Editing Berserker

{{Short description|Old Norse warrior fighting in a fury}}
{{Other uses|Berserker (disambiguation)|Zerker (disambiguation)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2024}}
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| image1 = Torslundaplåtarna - Historiska museet - 618349 HST - 324349 (cropped).jpg | caption1 = {{center|[[Artifact (archaeology)|Artifact]]}}
| image2 = Bronsplåt fr Torslunda sn, Öland (Antiqvitets Akademiens Månadsblad 1872 s090 fig39).jpg | caption2 = {{center|[[Sketch (drawing)|Sketch]]}}
| footer = One of the [[Vendel era]] [[Torslunda plates]] found on [[Öland]], [[Sweden]]. It probably depicts one-eyed [[Odin]] guiding a berserker or ''ulfheðinn''.{{Sfn|Kershaw|1997|p=13}}
}}
In the [[Old Norse]] written corpus, '''berserkers''' ({{langx|non|berserkir}}) were those who were said to have fought in a [[trance]]-like fury, a characteristic which later gave rise to the modern English adjective ''[[wikt:berserk#Adjective|berserk]]'' {{gloss|furiously violent or out of control}}. Berserkers are attested to in numerous Old Norse sources.

== Etymology ==
The Old Norse form of the word was {{lang|non|berserkr}} (plural {{lang|non|berserkir}}), a compound word of ''ber'' and ''serkr''. The second part, ''serkr'', means {{gloss|shirt}} (also found in [[Middle English]], see {{wikt-lang|enm|serk}}). The first part, ''ber'', on the other hand, can mean several things, but is assumed to have most likely meant {{gloss|[[bear]]}}, with the full word, ''berserkr'', meaning just {{gloss|bear-shirt}}, as in {{gloss|someone who wears a [[Fur clothing|coat]] made out of a bear's [[Hide (skin)|skin]]}}.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |url=https://malid.is/leit/berserkur |title=Icelandic Etymological Dictionary |author=Ásgeir Blöndal Magnússon |year=1989 |language=is |access-date=2 November 2019 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412085356/https://malid.is/leit/berserkur |url-status=live }}</ref> 

Thirteenth-century historian [[Snorri Sturluson]], an Icelander who lived around 200 years after berserkers were outlawed in Iceland (outlawed in 1015), on the other hand, interpreted the meaning as {{gloss|bare-shirt}}, that is to say that the warriors went into battle without [[armour]],<ref name="blaney1972" /> but that view has largely been abandoned, due to contradicting and lack of supporting evidence.<ref name=":2" />{{sfn|Simek|1995|p=47}}

== Early beginnings ==
It is proposed by some authors that the northern warrior tradition originated from hunting magic.<ref name=jones1997/><ref name=hallowell1925/> Three main animal [[cult]]s appear to have developed: the [[#Berserkers|cult of the bear]], [[#Ulfheðnar|the wolf]], and the [[#Jǫfurr|wild boar]].<ref name=jones1997/>

=== Germanic mercenaries in the Roman army ===
[[File:027 Conrad Cichorius, Die Reliefs der Traianssäule, Tafel XXVII (cropped).jpg|thumb|Bearhooded Germanic warriors on [[Trajan's column]]]]
The [[bas-relief]] carvings on [[Trajan's column]] in Rome, completed in 113 AD, depict scenes of [[Trajan]]'s conquest of [[Dacia]] in 101–106 [[Anno domini|AD.]] The scenes show his Roman soldiers plus auxiliaries and allies from Rome's border regions, including tribal warriors from both sides of the [[Rhine]]. There are warriors depicted as barefoot, bare-chested, bearing weapons and helmets that are associated with the [[Germanic peoples|Germani]].{{sfn|Speidel|2004|pp=3–7}}

Scene 36 on the column shows some of these warriors standing together, with some wearing bearhoods and some wearing wolfhoods. This is the only potential record of Germanic bear-warriors and wolf-warriors fighting together until 872 AD, with [[Thórbiörn Hornklofi]]'s description of the [[battle of Hafrsfjord]], when they fought together for King [[Harald Fairhair]] of Norway.{{sfn|Speidel|2004|pp=3–7}}

=== Migration Period depictions ===
In 1639 and 1734 respectively, two vastly decorated horns made of sheet gold, the [[Golden Horns of Gallehus]], were discovered in Southern Jutland, Denmark. As part of its decoration, the first horn, the larger of the two, depicts two animal headed men facing each other, armed with what appears to be a [[sickle]] and a wood-splitting [[axe]]. Dated to the early 5th century, these depictions could represent something related to berserkers.

