by_State/Oregon/Publications/Fruits_Nuts_and_Berries/2018/FR06_01.pdf |archive-date=20 February 2019 |access-date=19 February 2019 |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural Statistics Service, Northwest Regional Field Office}}</ref><ref name="amrc">{{cite web |date=1 February 2019 |title=Blackberries |url=https://www.agmrc.org/commodities-products/fruits/blackberries |access-date=21 June 2019 |publisher=US Agriculture Marketing Resource Center}}</ref>

Numerous [[cultivar]]s have been selected for commercial and amateur cultivation in Europe and the United States.<ref name=carroll/><ref name="usda18">{{cite web |date=26 June 2018 |title=Thornless processing blackberry cultivars |url=https://www.ars.usda.gov/pacific-west-area/corvallis-or/horticultural-crops-research/hcru/small-fruit-breeding/thornless-processing-blackberry-cultivars/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190621154117/https://www.ars.usda.gov/pacific-west-area/corvallis-or/horticultural-crops-research/hcru/small-fruit-breeding/thornless-processing-blackberry-cultivars/ |archive-date=21 June 2019 |access-date=21 June 2019 |publisher=US Department of Agriculture}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Evergreen blackberry, Oregon Raspberry and Blackberry Commission |url=http://oregon-berries.com/blackberry.cfm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081004042656/http://www.oregon-berries.com/blackberry.cfm |archive-date=4 October 2008 |access-date=13 June 2017 |website=Oregon-Berries.com}}</ref> Since the many species form [[Hybrid (biology)|hybrid]]s easily, there are numerous cultivars with more than one species in their ancestry.<ref name="usda18" />

=== History ===
Modern [[hybrid (biology)|hybridization]] and [[cultivar]] development took place mostly in the US. In 1880, a hybrid blackberry-raspberry named the [[loganberry]] was developed in [[Santa Cruz, California]], by an American judge and [[horticulturalist]], [[James Harvey Logan]]. One of the first thornless varieties was developed in 1921, but the berries lost much of their flavor. Common thornless cultivars developed from the 1990s to the early 21st century by the [[US Department of Agriculture]] enabled efficient machine-harvesting, higher yields, larger and firmer fruit, and improved flavor, including the ''Triple Crown'',<ref name="gg">{{cite web |author=Harding, Deborah |title=The History of the Blackberry Fruit |url=https://www.gardenguides.com/123417-history-blackberry-fruit.html |access-date=20 June 2019 |website=gardenguides.com |publisher=Garden Guides, Leaf Group Ltd.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |date=2 February 1998 |title='Triple Crown' thornless blackberry |url=https://www.ars.usda.gov/research/publications/publication/?seqNo115=89162 |access-date=21 June 2019 |publisher=US Department of Agriculture}}</ref> ''Black Diamond'', ''Black Pearl'', and ''Nightfall'', a [[marionberry]].<ref name="usda18" />

=== Hybrids ===
[[File:Black Butte blackberry.jpg|thumb|upright|Black Butte blackberry]]
'Marion' (marketed as "[[marionberry]]") is an important cultivar that was selected from seedlings from a cross between 'Chehalem' and 'Olallie' (commonly called "[[Olallieberry]]") berries.<ref>{{cite web |title=Marionberry, Oregon Raspberry and Blackberry Commission |url=http://oregon-berries.com/marionberry.cfm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080919230407/http://www.oregon-berries.com/marionberry.cfm |archive-date=19 September 2008 |access-date=13 June 2017 |website=Oregon-Berries.com}}</ref> 'Olallie' in turn is a cross between [[loganberry]] and [[youngberry]]. 'Marion', 'Chehalem' and 'Olallie' are just three of many trailing blackberry cultivars developed by the [[United States Department of Agriculture]] [[Agricultural Research Service]] (USDA-ARS) blackberry breeding program at [[Oregon State University]] in [[Corvallis, Oregon]].<ref name="usda18" />

The most recent cultivars released from this program are the thornless cultivars 'Black Diamond', 'Black Pearl', and 'Nightfall' as well as the early-ripening 'Obsidian' and 'Metolius'. 'Black Diamond' is now the leading cultivar being planted in the Pacific Northwest. Some of the other cultivars from this program are 'Newberry', 'Waldo', 'Siskiyou', 'Black Butte', '[[Kotata Berry|Kotata]]', 'Pacific', and 'Cascade'.<ref name="usda18" />

