Editing Beeswax

{{Short description|Natural wax produced by honey bees of the genus Apis}}
{{About||the 2009 film|Beeswax (film)}}
[[image:Honey_comb.jpg |thumb|right|Bee hive wax complex]]
[[Image:Beeswax.jpg|thumb|right|Beeswax cake]]
[[Image:Beeswax foundation.jpg|thumb|Commercial [[honeycomb]] foundation, made by pressing beeswax between patterned metal rollers]]

'''Beeswax''' (also known as '''cera alba''') is a natural [[wax]] produced by [[honey bee]]s of the genus ''Apis''. The wax is formed into scales by eight wax-producing glands in the abdominal segments of [[worker bee]]s, which discard it in or at the hive. The hive workers collect and use it to form cells for honey storage and larval and pupal protection within the [[beehive]]. Chemically, beeswax consists mainly of [[ester]]s of [[fatty acids]] and various [[fatty alcohol|long-chain alcohols]].

Beeswax has been used since prehistory as the first plastic, as a lubricant and waterproofing agent, in [[lost wax casting]] of metals and glass, as a [[wood finishing|polish]] for wood and leather, for making [[candles]], as an ingredient in cosmetics and as an artistic medium in [[encaustic painting]].

Beeswax is edible, having similarly negligible [[toxicity]] to plant waxes, and is approved for food use in most countries and in the [[European Union]] under the [[E number]] E901. However, due to its inability to be broken down by the human digestive system, it has insignificant nutritional value.<ref name="toxicity" />

==Production==
Beeswax is formed by [[worker bee]]s, which secrete it from eight wax-producing mirror glands on the inner sides of the [[sternites]] (the [[Anatomical terms of location|ventral]] shield or plate of each segment of the body) on abdominal segments 4 to 7.<ref name=Sanford>{{cite journal|last1=Sanford|first1=M.T.|last2=Dietz|first2=A.|year=1976|title=The fine structure of the wax gland of the honey bee (Apis mellifera L.).|journal=Apidologie|volume=7|issue=3|pages=197–207|doi=10.1051/apido:19760301|url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00890403/file/hal-00890403.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190430163140/https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00890403/file/hal-00890403.pdf |archive-date=2019-04-30 |url-status=live|doi-access=free}}</ref> The sizes of these wax glands depend on the age of the worker, and after many daily flights, these glands gradually begin to [[atrophy]].

[[Image:Bienenvolk-Gemuell.jpg|thumb|left|Fresh wax scales (in the middle of the bottom row)]]
The new wax is initially glass-clear and colorless, becoming [[opaque]] after [[chewing]] and being contaminated with pollen by the hive worker bees, becoming progressively yellower or browner by incorporation of [[pollen]] oils and [[propolis]]. The wax scales are about {{convert|3|mm|in|spell=in}} across and {{convert|0.1|mm|in|abbr=on}} thick, and about 1100 are needed to make a gram of wax.<ref name=":0">Brown, R, H. (1981) ''Beeswax'' (2nd edition) Bee Books New and Old, Burrowbridge, Somerset UK. {{ISBN|0-905652-15-0}}</ref> Worker bees use the beeswax to build [[honeycomb]] cells. For the wax-making bees to secrete wax, the ambient temperature in the hive must be {{convert|33|to|36|C|}}.

The book ''Beeswax Production, Harvesting, Processing and Products'' suggests {{convert|1|kg|spell=in||}} of beeswax is sufficient to store {{cvt|22|kg|||}} of honey.<ref name=Coggshall>{{cite book |title=Beeswax Production, Harvesting, Processing and Products, Coggshall and Morse |publisher=Wicwas Press |date=1984-06-01| isbn=978-1878075062}}</ref>{{rp|41}} Another study estimated that {{convert|1|kg|spell=in||}} of wax can store {{cvt|24|to|30|kg|}} of honey.<ref name=":1">{{cite book|title=Top-Bar Beekeeping: Organic Practices for Honeybee Health|author=Les Crowder|publisher=Chelsea Green Publishing|date=2012-08-31|isbn=978-1603584616}}</ref><ref>[http://www.beesfordevelopment.org/what-we-do/information-and-education/info/file/1327 Top-bar beekeeping in America] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140729214736/http://www.beesfordevelopment.org/what-we-do/information-and-education/info/file/1327 |date=2014-07-29 }}.</ref>