In the spring of 1870, four [[Vendel era]] cast-bronze dies, the [[Torslunda plates]], were found by Erik Gustaf Pettersson and Anders Petter Nilsson in a [[cairn]] on the lands of the farm No 5 Björnhovda in Torslunda parish, Öland, Sweden, one of them showing what appears to be a berserker ritual.<ref name="MedievHistoriesOdin">{{cite web|last1=MedievHistories|title=Odin from Levide|url=http://www.medievalhistories.com/odin-levide/|website=Medieval Histories|access-date=1 December 2017|date=12 June 2014|archive-date=3 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180703054514/http://www.medievalhistories.com/odin-levide/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=stjerna1903/>

In 1887, the graves of two 7th century [[Alemanni]] men were found during construction work in the immediate vicinity of the St. Gallus Church in the Gutenstein district of the city of [[Sigmaringen]], Germany. One of the graves contained, among other things, a silver sword scabbard, the {{Interlanguage link|Gutenstein scabbard|de|Schwertscheide von Gutenstein}}. Highly ornate, it features a warrior figure with a wolf's head, holding a sword and a spear. It is thought this depicts an ''ulfheðinn'' (wolf warrior), as pre-Christian Central Europe was part of the same tradition as the Norse.{{sfn|Price|2019|p=308}}

Other animal headed figures have been found, such as an antlered figure on the [[Gundestrup cauldron]], found on northern Jutland, Denmark, in 1891, which has been dated from 200 BC to 300 AD.

<gallery mode="packed" style="text-align:left" heights="150">
File:Gallehus horns, animal head characters.jpg|Animal headed warriors on the [[Golden Horns of Gallehus|Gallehus horns]].{{sfn|Price|2019|p=308}}
File:Torslundaplåtarna 1995 (618349 HST).jpg|An animal headed warrior and a one eyed character on one of the [[Torslunda plates]].
File:Wolfskrieger (cropped).jpg|A wolf headed warrior on the {{Interlanguage link|Gutenstein scabbard|de|Schwertscheide von Gutenstein}}.
File:Gundestrupkedlen- 00054 (cropped).jpg|An antlered figure on the [[Gundestrup cauldron]].
</gallery>

== Types ==
=== Berserkers – bear warriors{{anchor|Berserkers}} ===
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| image2 = Fighting Mimes - Google Art Project (berserker).jpg
| footer = {{ubl|Left image: [[Källby Runestones|Vg 56 runestone]] from [[Västergötland]], Sweden, possibly depicting a berserker in animal skin.{{sfn|Price|2019|p=309}}|Right image: Possible [[Varangians]] berserker ritual painted in the 11th c. [[Saint Sophia Cathedral, Kyiv]].{{sfn|Price|2019|p=307}}}}
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It is proposed by some authors that the berserkers drew their power from the bear and were devoted to the [[bear cult]], which was once widespread across the northern hemisphere.<ref name=hallowell1925/><ref name=nioradze1925/> The berserkers maintained their religious observances despite their fighting prowess, as the ''[[Svarfdæla saga]]'' tells of a challenge to single-combat that was postponed by a berserker until three days after Yule.<ref name=jones1997/> The bodies of dead berserkers were laid out in bearskins prior to their funeral rites.<ref name=danielli1945/> The bear-warrior symbolism survives to this day in the form of the [[bearskin|bearskin caps]] worn by the guards of the Danish monarchs.<ref name=jones1997/>

In battle, the berserkers were subject to fits of frenzy. They would howl like wild beasts, foam at the mouth, and gnaw the rims of their shields. According to belief, during these fits, they were immune to steel and fire, and made great havoc in the ranks of the enemy. When this fever abated, they were weak and tame. Accounts can be found in the sagas.<ref name=cleasby1874/><ref>{{Cite web |title=Berserkers |url=https://en.natmus.dk/historical-knowledge/denmark/prehistoric-period-until-1050-ad/the-viking-age/weapons/berserkers/ |website=National Museum of Denmark |access-date=20 June 2022 |archive-date=24 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220524153458/https://en.natmus.dk/historical-knowledge/denmark/prehistoric-period-until-1050-ad/the-viking-age/weapons/berserkers/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

To "go berserk" was to "''hamask''", which translates as "change form", in this case, as with the sense "enter a state of wild fury". Some scholars have interpreted those who could transform as a berserker as "''hamrammr''" or "shapestrong" – literally able to shapeshift into a bear's form.<ref name="Davidson" />{{rp|126}} For example, the band of men who go with Skallagrim in ''[[Egil's Saga]]'' to see King Harald about his brother Thorolf's murder are described as "the hardest of men, with a touch of the uncanny about a number of them ... they [were] built and shaped more like trolls than human beings." This has sometimes been interpreted as the band of men being "''hamrammr''", though there is no major consensus.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sturluson |first=Snorri |title=Egil's Saga |url=https://archive.org/details/egilssaga00snor |url-access=registration |year=1976 |publisher=Harmondsworth (Penguin) |page=[https://archive.org/details/egilssaga00snor/page/66 66]|isbn=9780140443219 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Jakobsson |first=Ármann |year=2011 |title=Beast and man: Realism and the occult in ''Egils saga'' |journal=Scandinavian Studies |volume=83 |issue=1 |page=34 |doi=10.1353/scd.2011.0013 |s2cid=162375667 }}</ref>