Varieties with good commercial characteristics developed in [[Arkansas]] are grown in nurseries in [[Oklahoma]].<ref name=carroll/> Such blackberries are easy to grow, and may produce fruit for a decade or more.<ref name=carroll/> These varieties have diverse flavors varying from sweet to tart.<ref name=carroll/>

===Trailing===
Trailing blackberries are vigorous and crown-forming, require a [[trellis (agriculture)|trellis]] for support, and are less cold-hardy than erect or semi-erect blackberries. In addition to the [[Pacific Northwest]], these types do well in similar climates, such as the United Kingdom, New Zealand, Chile, and the [[Mediterranean Basin|Mediterranean countries]].{{cn|date=October 2023}}

===Thornless===
Semi-erect, prickle-free blackberries were first developed at the [[John Innes Centre]] in [[Norwich]], UK, and subsequently by the USDA-ARS in [[Beltsville, Maryland]]. These are crown-forming and very vigorous and need a trellis for support. Cultivars include 'Black Satin', 'Chester Thornless', 'Dirksen Thornless', 'Hull Thornless', 'Loch Maree', 'Loch Ness', 'Loch Tay', 'Merton Thornless', 'Smoothstem', and 'Triple Crown'.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Folta |first1=Kevin M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=buzRBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA71 |title=Genetics, Genomics and Breeding of Berries |last2=Kole |first2=Chittaranjan |publisher=CRC Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-1578087075 |pages=69–71 |author-link=Kevin Folta}}</ref> 'Loch Ness' and 'Loch Tay' have gained the [[Royal Horticultural Society|RHS]]'s [[Award of Garden Merit]].<ref name="RHSveg">{{cite web |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=November 2018 |title=AGM Plants © RHS – CROPS BLACKBERRIES |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/pdfs/agm-lists/agm-fruit-and-vegetables.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180805203509/https://www.rhs.org.uk/plants/pdfs/agm-lists/agm-fruit-and-vegetables.pdf |archive-date=5 August 2018 |access-date=21 November 2019 |publisher=Royal Horticultural Society}}</ref> The cultivar 'Cacanska Bestrna' (also called 'Cacak Thornless') has been developed in Serbia and has been planted on many thousands of hectares there.

===Erect===
The [[University of Arkansas]] has developed cultivars of erect blackberries. These types are less vigorous than the semi-erect types and produce new canes from root initials (therefore they spread underground like raspberries). There are prickly and prickle-free cultivars from this program, including 'Navaho', 'Ouachita', 'Cherokee', 'Apache', 'Arapaho', and 'Kiowa'.<ref name="ge71">{{cite book |last1=Folta |first1=Kevin M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=buzRBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA71 |title=Genetics, Genomics and Breeding of Berries |last2=Kole |first2=Chittaranjan |publisher=CRC Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-1578087075 |page=71 |author-link=Kevin Folta}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Fernandez |first1=Gina |last2=Ballington |first2=James |title=Growing blackberries in North Carolina |url=http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/growing-blackberries-in-north-carolina |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160108073141/http://content.ces.ncsu.edu/growing-blackberries-in-north-carolina |archive-date=8 January 2016 |access-date=9 October 2015 |publisher=North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service, North Carolina University Press |page=2}}</ref> They are also responsible for developing the primocane fruiting blackberries such as 'Prime-Jan' and 'Prime-Jim'.<ref name="ge71" />

===Primocane===
In raspberries, these types are called primocane fruiting, fall fruiting, or everbearing. 'Prime-Jim' and 'Prime-Jan' were released in 2004 by the [[University of Arkansas]] and are the first cultivars of primocane fruiting blackberry.<ref>{{cite book |last=Vincent |first=Christopher I. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zpbx5-gxax4C&q=Prime+Jim+Prime+Jan+2004&pg=PA2 |title=Yield Dynamics of Primocane-fruiting Blackberries Under High-tunnels and Ambient Conditions, Including Plant Growth Unit Estimations and Arthropod Pest Considerations |year=2008 |isbn=978-0549964759 |page=2 |access-date=12 November 2012}}{{Dead link|date=October 2023|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}</ref> They grow much like the other erect cultivars described above; however, the canes that emerge in the spring will flower in midsummer and fruit in late summer or fall. The fall crop has its highest quality when it ripens in cool mild climates such as in California or the Pacific Northwest.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Clark |first1=J.R. |last2=Strick |first2=B.C. |last3=Thompson |first3=E. |last4=Finn |first4=C.E. |date=2012 |title=Progress and challenges in primocane-fruiting blackberry breeding and cultural management |journal=Acta Horticulturae |volume=926 |issue=926 |pages=387–392 |doi=10.17660/ActaHortic.2012.926.54}}</ref>