Sugars from honey are metabolized into beeswax in wax-gland-associated [[fat cells]].<ref>{{cite news | last = Collision | first = Clarence | title = A Closer Look: Beeswax, Wax Glands | pages = 12–27  | newspaper = Bee Culture | publisher = beeculture.com | date = 31 March 2015  | url = https://www.beeculture.com/a-closer-look-beeswax-wax-glands/ | access-date = 2020-06-16 }}</ref> The amount of [[honey]] used by bees to produce wax has not been accurately determined, but according to Whitcomb's 1946 experiment, {{cvt|6.66|to|8.80|kg|}} of honey yields {{convert|1|kg|spell=in||}} of wax.<ref name=Coggshall/>{{rp|35}}

==Processing==
[[Image:HonningSkraelle.JPG|thumb|right|220px|Uncapping beeswax honeycombs]]

Beeswax as a product for human use may come from cappings cut off the cells in the process of extraction, from old comb that is scrapped, or from unwanted [[burr comb]] and [[brace comb]] removed from a hive. Its color varies from nearly white to brownish, but most often is a shade of yellow, depending on purity, the region, and the type of flowers gathered by the bees. The wax from the [[brood comb]] of the honey bee hive tends to be darker than wax from the honeycomb because impurities accumulate more quickly in the brood comb. Due to the impurities, the wax must be rendered before further use. The leftovers are called [[slumgum]], and is derived from old breeding rubbish (pupa casings, cocoons, shed larva skins, etc.), bee droppings, propolis, and general rubbish.

The wax may be clarified further by heating in water. As with petroleum waxes, it may be softened by dilution with mineral oil or vegetable oil to make it more workable at room temperature.

==Physical characteristics==
{| class="wikitable sortable floatright" style="text-align:right;"
|-
!Wax content type||Percentage
|-
| style="background:gainsboro;"|[[Hydrocarbon]]s||14
|-
| style="background:gainsboro;"|Mono[[ester]]s||35
|-
| style="background:gainsboro;"|Diesters||14
|-
| style="background:gainsboro;"|Triesters||3
|-
| style="background:gainsboro;"|Hydroxy monoesters||4
|-
| style="background:gainsboro;"|Hydroxy polyesters||8
|-
| style="background:gainsboro;"|Acid [[ester]]s ||1
|-
| style="background:gainsboro;"|Acid [[polyester]]s||2
|-
| style="background:gainsboro;"|[[Fatty acid|Free fatty acid]]s||12
|-
| style="background:gainsboro;"|[[Fatty alcohol|Free fatty alcohol]]s ||1
|-
| style="background:gainsboro;"|Unidentified||6
|}

Beeswax is a fragrant solid at room temperature. The colors are light yellow, medium yellow, or dark brown and white. Beeswax is a tough [[wax]] formed from a mixture of several [[chemical compound]]s.

Beeswax has a relatively low [[melting point]] range of {{convert|62|to|64|C|F}}. If beeswax is heated above {{convert|85|°C|°F|abbr=on}} discoloration occurs. The [[flash point]] of beeswax is {{convert|204.4|°C|°F|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://fscimage.fishersci.com/msds/02556.htm|title=MSDS for beeswax}}. No reported [[autoignition temperature]] has been reported</ref>

When natural beeswax is cold,{{clarify|reason=how cold is cold?|date=January 2019}} it is brittle, and its fracture is dry and granular. At [[room temperature]] (conventionally taken as about {{convert|20|°C|°F|abbr=on}}), it is tenacious and it softens further at human [[body temperature]] ({{convert|37|°C|°F|abbr=on}}).