Another example of "''hamrammr''" comes from the ''[[Hrólfs saga kraka|Saga of Hrólf Kraki]]''. One tale within tells the story of [[Bödvar Bjarki]], a berserker who is able to shapeshift into a bear and uses this ability to fight for king [[Hrólfr Kraki]]. "Men saw that a great bear went before King Hrolf's men, keeping always near the king. He slew more men with his fore paws than any five of the king's champions."<ref>{{Cite book|title=Eirik the Red, and other Icelandic sagas|last=Jones|first=Gwyn|date=1961|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0192505828|location=London|page=313|oclc=184742664}}</ref>

=== Ulfheðnar – wolf warriors{{anchor|Ulfheðnar}} ===
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| footer = {{ubl|Left image: Probable Ulfheðinn on one of the [[Torslunda plates]].|Right image: Possible ''ulfheðinn'' on the {{Interlanguage link|Gutenstein scabbard|de|Schwertscheide von Gutenstein}} (replica).}}
}}

Wolf warriors appear among the legends of the Indo-Europeans, Turks, Mongols, and Native American cultures.{{sfn|Speidel|2004|p=10}} The Germanic wolf-warriors have left their trace through shields and standards that were captured by the Romans and displayed in the ''[[armilustrium]]'' in Rome.{{sfn|Speidel|2004|p=15}}{{Sfn|Speidel|2002|p=15}}

Frenzy warriors wearing the skins of wolves called ''ulfheðnar'' ("wolf-skin-ers" or possibly "wolf-heathens"; singular ''ulfheðinn''), are mentioned in the ''[[Vatnsdæla saga]]'', the ''[[Haraldskvæði]]'' and the ''[[Grettis saga]]'' and are consistently referred to in the sagas as a group of berserkers, always presented as the elite following of the first Norwegian king [[Harald Fairhair]]. They were said to wear the pelt of a wolf over their chainmail when they entered battle. Unlike berserkers, direct references to ''ulfheðnar'' are scant.{{Sfn|Speidel|2002|p=15}}{{sfn|Simek|1995|p=435}}

''[[Egil's Saga]]'' features a man called Kveldulf (''Evening-Wolf'') who is said to have transformed into a wolf at night. This Kveldulf is described as a berserker, as opposed to an ''ulfheðinn''.{{Sfn|Speidel|2002|p=15}}{{sfn|Simek|1995|p=435}} ''Ulfheðnar'' are sometimes described as [[Odin]]'s special warriors: "[Odin's] men went without their [[Chain mail|mailcoats]] and were mad as hounds or wolves, bit their shields...they slew men, but neither fire nor iron had effect upon them. This is called 'going berserk'."<ref name="Davidson">{{cite book|last=Davidson |first=Hilda R.E. |title=Shape Changing in Old Norse Sagas |year=1978 |publisher=Rowman and Littlefield |location=Cambridge: Brewer; Totowa}}</ref>{{rp|132}}

The helm-plate press from Torslunda depicts a scene of a one-eyed warrior with bird-horned helm, assumed to be Odin, next to a wolf-headed warrior armed with a [[spear]] and sword as distinguishing features, assumed to be a berserker with a wolf pelt: "a wolf-skinned warrior with the apparently one-eyed dancer in the bird-horned helm, which is generally interpreted as showing a scene indicative of a relationship between berserkgang ... and the god Odin".<ref>{{cite book |last=Grundy |first=Stephan |title=Shapeshifting and Berserkgang |year=1998 |publisher=Northwestern University Press |location=Evanston, IL |page=18}}</ref>{{sfn|Simek|1995|p=48}}

=== "Jǫfurr" – proposed boar warriors{{anchor|Jǫfurr}} ===
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| image2 = Boar-helmeted figure on the Gundestrup Cauldron.jpg
| footer = {{ubl|Left image: Warriors with [[boar crested helmets]] on one of the [[Torslunda plates]].|Right image: Warrior with [[boar crested helmet]] on the [[Gundestrup cauldron]].}}
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In Norse poetry, the word ''jǫfurr'', which originally meant "wild boar", is used metaphorically for "a prince, monarch or warrior", which probably stems from the custom of wearing boar's heads as helmets or [[boar crested helmets]] in battle.<ref>{{cite web |title=Jöfurr |url=https://cleasby-vigfusson-dictionary.vercel.app/word/jofurr |website=cleasby-vigfusson-dictionary.vercel.app |access-date=19 April 2024}}</ref>