'Illini Hardy', a semi-erect prickly cultivar introduced by the [[University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign|University of Illinois]], is cane hardy in zone 5, where blackberry production has traditionally been problematic since canes often failed to survive the winter.{{cn|date=October 2023}}

===Mexico and Chile===
Blackberry production in Mexico expanded considerably in the early 21st century.<ref name="perry" /><ref name="amrc" /> In 2017, Mexico had 97% of the [[market share]] for fresh blackberries imported into the United States, while Chile had 61% of the market share for American imports of frozen blackberries.<ref name="amrc" />

While once based on the cultivar 'Brazos', an old erect blackberry cultivar developed in Texas in 1959, the Mexican industry is now dominated by the Brazilian 'Tupy' released in the 1990s. The 'Tupy' has the erect blackberry 'Comanche', and a "wild Uruguayan blackberry" as parents.<ref name="antunes">{{cite journal |author1=Antunes, L.E.C. |author2=Rassieira, M.C.B. |year=2004 |title=Aspectos Técnicos da Cultura da Amora-Preta |journal=Pelotas: Embrapa Clima Temperado |language=pt |issn=1516-8840}}</ref> Since there are no native blackberries in Uruguay, the suspicion is that the widely grown '[[Boysenberry]]' is the male parent. To produce these blackberries in regions of Mexico where there is no winter chilling to stimulate flower bud development, chemical defoliation and application of growth regulators are used to bring the plants into bloom.{{cn|date=October 2023}}

===Diseases and pests===
[[File:Blackberry flower (2).jpg|thumb|The pale pink blackberry blossom]]

Because blackberries belong to the same genus as raspberries,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bradley |first1=Fern Marshall |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GcWQQKJX1xEC&q=Blackberry+disease&pg=PA51 |title=The Organic Gardener's Handbook of Natural Pest and Disease Control: A Complete Guide to Maintaining a Healthy Garden and Yard the Earth-Friendly Way |last2=Ellis |first2=Barbara W. |last3=Martin |first3=Deborah L. |publisher=[[Rodale, Inc.]] |year=2010 |isbn=978-1605296777 |page=51 |access-date=12 November 2012}}</ref> they share the same diseases, including anthracnose (a type of [[canker]]), which can cause the berry to have uneven ripening. Sap flow may also be slowed.<ref>{{cite web |title=Growing Raspberries & Blackberries |url=http://www.cals.uidaho.edu/edcomm/pdf/BUL/BUL0812.pdf |access-date=2012-11-13 |publisher=cals.uidaho.edu |page=29}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xTuJryWEY64C&q=dwarfing+raspberry+blackberry&pg=PA5 |title=Controlling diseases of raspberries and blackberries |publisher=United States. Science and Education Administration |year=1980 |page=5 |access-date=12 November 2012}}</ref> They also share the same remedies, including the Bordeaux mixture,<ref>{{cite book |last=Waite |first=Merton Benway |url=https://archive.org/details/CAT87201664 |title=Fungicides and their use in preventing diseases of fruits |publisher=U.S. Dept. of Agriculture |year=1906 |page=[https://archive.org/details/CAT87201664/page/n28 243] |quote=blackberry disease. |access-date=12 November 2012}}</ref> a combination of lime, water and [[copper(II) sulfate]].<ref>{{cite web |date=June 2010 |title=Bordeaux Mixture |url=http://www.ipm.ucdavis.edu/PMG/PESTNOTES/pn7481.html |access-date=13 November 2012 |publisher=ucdavis.edu}}</ref> The rows between blackberry plants must be free of weeds, blackberry suckers and grasses, which may lead to pests or diseases.<ref name="a-ensminger">{{cite book |last=Ensminger |first=Audrey H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o3UD2iL4sAAC&q=blackberry+disease&pg=PA215 |title=Foods and Nutrition Encyclopedia: A-H |publisher=CRC Press |year=1994 |isbn=9780849389818 |page=215 |access-date=12 November 2012}}</ref> Fruit growers are selective when planting blackberry bushes because wild blackberries may be infected,<ref name="a-ensminger" /> and gardeners are recommended to purchase only certified disease-free plants.<ref>{{cite book |last=Shrock |first=Denny |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RVHanXD-5-IC&q=Purchase+only+blackberries+Gardeners&pg=PA352 |title=Home Gardener's Problem Solver: Symptoms and Solutions for More Than 1,500 Garden Pests and Plant Ailments |publisher=Meredith Books |year=2004 |isbn=978-0897215046 |page=352 |access-date=12 November 2012}}</ref>