== Chemical composition ==
[[File:Triacontanyl palmitate.png|thumb|upright=2|center|Triacontanyl palmitate, a [[wax ester]], is a major component of beeswax.<ref name=":2">{{cite journal |last1=Tulloch |first1=A. P. |year=1980 |title=Beeswax—Composition and Analysis |url=https://doi.org/10.1080/0005772X.1980.11097776 |journal=Bee World |volume=61 |issue=2 |pages=47–62 |doi=10.1080/0005772X.1980.11097776 |url-access=subscription}}</ref>]]

An approximate [[structural formula|chemical formula]] for beeswax is C<sub>15</sub>H<sub>31</sub>COOC<sub>30</sub>H<sub>61</sub>.<ref>{{cite book |last=Umney |first=Nick |title=Conservation of Furniture |author2=Shayne Rivers |publisher=Butterworth-Heinemann |year=2003 |page=164}}</ref> Its main constituents are [[palmitate]], [[palmitoleate]], and [[oleate]] [[ester]]s of long-chain (30–32 carbons) [[aliphatic]] [[Alcohol (chemistry)|alcohol]]s, with the ratio of [[palmitate|triacontanyl palmitate]] CH<sub>3</sub>(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>29</sub>O-CO-(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>14</sub>CH<sub>3</sub> to [[cerotic acid]] CH<sub>3</sub>(CH<sub>2</sub>)<sub>24</sub>COOH, the two principal constituents, being 6:1.{{citation needed|reason=need reference for main components and ratio|date=April 2020}} Beeswax can be classified generally into European and Oriental types. The [[saponification value]] is lower (3–5) for European beeswax, and higher (8–9) for Oriental types.{{citation needed|reason=where are these numbers from?|date=April 2020}} The analytical characterization can be done by high-temperature [[gas chromatography]].<ref name=":2" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Limsathayourat |first1=N. |last2=Melchert |first2=H.-U. |year=1984 |title=High-temperature capillary GLC of hydrocarbons, fatty-acid derivatives, cholesterol esters, wax esters and triglycerides in beeswax analysis. |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00533223 |journal=[[Fresenius' Zeitschrift für analytische Chemie]] |trans-journal=Fresenius’ Journal of Analytical Chemistry |volume=318 |issue=6 |pages=410–413 |doi=10.1007/BF00533223 |url-access=subscription}}</ref>

==Adulteration ==
[[File:Melting beeswax.jpg|alt=beeswax pellets|thumb|Beeswax refined in pellet form]]

Beeswax faces challenges in the market due to the presence of various suppliers, making it difficult to distinguish authentic from fake variants. Adulterated beeswax often contains paraffin and other toxic additives, posing potential health risks and lacking the genuine honey-scented aroma of pure beeswax.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=[[European Food Safety Authority]] |date=May 2020 |title=Risk assessment of beeswax adulterated with paraffin and/or stearin/stearic acid when used in apiculture and as food (honeycomb) |journal=EFSA Supporting Publications |volume=17 |issue=5 |doi=10.2903/sp.efsa.2020.EN-1859|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Pharmaceutical grades of pure beeswax are distributed in the shape of pellets for the cosmetic, phamaceutical and food industries, among other uses.<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Food Control|volume=119|date=January 2021|pages=107435|title=A topic model approach to identify and track emerging risks from beeswax adulteration in the media|vauthors=Rortais A |doi=10.1016/j.foodcont.2020.107435|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0956713520303510}}</ref>

==Production==
{| class="wikitable floatright"  style="text-align:center;"
|+ Beeswax production – 2020
|-
!  style="background:#ddf; | Country
!  style="background:#ddf; | Tonnes
|-
| {{IND}}|| 23,716
|-
| {{ETH}} || 5,339
|-
| {{ARG}} || 4,970
|-
| {{TUR}} || 3,765
|-
| {{KOR}} || 3,758
|-
|'''World''' || 62,116
|-
|colspan=2|
{{center|<small>Source: FAOSTAT<ref name="faostat">{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC|title= Beeswax production in 2020, Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity (pick lists)|date=2022|publisher=UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database ([[FAOSTAT]])|access-date=23 July 2022}}</ref></small>}}
|}
In 2020, world production of beeswax was 62,116 [[tonne]]s, led by India with 38% of the total.<ref name=faostat/>