Swine played a central role in [[Germanic paganism]], featuring in both [[Germanic mythology|mythology]] and religious practice, particularly in association with the [[Vanir]], [[Freyr]] and [[Freyja]]. It has been proposed that similar to berserkers, warriors could ritually transform into boars so as to gain strength, bravery and protection in battle. It has been theorised that this process was linked to the wearing of [[Germanic boar helmets|boar helmets]] as a ritual costume.<ref name=beck1965>Beck, H. 1965 Das Ebersignum im Germanischen. Ein Beitrag zur germanischen TierSymbolik. Berlin: W. de Gruyter.</ref><ref name="Kovářová">{{cite journal |last1=Kovářová |first1=L. |title=The Swine in Old Nordic Religion and Worldview |journal=Háskóla Íslands |date=2011 |s2cid=154250096 |language=en }}</ref>

== Attestations ==
Berserkers appear prominently in a multitude of other [[saga]]s and [[Poetry|poems]]. Many earlier sagas portrayed berserkers as bodyguards, elite soldiers, and champions of kings.<ref name=":1" /> This image would change as time passed and sagas would begin to describe berserkers as boasters rather than heroes, and as ravenous men who [[looting|loot]], plunder, and kill indiscriminately.{{Sfn|Kershaw|1997|p=70}}<ref name=":1" /> Within the sagas, Berserkers can be narrowed down to four different types. The King's ''Berserkr,'' the Hall-Challenging ''Berserkr'', the ''Hólmgangumaðr'', and the Viking ''Berserkr''.<ref name=":1" /> Later, by Christian interpreters, the berserker was viewed as a "heathen devil".<ref>{{cite book|last=Blaney|first=Benjamin|title=The Berserkr: His Origin and Development in Old Norse Literature|year=1972|location=Ph.D. Diss. University of Colorado|page=iii}}</ref>

The earliest surviving reference to the term "berserker" is in ''[[Haraldskvæði]]'', a [[skaldic poem]] composed by [[Thórbiörn Hornklofi]] in the late 9th century in honor of King [[Harald Fairhair]], as ''ulfheðnar'' ("men clad in wolf skins"). This translation from the Haraldskvæði saga describes Harald's berserkers:<ref name=page1995/>

{{blockquote|<poem>I'll ask of the berserks, you tasters of blood,
Those intrepid heroes, how are they treated,
Those who wade out into battle?
Wolf-skinned they are called. In battle
They bear bloody shields.
Red with blood are their spears when they come to fight.
They form a closed group.
The prince in his wisdom puts trust in such men
Who hack through enemy shields.</poem>}}

The "tasters of blood" (a [[kenning]]) in this passage are thought to be ravens, which feasted on the slain.<ref name=page1995/>

The Icelandic historian and poet [[Snorri Sturluson]] (1179–1241) wrote the following description of berserkers in his ''[[Ynglinga saga]]'':

{{blockquote|His ([[Odin]]'s) men rushed forwards without armour, were as mad as dogs or wolves, bit their shields, and were strong as bears or wild oxen, and killed people at a blow, but neither fire nor iron told upon them. This was called ''Berserkergang''.<ref>[[Samuel Laing (science writer)|Laing, Samuel]] (1889). ''The Heimskringla or the Sagas of the Norse Kings''. London: John. C. Nimo. p. 276</ref>}}

King Harald Fairhair's use of berserkers as "[[shock troops]]" broadened his sphere of influence. {{Citation needed|date=October 2017}} Other [[Scandinavia]]n kings used berserkers as part of their [[army]] of [[hirdmen]] and sometimes ranked them as equivalent to a royal [[Housecarl|bodyguard]].<ref name=":1">{{cite web|url=http://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/28819/|title=Berserkir: a re-examination of the phenomenon in literature and life|last=Duncan|first=Dale, Roderick Thomas|date=10 December 2014|website=eprints.nottingham.ac.uk|language=en|access-date=3 December 2018|archive-date=12 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412085410/http://eprints.nottingham.ac.uk/28819/|url-status=live}}</ref> It may be that some of those warriors only adopted the organization or [[ritual]]s of berserk [[Männerbünde]], or used the name as a deterrent or claim of their ferocity.

Emphasis has been placed on the frenzied nature of the berserkers, hence the modern sense of the word "berserk". However, the sources describe several other characteristics that have been ignored or neglected by modern commentators. Snorri's assertion that "neither fire nor iron told upon them" is reiterated time after time. The sources frequently state that neither edged weapons nor fire affected the berserks, although they were not immune to clubs or other blunt instruments. For example:

{{blockquote|These men asked Halfdan to attack Hardbeen and his champions man by man; and he not only promised to fight, but assured himself the victory with most confident words. When Hardbeen heard this, a demoniacal frenzy suddenly took him; he furiously bit and devoured the edges of his shield; he kept gulping down fiery coals; he snatched live embers in his mouth and let them pass down into his entrails; he rushed through the perils of crackling fires; and at last, when he had raved through every sort of madness, he turned his sword with raging hand against the hearts of six of his champions. It is doubtful whether this madness came from thirst for battle or natural ferocity. Then with the remaining band of his champions he attacked Halfdan, who crushed him with a hammer of wondrous size, so that he lost both victory and life; paying the penalty both to Halfdan, whom he had challenged, and to the kings whose offspring he had violently ravished...<ref>[[Oliver Elton|Elton, Oliver]] (1905) ''The Nine Books of the Danish History of Saxo Grammaticus''. New York: Norroena Society. See [http://mcllibrary.org/DanishHistory/book7.html Medieval and Classical Literature Library Release #28a] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170805131005/http://omacl.org/DanishHistory/book7.html |date=5 August 2017 }} for full text.</ref>}}

Similarly, [[Hrolf Kraki]]'s champions refuse to retreat "from fire or iron". Another frequent motif refers to berserkers blunting their enemy's blades with spells or a glance from their evil eyes. This appears as early as [[Beowulf]] where it is a characteristic attributed to [[Grendel]]. Both the [[fire eating]] and the immunity to edged weapons are reminiscent of tricks popularly ascribed to [[fakir]]s.
In 1015, [[earl|Jarl]] [[Eiríkr Hákonarson]] of [[Norway]] outlawed berserkers. [[Gray Goose Laws|Grágás]], the [[medieval]] [[Iceland]]ic [[Code of law|law code]], sentenced berserker warriors to [[outlaw]]ry. By the 12th century, organised berserker war-bands had disappeared.

{{Multiple image | total_width = 250 | perrow = 2
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| image2 = Beserker, Lewis Chessmen, British Museum.jpg
| footer = Different rook pieces from the [[Lewis chessmen]], depicted as a warrior biting his shield.
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The [[Lewis Chessmen]], found on the [[Isle of Lewis]], [[Outer Hebrides]], [[Scotland]], and thought to be of Norse manufacture, include [[Game pieces of the Lewis Chessmen hoard#berserker|berserkers depicted biting their shields]].

== Theories ==
[[File:Fighting Mimes - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|A fresco in the 11th c. [[Saint Sophia Cathedral, Kyiv]] that appears to depict a berserker ritual performed by [[Varangians]] (Scandinavians){{sfn|Price|2019|p=307}}]]
Scholar [[Hilda Ellis-Davidson]] draws a parallel between berserkers and the mention by the [[Byzantine]] [[emperor]] [[Constantine VII]] (CE 905–959) in his book ''[[De Ceremoniis|De cerimoniis aulae byzantinae]]'' ("Book of Ceremonies of the Byzantine court") of a "[[Goths|Gothic]] Dance" performed by members of his [[Varangian Guard#Varangian Guard|Varangian Guard]], Norse warriors in the service of the [[Byzantine Empire]], who took part wearing animal skins and masks: she believes this may have been connected with berserker rites.<ref name=DAVIDSON>[[Hilda Ellis Davidson|Ellis-Davidson, Hilda R.]] (1967) ''Pagan Scandinavia'', p. 100. Frederick A. Praeger Publishers ASIN B0000CNQ6I</ref>

The rage the berserker experienced was referred to as ''berserkergang'' ('berserk fit/frenzy' or 'berserk movement'). This condition has been described as follows:

{{blockquote|This fury, which was called ''berserkergang'', occurred not only in the heat of battle, but also during laborious work. Men who were thus seized performed things which otherwise seemed impossible for human power. This condition is said to have begun with shivering, chattering of the teeth, and chill in the body, and then the face swelled and changed its colour. With this was connected a great hot-headedness, which at last gave over into a great rage, under which they howled as wild animals, bit the edge of their shields, and cut down everything they met without discriminating between friend or foe. When this condition ceased, a great dulling of the mind and feebleness followed, which could last for one or several days.<ref name=Fabing>{{cite journal|author=Fabing, Howard D.|title=On Going Berserk: A Neurochemical Inquiry|journal=Scientific Monthly|volume=83 |issue=5|year=1956|pages=232–37|bibcode=1956SciMo..83..232F|jstor=21684}}</ref>}}