The spotted-wing drosophila, ''[[Drosophila suzukii]]'', is a serious pest of blackberries.<ref name="dwalsh-wsu">{{cite web |author=Walsh, Doug |title=Spotted Wing Drosophila Could Pose Threat For Washington Fruit Growers |url=http://sanjuan.wsu.edu/Documents/SWD11.09.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100806161628/http://sanjuan.wsu.edu/Documents/SWD11.09.pdf |archive-date=6 August 2010 |access-date=12 November 2012 |publisher=sanjuan.WSU.edu}}</ref> Unlike its vinegar fly relatives, which are primarily attracted to rotting or fermented fruit, ''D. suzukii'' attacks fresh, ripe fruit by laying eggs under the soft skin. The larvae hatch and grow in the fruit, destroying the fruit's commercial value.<ref name="dwalsh-wsu" />

Another pest is ''Amphorophora rubi'', known as the blackberry aphid, which eats not just blackberries but raspberries as well.<ref>{{cite book |last=Hill |first=Dennis S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3-w8AAAAIAAJ&q=Blackberry+pests&pg=PA228 |title=Agricultural Insect Pests of Temperate Regions and Their Control |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=1987 |isbn=978-0521240130 |page=228 |access-date=12 November 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=puO2UjrlUkAC&q=Amphorophora+rubi+blackberry&pg=PA539 |title=The Review of Applied Entomology: Agricultural, Volume 18 |publisher=[[CAB International]] |year=1931 |page=539 |access-date=12 November 2012}}</ref><ref>R. L. Blackman, V. F. Eastop and M. Hills (1977). [http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=2358768 Morphological and cytological separation of Amphorophora Buckton (Homoptera: Aphididae) feeding on European raspberry and blackberry ( Rubus spp.)]. Bulletin of Entomological Research, 67, pp 285–296 {{doi|10.1017/S000748530001110X}}</ref>

''Byturus tomentosus'' ([[raspberry beetle]]), ''[[Lampronia corticella]]'' (raspberry moth) and ''[[Anthonomus rubi]]'' (strawberry blossom weevil) are also known to infest blackberries.<ref>{{cite book |last=Squire |first=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j2sk1bJqlzsC&pg=PA39 |title=The Garden Pest & Diseases Specialist: The Essential Guide to Identifying and Controlling Pests and Diseases of Ornamentals, Vegetables and Fruits |publisher=[[New Holland Publishers]] |year=2007 |isbn=978-1845374853 |page=39 |access-date=12 November 2012}}{{Dead link|date=October 2023|bot=InternetArchiveBot|fix-attempted=yes}}</ref>{{nutritional value
| name    = Blackberries, raw (''Rubus'' spp.)
| image   = Blackberry (Rubus fruticosus).jpg
| caption = {{center|'''Close-up view of a blackberry'''}}
| kJ=180
| protein=1.39 g
| fat=0.49 g
| carbs=9.61 g
| fiber=5.3 g
| sugars=4.88 g
| calcium_mg=29
| iron_mg=0.62
| magnesium_mg=20
| phosphorus_mg=22
| potassium_mg=162
| sodium_mg=1
| zinc_mg=0.53
| manganese_mg=0.646
| vitC_mg=21.0
| thiamin_mg=0.020
| riboflavin_mg=0.026
| niacin_mg=0.646
| pantothenic_mg=
| vitB6_mg=0.030
| folate_ug=25
| betacarotene_ug=
| vitA_iu=214
| lutein_ug=
| vitE_mg=1.17
| vitK_ug=19.8
| water=88 g
| source_usda = 1
| note=[https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/173946/nutrients Link to USDA Database entry]
}}