==Uses==
Candle-making has long involved the use of beeswax, which burns readily and cleanly, and this material was traditionally prescribed for the making of the [[Paschal candle]] or "Easter candle". Beeswax candles are purported to be superior to other wax candles, because they burn brighter and longer, do not bend, and burn cleaner.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Honey Bee Hobbyist: The Care and Keeping of Bees|last=Norman|first=Gary|publisher=BowTie Press|year=2010|isbn=978-1-933958-94-1|location=California, US|pages=160}}</ref> It is further recommended for the making of other candles used in the [[liturgy]] of the [[Roman Catholic Church]].<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01347a.htm 'Altar Candles"], 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia</ref>  Beeswax is also the candle constituent of choice in the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]].<ref>[http://www.johnsanidopoulos.com/2010/02/use-of-candles-in-orthodox-church.html], Use of Candles in the Orthodox Church</ref><ref name=Ullmann>Uwe Wolfmeier, Hans Schmidt, Franz-Leo Heinrichs, Georg Michalczyk, Wolfgang Payer, Wolfram Dietsche, Klaus Boehlke, Gerd Hohner, Josef Wildgruber "Waxes" in Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, 2002. {{doi|10.1002/14356007.a28_103}}.</ref>

Refined beeswax plays a prominent role in art materials both as a binder in [[Encaustic painting|encaustic paint]] and as a stabilizer in [[oil paint]] to add body.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The artist's handbook of materials and techniques|last1=Mayer|first1=Ralph|last2=Sheehan|first2=Steven|isbn=978-0670837014|edition=Fifth edition, revised and updated|publisher=Viking|location=New York|oclc=22178945|year=1991|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/artistshandbooko00maye_0}}</ref>

Beeswax is an ingredient in surgical [[bone wax]], which is used during surgery to control bleeding from bone surfaces; [[shoe polish]] and [[furniture polish]] can both use beeswax as a component, dissolved in turpentine or sometimes blended with [[linseed oil]] or [[tung oil]]; modeling waxes can also use beeswax as a component; pure beeswax can also be used as an organic [[surfboard wax]].<ref>[http://www.morenature.com/raw-beeswax-uses.html 'Raw Beeswax Uses"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131106110135/http://www.morenature.com/raw-beeswax-uses.html |date=2013-11-06 }}, MoreNature</ref> Beeswax blended with pine [[rosin]] is used for [[waxing]], and can serve as an adhesive to attach reed plates to the structure inside a [[squeezebox]]. It can also be used to make [[Cutler's resin]], an adhesive used to glue handles onto cutlery knives. It is used in Eastern Europe in egg decoration; it is used for writing, via [[resist dyeing]], on [[batik]] eggs (as in ''[[pysanky]]'') and for making beaded eggs.
Beeswax is used by [[percussionist]]s to make a surface on [[tambourine]]s for thumb rolls. It can also be used as a metal injection moulding binder component along with other polymeric binder materials.<ref>[http://www.enggpedia.com/chemical-engineering-encyclopedia/dictionary/chemical-processes/1793-metal-injection-molding-process-mim 'Metal Injection Molding Process (MIM)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120510045029/http://enggpedia.com/chemical-engineering-encyclopedia/dictionary/chemical-processes/1793-metal-injection-molding-process-mim |date=2012-05-10 }}, 2012 EngPedia</ref>
[[Image:Kurps in Warsaw-11-Niedzwiedzcy-Pasieka.jpg|thumb|Beeswax candles and figures]]

Beeswax was formerly used in the manufacture of phonograph cylinders. It may still be used to seal formal legal or [[royal decree]] and academic parchments such as placing an awarding stamp [[imprimatur]] of the university upon completion of postgraduate degrees.