Some scholars propose that certain examples of berserker rage had been induced voluntarily by the consumption of [[drug]]s such as [[hallucinogen]]ic [[mushroom]]s,<ref name=Fabing /><ref>{{cite book | last=Hoffer | first=A. | year=1967 | title=The Hallucinogens | publisher=Academic Press| pages=443–54 | isbn=978-1483256214 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Howard |first=Fabing |date=Nov 1956 |title=On Going Berserk: A Neurochemical Inquiry |journal=Scientific Monthly |volume=113 |issue=5 |page=232 |bibcode=1956SciMo..83..232F }}</ref> massive amounts of [[Alcohol (drug)|alcohol]],<ref>Wernick, Robert (1979) ''The Vikings''. Alexandria VA: [[Time-Life Books]]. p.&nbsp;285</ref> or a mixture only known as 'butotens.'<ref>{{Cite book |last=Rowbottom |first=Mike |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/852784438 |title=Foul Play: the Dark Arts of Cheating in Sport |publisher=Bloomsbury USA |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-4081-5579-0 |location=London |pages=16 |oclc=852784438}}</ref> This is much debated<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|title=Sagas of the Solanaceae: Speculative ethnobotanical perspectives on the Norse berserkers|last=Fatur|first=Karsten|date=15 November 2019|journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology|volume=244|page=112151|doi = 10.1016/j.jep.2019.112151|pmid = 31404578|doi-access=free}}</ref> but the theory is further supported by the discovery of seeds belonging to black henbane (''[[Hyoscyamus niger]]'') in a Viking grave that was unearthed near Fyrkat, Denmark in 1977.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Viking way : religion and war in late Iron Age Scandinavia|last=S.|first=Price, Neil|date=2002|publisher=Dept. of Archaeology and Ancient History|others=Uppsala universitet.|isbn=978-9150616262|location=Uppsala|oclc=52987118}}</ref> An analysis of the symptoms caused by ''Hyoscyamus niger'' revealed that they are also similar to the symptoms ascribed to the berserker state, which suggest it may have been used to generate their warlike mood.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fatur|first=Karsten|date=15 November 2019|title=Sagas of the Solanaceae: Speculative ethnobotanical perspectives on the Norse berserkers|journal=Journal of Ethnopharmacology|volume=244|pages=112151|doi=10.1016/j.jep.2019.112151|pmid=31404578|issn=0378-8741|doi-access=free}}</ref> Other explanations for the berserker's madness that have been put forward include self-induced [[hysteria]], [[epilepsy]], or [[mental illness]], among other causes.<ref>Foote, Peter G. and Wilson, David M. (1970) ''The Viking Achievement''. [[London]]: Sidgewick & Jackson. p.&nbsp;285.</ref>

One theory of the berserkers suggests that the physical manifestations of the berserker alongside their rage was a form of self-induced hysteria. Initiated before battle through a ritualistic performance meant for effect, which included actions such as shield-biting and animalistic howling.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Liberman|first=Anatoly|date=1 January 2005|title=Berserks in History and Legend|journal=Russian History|volume=32|issue=1|pages=401–411|doi=10.1163/187633105x00213|issn=0094-288X}}</ref>

[[Jonathan Shay]] makes an explicit connection between the berserker rage of soldiers and the [[hyperarousal]] of [[posttraumatic stress disorder]].<ref>Shay, J. (2000). "Killing rage: physis or nomos—or both" pp. 31–56 in ''War and Violence in Ancient Greece''. Duckworth and the Classical Press of Wales. {{ISBN|0715630466}}</ref> In ''Achilles in Vietnam'', he writes:

{{blockquote|If a soldier survives the berserk state, it imparts emotional deadness and vulnerability to explosive rage to his psychology and permanent hyperarousal to his physiology — hallmarks of post-traumatic stress disorder in combat veterans. My clinical experience with Vietnam combat veterans prompts me to place the berserk state at the heart of their most severe psychological and psychophysiological injuries.<ref>{{Cite book | last = Shay | first = Jonathan | author-link = Jonathan Shay | title = Achilles in Vietnam | publisher = Scribner | year = 1994 | location = New York | page = [https://archive.org/details/achillesinvietna00shay/page/98 98] | isbn = 978-0-689-12182-1 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/achillesinvietna00shay/page/98 }}</ref>}}

It has been suggested that the berserkers' behavior inspired the legend of the [[werewolf]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Berserker |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/berserker |website=Encyclopaedia Britannica |access-date=16 January 2019 |archive-date=12 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412085426/https://www.britannica.com/topic/berserker |url-status=live }}</ref>