== Uses ==

=== Nutrients ===
Raw blackberries are 88% water, 10% [[carbohydrate]]s, 1% [[protein (nutrient)|protein]], and 0.5% fat (table). In a {{convert|100|g}} reference amount, raw cultivated blackberries supply 43 [[calorie]]s and rich contents (20% or more of the [[Daily Value]] (DV) of [[dietary fiber]], [[manganese]] (31% DV), [[vitamin C]] (25% DV), and [[vitamin K]] (19% DV) (table).

====Seed composition====
Blackberries contain numerous large seeds that consumers do not always prefer. The seeds contain oil rich in [[omega-3]] ([[alpha-linolenic acid]]) and omega-6 ([[linoleic acid]]) fats as well as [[protein]], dietary fiber, [[carotenoid]]s, [[ellagitannins]], and [[ellagic acid]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Bushman BS, Phillips B, Isbell T, Ou B, Crane JM, Knapp SJ |s2cid=32100735 |title=Chemical composition of caneberry (Rubus spp.) seeds and oils and their antioxidant potential |journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry |volume=52 |issue=26 |pages=7982–7 |date=December 2004 |pmid=15612785 |doi=10.1021/jf049149a}}</ref>

===Culinary use===
The ripe fruit is commonly used in desserts, jams, jelly, wine, and [[liqueur]]s. It may be mixed with other berries and fruits for pies and [[crumble]]s.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Dowling |first=Tim |date=2023-08-28 |title=Berry good! 17 wonderful ways with blackberries – from crumbles and cakes to mousses and muffins |url=https://www.theguardian.com/food/2023/aug/28/berry-good-17-wonderful-ways-with-blackberries-from-crumbles-and-cakes-to-mousses-and-muffins |access-date=2024-05-26 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref>

===Phytochemical research===
Blackberries contain numerous [[phytochemicals]] including [[polyphenols]], [[flavonoids]], [[anthocyanin]]s, [[salicylic acid]], [[ellagic acid]], and [[Dietary fiber|fiber]].<ref name="Nutritiondata">{{cite web|url=http://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/fruits-and-fruit-juices/1848/2|year=2012|website=Nutritiondata.com|title=Nutrition facts for raw blackberries|publisher=Conde Nast}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | doi = 10.1021/jf011097r | last1 = Sellappan | first1 = S. | last2 = Akoh | first2 = C. C. | last3 = Krewer | first3 = G. | title = Phenolic compounds and antioxidant capacity of Georgia-grown blueberries and blackberries | journal = Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry | volume = 50 | issue = 8 | pages = 2432–2438 | year = 2002 | pmid = 11929309}}</ref> Anthocyanins in blackberries are responsible for their rich dark color. One report placed blackberries at the top of more than 1,000 polyphenol-rich foods consumed in the United States,<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Halvorsen BL, Carlsen MH, Phillips KM |title=Content of redox-active compounds (ie, antioxidants) in foods consumed in the United States |journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition |volume=84 |issue=1 |pages=95–135 |date=July 2006 |pmid=16825686 |display-authors=etal|doi=10.1093/ajcn/84.1.95 |doi-access=free }}</ref> but this concept of a health benefit from consuming dark-colored foods like blackberries remains scientifically unverified and not accepted for [[health claim]]s on food labels.<ref>{{citation |title= New Roles for Polyphenols. A 3-Part report on Current Regulations & the State of Science |author= Gross PM |date= 1 March 2009 |publisher= Nutraceuticals World |url= http://www.nutraceuticalsworld.com/issues/2009-03/view_features/new-roles-for-polyphenols/ }}</ref>