Purified and bleached beeswax is used in the production of food, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals. The three main types of beeswax products are yellow, white, and beeswax absolute. Yellow beeswax is the crude product obtained from the honeycomb, white beeswax is bleached or filtered yellow beeswax, and beeswax [[Absolute (perfumery)|absolute]] is yellow beeswax treated with alcohol. In food preparation, it is used as a coating for [[cheese]]; by sealing out the air, protection is given against spoilage (mold growth). Beeswax may also be used as a food additive [[E number|E901]], in small quantities acting as a [[glazing agent]], which serves to prevent water loss, or used to provide surface protection for some fruits. Soft gelatin capsules and tablet coatings may also use E901. Beeswax is also a common ingredient of natural chewing gum. The wax monoesters in beeswax are poorly hydrolysed in the guts of humans and other [[mammals]], so they have insignificant nutritional value.<ref name="toxicity">[http://www.efsa.europa.eu/sites/default/files/scientific_output/files/main_documents/615.pdf Beeswax absorption and toxicity]. Large amounts of such waxes in the diet pose theoretical toxicological problems for mammals.</ref> Some birds, such as [[honeyguide]]s, can digest beeswax.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Downs |first1=Colleen T |last2=van Dyk |first2=Robyn J |last3=Iji |first3=Paul |title=Wax digestion by the lesser honeyguide Indicator minor |journal=Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Molecular & Integrative Physiology |date=September 2002 |volume=133 |issue=1 |pages=125–134 |doi=10.1016/s1095-6433(02)00130-7|pmid=12160878 }}</ref> Beeswax is the main diet of [[Lesser wax moth|wax moth]] larvae.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dadd |first1=R.H. |title=Beeswax in the nutrition of the wax moth, Galleria mellonella (L.) |journal=Journal of Insect Physiology |date=December 1966 |volume=12 |issue=12 |pages=1479–1492 |doi=10.1016/0022-1910(66)90038-2|bibcode=1966JInsP..12.1479D }}</ref>

The use of beeswax in skin care and cosmetics has been increasing. A German study found beeswax to be superior to similar barrier creams (usually mineral oil-based creams such as [[petroleum jelly]]), when used according to its protocol.<ref>
{{cite journal
 |author1=Peter J. Frosch |author2=Detlef Peiler |author3=Veit Grunert |author4=Beate Grunenberg |date=July 2003
 | title = Wirksamkeit von Hautschutzprodukten im Vergleich zu Hautpflegeprodukten bei Zahntechnikern – eine kontrollierte Feldstudie. Efficacy of barrier creams in comparison to skincare products in dental laboratory technicians – a controlled trial.
 | journal = Journal der Deutschen Dermatologischen Gesellschaft
 | volume = 1
 | issue = 7
 | pages = 547–557
 | doi = 10.1046/j.1439-0353.2003.03701.x
 | language = de
 | quote = Conclusions: The results demonstrate that the use of after-work moisturizers is highly beneficial and under the chosen study conditions even superior to barrier creams applied at work. This approach is more practical for many professions and may effectively reduce the frequency of irritant contact dermatitis.
 | pmid = 16295040
 |s2cid=70532469 }}
</ref>
Beeswax is used in [[lip balm]], [[lip gloss]], [[hand cream]]s, salves, and moisturizers; and in cosmetics such as [[eye shadow]], blush, and [[eye liner]]. Beeswax is also an important ingredient in [[moustache wax]] and [[hair pomade]]s, which make hair look sleek and shiny.