== In popular culture ==
* [[J. R. R. Tolkien]] draws heavily on Norse mythology in his [[Middle Earth]] tales, including ''[[The Hobbit]]''. There, the ''berserker'' [[Beorn]] can transfigure into a massive bear, dangerous to both friend and foe.<ref>{{cite book | title = There and Back Again: J R R Tolkien and the Origins of The Hobbit | first = Mark | last = Atherton | year = 2012 | publisher = Bloomsbury Publishing | page = 37 | isbn = 9780857721662}}</ref>
* In ''[[The Witcher 3: Wild Hunt]]'', berserkers appear as humans that have transformed into bears.<ref>{{cite news |title=The Witcher 3: 10 Things You Didn't Know About Berserkers |url=https://www.thegamer.com/witcher-3-unknown-berserkers-trivia/ |agency=The Gamer |access-date=21 March 2023 |archive-date=21 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230321222312/https://www.thegamer.com/witcher-3-unknown-berserkers-trivia/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* In ''[[Assassin's Creed Valhalla]]'', berserkers are mentioned throughout the game and the pre-order bonus quest "The Way of the Berserker" is centered around a berserker named Bjorn.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://kotaku.com/only-one-of-assassins-creed-vahallas-bonus-quests-is-go-1845690124|title=Only One Of Assassin's Creed Valhalla's Bonus Quests Is Good|website=[[Kotaku]]|date=16 November 2020|language=en-us|access-date=24 April 2022|archive-date=24 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220424170627/https://kotaku.com/only-one-of-assassins-creed-vahallas-bonus-quests-is-go-1845690124|url-status=live}}</ref>
* A "berserker" class appears in ''[[Path of Exile]]''.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Chalk |first1=Andy |title=Path of Exile's new Ascendancy class is the Berserker |url=https://www.pcgamer.com/path-of-exiles-new-ascendancy-class-is-the-berserker/ |work=[[PC Gamer]] |date=28 January 2016 |access-date=12 December 2023 |archive-date=12 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231212121245/https://www.pcgamer.com/path-of-exiles-new-ascendancy-class-is-the-berserker/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* ''[[Gears of War]]'' features an enemy known as the Locust. Within the Locust caste are [[Drone (bee)|drones]], with the females named berserkers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://gearsofwar.com/en-us/universe/locust/berserker|title=berserker|website=Gears Of War|language=en-us|access-date=4 February 2020|archive-date=4 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200204194141/https://gearsofwar.com/en-us/universe/locust/berserker|url-status=live}}</ref>{{Primary source inline|date=August 2021}}
* [[Thor (Marvel Comics)|Thor Odinson]] has been depicted with a berserker rage like state called "Warrior's Madness" which enhances his strength, speed, durability and stamina for months though Thor has very little control in this state. A 'Berserker staff' is featured in the Marvel TV show ''[[Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.]]''.<ref>{{cite news |title=Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. recap: Purpose in the Machine |url=https://ew.com/recap/agents-of-shield-season-3-episode-2/ |agency=Entertainment Weekly |access-date=20 March 2023 |archive-date=20 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230320205941/https://ew.com/recap/agents-of-shield-season-3-episode-2/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* {{anchor|FallingSkies}}''[[Falling Skies]]'' is a science fiction series produced by [[Steven Spielberg]] where a post-massacre remnant society of humans offers armed resistance to an alien invasion. A small faction of mercenary fighters within the human cohort that is at the center of the series' action is known as The Berzerkers.<ref>{{cite news |title=Falling Skies season 3 episode 6 review: Be Silent And Come Out |url=https://www.denofgeek.com/tv/falling-skies-season-3-episode-6-review-be-silent-and-come-out/ |publisher=Den of Geek |access-date=21 March 2023 |archive-date=21 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230321222311/https://www.denofgeek.com/tv/falling-skies-season-3-episode-6-review-be-silent-and-come-out/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
* In the 2022 film ''[[The Northman]]'', the main character [[Amleth]] ([[Alexander Skarsgård]]) is raised as part of a group of berserkers. A berserker ritual is also featured in the film.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://screenrant.com/northman-movie-ending-explained-real-meaning/|title=The Northman Ending Explained (In Detail)|website=[[Screen Rant]]|date=22 April 2022|language=en-us|access-date=24 April 2022|archive-date=23 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220423081816/https://screenrant.com/northman-movie-ending-explained-real-meaning/|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Speculative recreations gallery ==
<gallery>
File:Ulfhednar.jpg|Speculative ''úlfheðinn'' (wolf warrior).
File:Sorcerers-1905.jpg|''Sorcerers'' by [[Nicholas K. Roerich]], which depicts ''ulfheðnar'' performing a ritual.
File:MPS Hohenwestedt 27.jpg|Speculative ceremonial dress by a modern berserker [[Historical reenactment|reenactor]].
</gallery>

== See also ==
* [[Barbarian]]
* [[Kóryos]], theoretical Proto-Indo-European brotherhood of warriors, wearing animal skins to assume the nature of wolves or dogs
* [[Furor Teutonicus]]

{{clear}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|refs=

<ref name=blaney1972>{{cite book|last=Blaney|first=Benjamin|title=The Berserker: His Origin and Development in Old Norse Literature|year=1972|location=Ph.D. Diss. University of Colorado|page=20}}</ref>

<ref name=cleasby1874>[http://lexicon.ff.cuni.cz/html/oi_cleasbyvigfusson/b0061.html An Icelandic-English Dictionary] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170329001235/http://lexicon.ff.cuni.cz/html/oi_cleasbyvigfusson/b0061.html |date=29 March 2017 }} by Richard Cleasby and Gudbrand Vigfusson (1874) p. 61</ref>

<ref name=danielli1945>Danielli, M, "Initiation Ceremonial from Norse Literature", Folk-Lore, v56, 1945 pp. 229–45.</ref>