=== Historical uses ===
One of the earliest known instances of blackberry consumption comes from the remains of the [[Haraldskær Woman]], the naturally preserved [[bog body]] of a Danish woman dating from approximately 2,500 years ago. Forensic evidence found blackberries in her stomach contents, among other foods. The use of blackberries to make wines and [[Cordial (medicine)|cordials]] was documented in the [[London Pharmacopoeia]] in 1696.<ref name="gg" /> In the culinary world, blackberries have long been used alongside other fruits to make pies, jellies, and jams.<ref name="gg" />

Blackberry plants were used for [[traditional medicine]] by Greeks, other European peoples, and aboriginal Americans.<ref name="gg" /> A 1771 document described brewing blackberry leaves, stem, and bark for [[Peptic ulcer disease|stomach ulcers]].<ref name="gg" />

Blackberry fruit, leaves, and stems have been used to dye fabrics and hair. Native Americans have even been known to use the stems to make rope. The shrubs have also been used for barriers around buildings, crops, and livestock. The wild plants have sharp, thick prickles, which offer some protection against enemies and large animals.<ref name="gg" />

==In culture==
Folklore in the United Kingdom and Ireland tells us that blackberries should not be picked after [[Old Michaelmas Day]] (11 October) as the [[devil]] (or a [[Púca]]) has made them unfit to eat by stepping, spitting or fouling on them.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.blackcountrybugle.co.uk/News/Michaelmas-Traditions.htm|title=Michaelmas Traditions|date=7 October 2010|website=BlackCountryBugle.co.uk|access-date=13 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120330072655/http://www.blackcountrybugle.co.uk/News/Michaelmas-Traditions.htm|archive-date=30 March 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref> There is some value in this legend as autumn's wetter and cooler weather often allows the fruit to become infected by various [[Mold (fungus)|mold]]s such as ''[[Botryotinia]]'' which give the fruit an unpleasant look and may be toxic.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.historic-uk.com/CultureUK/Michaelmas.htm|title=Michaelmas, 29th September, and the customs and traditions associated with Michaelmas Day|website=www.Historic-UK.com|access-date=13 June 2017}}</ref> According to some traditions, a blackberry's deep purple color represents Jesus's blood and the [[crown of thorns]] was made of brambles,<ref>{{cite book|last1=Watts|first1=D.C.|title=Dictionary of Plant Lore|date=2007|publisher=Academic|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-12-374086-1|page=36|edition=Rev.}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Alexander|first1=Courtney|title=Berries As Symbols and in Folklore|url=http://www.fruit.cornell.edu/berry/production/pdfs/berryfolklore.pdf|website=Cornell Fruit|access-date=11 August 2015}}</ref> although other thorny plants, such as ''[[Crataegus]]'' (hawthorn) and ''[[Euphorbia milii]]'' (crown of thorns plant), have been proposed as the material for the crown.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DrXNAAAAMAAJ&q=encyclopedia+britannica+hawthorn+crown+thorns&pg=PA536|title=Hawthorn|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature, Volume 11; R.S. Peale|year=1891}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://faculty.ucc.edu/biology-ombrello/POW/crown_of_thorns.htm|title=Crown of thorns|author=Ombrello T|publisher=Union County College, Department of Biology, Cranford, NJ|date=2015|access-date=18 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090917022506/http://faculty.ucc.edu/biology-ombrello/pow/crown_of_thorns.htm|archive-date=17 September 2009|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Rubus plicatus]], a common European species of blackberry
* [[Rubus ulmifolius|Elmleaf blackberry]], another common European species of blackberry
* [[Pacific blackberry]], a North American species of blackberry
* [[Rubus fruticosus]], an ambiguous name used by [[Carl Linnaeus]] that applied to multiple species
* [[Morus (plant)|Mulberry]], similar fruit appearance, but a tree rather than a [[bramble]]
* [[Redberry mite]], a common pest of North American blackberry crops

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite journal | last1 = Allen | first1 = D. E. | last2 = Hackney | first2 = P. | year = 2010 | title = Further fieldwork on the brambles (''Rubus fruticosus'' L. agg.) of North-east Ireland | journal = [[Irish Naturalists' Journal]] | volume = 31 | pages = 18–22 }}

==External links==
{{cookbook}}
* {{Commons-inline}}

[[Category:Berries]]
[[Category:Medicinal plants]]
[[Category:Plant common names]]
[[Category:Rubus]]
[[Category:Crown of thorns]]
[[Category:Plants used in Native American cuisine]]