In oil spill control, beeswax is processed to create [[Petroleum Remediation Product]] (PRP). It is used to absorb oil or petroleum-based pollutants from water.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.spacefoundation.org/space_technology_hal/petroleum-remediation-product/ |title=Petroleum Remediation Product |website=spacefoundation.org |date=November 3, 2017 |access-date=January 6, 2020}}</ref>
{{Further|Beeswax wrap}}

==Historical uses==
[[Image:Candles Oberflacht.jpg|thumb|upright|Beeswax candles, [[Alamannic]] graveyard ([[Seitingen-Oberflacht|Oberflacht, Germany]]), 6th/7th century AD]]
[[File:Beeswax as Dental Filling on a Neolithic Human Tooth - Journal.pone.0044904.g001.png|upright|thumb|Beeswax as Neolithic dental filling]]
Beeswax was among the first plastics to be used, alongside other natural polymers such as [[gutta-percha]], [[Horn (anatomy)|horn]], [[tortoiseshell]], and [[shellac]]. For thousands of years, beeswax has had a wide variety of applications; it has been found in the tombs of Egypt, in wrecked Viking ships, and in Roman ruins. Beeswax never goes bad and can be heated and reused. Historically, it has been used:

* As candles - the oldest intact beeswax candles north of the Alps were found in the [[Alamannic]] graveyard of [[Seitingen-Oberflacht|Oberflacht, Germany]], dating to 6th/7th century AD
* In the manufacture of cosmetics
* As a modelling material in the [[lost-wax casting]] process, or ''cire perdue''<ref name=Condon>{{cite journal |first=L. O. K. |last=Congdon |year=1985 |title=Water-Casting Concave-Convex Wax Models for Cire Perdue Bronze Mirrors |journal=American Journal of Archaeology |volume=89 |issue=3 |pages=511–515 |jstor=504365 |doi=10.2307/504365 |s2cid=193028590 }}</ref>
* For [[wax tablet]]s used for a variety of writing purposes
* In [[encaustic painting]]s such as the [[Fayum mummy portraits]]<ref>[http://www.egyptologyonline.com/mummy_portraits.htm Egyptology online] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070808184841/http://www.egyptologyonline.com/mummy_portraits.htm |date=2007-08-08 }}</ref>
* In [[Bowyer|bow making]]
* To strengthen and preserve [[sewing]] thread, cordage, shoe laces, etc.
* As a component of [[sealing wax]]
* To strengthen and to forestall splitting and cracking of wind instrument reeds 
* To form the mouthpieces of a [[didgeridoo]], and the frets on the [[Philippine]] ''[[kutiyapi]]'' – a type of boat [[lute]]
* As a sealant or [[lubricant]] for [[bullet]]s in cap and ball [[firearms]]
* To stabilize the military explosive [[Torpex]] – before being replaced by a petroleum-based product
* In producing Javanese ''[[batik]]''<ref>Ormeling, F. J. 1956. ''The Timor problem: a geographical interpretation of an underdeveloped island''. Groningen and The Hague: J. B. Wolters and Martinus Nijhoff.</ref>
* As an ancient form of dental tooth filling<ref>{{cite web |url=http://lightyears.blogs.cnn.com/2012/09/19/oldest-tooth-filling-may-have-been-found/ |title=Oldest tooth filling may have been found – Light Years – CNN.com Blogs |publisher=Lightyears.blogs.cnn.com |access-date=2013-07-05 |archive-date=2019-12-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191215065453/http://lightyears.blogs.cnn.com/2012/09/19/oldest-tooth-filling-may-have-been-found/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kidzdentalcare.com/dont-use-your-teeth/ |title=Don't Use Your Teeth |access-date=2013-12-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131214001627/http://www.kidzdentalcare.com/dont-use-your-teeth/ |archive-date=2013-12-14 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* As the joint filler in the slate bed of pool and billiard tables.

== See also ==
* [[Carnauba wax]]
* [[Candelilla wax]]
* [[Paraffin wax]]
* [[Ozokerite]] ([[ceresin]])
* [[Spermaceti]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Beewax}}
{{Wiktionary}}
*[http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/webprojects2001/loveridge/ The chemistry of bees] Joel Loveridge, School of Chemistry, [[University of Bristol]], accessed November 2005

{{BeeColonyMemberTypes}}
{{E number infobox 900-909}}
{{Authority control}}

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