<ref name=hallowell1925>{{cite journal|author=A. Irving Hallowell|title=Bear Ceremonialism in the Northern Hemisphere|journal=American Anthropologist|volume=28|year=1925|page=2|doi=10.1525/aa.1926.28.1.02a00020|doi-access=free}}</ref>

<ref name=jones1997>{{cite book|author=Prudence Jones|author2=Nigel Pennick|name-list-style=amp|title=A History of Pagan Europe|year=1997|publisher=Routledge; Revised edition|chapter=Late Germanic Religion|pages=154–56|isbn=978-0415158046}}</ref>

<ref name=nioradze1925>Nioradze, Georg. "Der Schamanismus bei den sibirischen Völkern", Strecker und Schröder, 1925.</ref>

<ref name=page1995>{{Cite book | last = Page | first = R. I. | title = Chronicles of the Vikings | publisher = University of Toronto Press | year = 1995 | location = Toronto, Canada | page = 109 | isbn = 9780802071651 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=1N57Gf9ljqcC&pg=PA109 | access-date = 13 August 2021 | archive-date = 26 March 2023 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164820/https://books.google.com/books?id=1N57Gf9ljqcC&pg=PA109 | url-status = live }}</ref>

<ref name=stjerna1903>"Helmets and swords in Beowulf" by [[Knut Stjerna]] out of a Festschrift to Oscar Monteliusvägen published in 1903</ref>
}}

== Bibliography ==
{{refbegin|35em}}
* {{cite book|last=Beck|first= H. |year=1965 |title=Das Ebersignum im Germanischen. Ein Beitrag zur germanischen Tiersymbolik|location= Berlin|publisher= W. de Gruyter.}}
* {{Cite book|last=Kershaw|first=Priscilla K.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MbdQPgAACAAJ|title=The One-eyed God : Odin and the (Indo-)Germanic Männerbünde|date=1997|publisher=Journal of Indo-European Studies|isbn=978-0941694742|series=Monograph Series|volume=36|access-date=13 August 2021|archive-date=11 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230711103142/https://books.google.com/books?id=MbdQPgAACAAJ|url-status=live}}
* {{Cite journal|last=Speidel|first=Michael P.|author-link=Michael P. Speidel|date=2002|title=Berserks: A History of Indo-European Mad Warriors|journal=Journal of World History|volume=13|issue=2|pages=253–290|issn=1045-6007|jstor=20078974}}
* {{citation|last=Speidel|first=Michael P|title=Ancient Germanic Warriors: Warrior Styles from Trajan's Column to Icelandic Sagas|year=2004|publisher=Routledge|location=London|isbn=978-0415486828}}
*{{cite book |last=Price|first=Neil|author-link=Neil Price (archaeologist)|title=The Viking Way, Magic and Mind in Late Iron Age Scandinavia|edition=2|title-link=The Viking Way (book)|publisher=Oxbow Books, Oxford and Philadelphia |year=2019|isbn=9781842172605}}
* {{citation|last=Simek|first=Rudolf|author-link=Rudolf Simek|title=Lexikon der germanischen Mythologie|publisher=Alfred Kröner|year=1995|location=Stuttgart|isbn=978-3-520-36802-7}}
* Merkelbach, Rebecca. 2018. Eigi í mannligu eðli: Shape, Monstrosity and Berserkism in the Sagas of Icelanders. ''Shapeshifters in Medieval North Atlantic Literature'', Santiago Francisco Barreiro and Luciana Mabel Cordo Russo, eds., 83–106. Amsterdam University Press.
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Wiktionary}}
{{Commons category|Berserkers}}
*[http://www.odinsvolk.ca/boar.htm Vandle helmet with bronze plates depicting wild Boar warriors, the Svinfylking 8th Century CE. Valsgarde, Sweden]
*[http://tidsskriftet.no/article/1121904 ''Berserkene – hva gikk det av dem?'' (Jon Geir Høyersten: Journal of the Norwegian Medical Association)]
*[http://www.vikinganswerlady.com/berserke.htm ''Berserkergang'' (Viking Answer Lady) ]
*{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Berserker}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20180407115944/http://www.tg95.ru/en/berserkers-wolf-people/ Berserkers-wolf-people]

{{Viking}}
{{Germanic peoples}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Animal festival or ritual]]
[[Category:Bears in human culture]]
[[Category:Bears in religion]]
[[Category:Fantasy tropes]]
[[Category:Legendary Norsemen]]
[[Category:Norse paganism]]
[[Category:Rage (emotion)]]
[[Category:Stock characters]]
[[Category:Therianthropes]]
[[Category:Vikings]]
[[Category:Viking Age]]
[[Category:Viking warfare]]
[[Category:Viking warriors]]
[[Category:Wolves in folklore, religion and mythology]]
[[Category:Wolves in human culture]]