Editing Battle of Varna

{{Short description|Battle in the Crusade of Varna}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2024}}{{Use British English|date=December 2024}}
{{More citations needed|date=July 2008}}
{{unreliable sources|date=July 2024}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict          = Battle of Varna
| partof            = the [[Crusade of Varna]] and the [[Ottoman wars in Europe]]
| image             = Battle of Varna 1444.PNG
| image_size        = 300
| caption           = ''The battle of Varna'' (1879) by [[Jan Matejko]]<br> The episode of King [[Władysław III of Poland|Władysław]] attack on the Ottoman camp
| date              = 10 November 1444
| map_type          = Bulgaria#Black Sea
| map_relief        = 1
| place             = Near [[Varna, Bulgaria|Varna]], [[Ottoman Empire]]<br>Present-day [[Bulgaria]]
| result            = Ottoman victory
| coordinates       = {{Coord|43|13|N|27|53|E|region:BG|display=ti}}
| combatant1        = [[Ottoman Empire]]
| combatant2        = '''[[Crusade of Varna|Varna Crusaders]]:'''{{plainlist|
* [[Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569)|Kingdom of Poland]]
* [[Kingdom of Hungary (1000–1538)|Kingdom of Hungary]]
* [[Croatia in personal union with Hungary|Kingdom of Croatia]]
* [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]]
* [[Kingdom of Bohemia]]
* [[Wallachia|Principality of Wallachia]]
* [[Uprising of Konstantin and Fruzhin|Bulgarian rebels]]
* [[Kingdom of Bosnia]] 
* [[Papal States]]
* [[State of the Teutonic Order|Teutonic Knights]]
**Naval assistance:
**[[Duchy of Burgundy]]
**[[Republic of Venice]]
**[[Republic of Ragusa]]
**[[Byzantine Empire]]}}
| commander1        = '''[[Murad II]]'''<br>[[Mehmed II|Prince Mehmed]]<ref>{{Cite book
|last1=İnalcık
|first1=Halil
|title=Fatih devri üzerine tetkikler ve vesikalar
|date=1954
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MkYaAAAAIAAJ&q=fatih+devri+%C3%BCzerinde+tetkikler+ve+vesikalar
|page=107
}}</ref><br>[[Karaca Pasha]]
| commander2        = {{plainlist|
* '''[[Władysław III of Poland|Władysław III]]'''{{KIA}}
* [[John Hunyadi]]
* [[Mircea II of Wallachia|Mircea II]] 
* [[Fruzhin]]}} 
[[Julian Cesarini]]{{KIA}}<br>[[Stephen III Báthory]]{{KIA}}<br>[[Michael Szilágyi]]<br>[[Franko Talovac]]<br>Jan Chapek<br>[[Simon Rozgonyi]]{{KIA}}<br>John de Dominis{{KIA}}<br>Rafael Herczeg
| strength1         = Around 60,000<ref name=Warfare/><ref name=Sedlar/>{{sfn|Setton|1978|pp=89–90}}<ref>Stephen Turnbull. ''The Ottoman Empire 1326–1699''. Bloomsbury Publishing. 2014. p. 32</ref>
*40,000–50,000 Anatolian troops<ref name=Warfare/>
*10,000 Rumelian troops<ref name=Warfare/>
| strength2         = 20,000 (6,000 Hungarians, 5,000 troops by Hunyadi, 4,000 Polish cavalry, 4,000 Wallachian cavalry, 1,000 Crusaders recruited by Cesarini)<ref name="Banlaky">{{Cite book |last=Bánlaky |first=József |title=A magyar nemzet hadtörténelme |location=Budapest |language=Hungarian |trans-title=The Military History of the Hungarian Nation |chapter=A várnai hadjárat 1444-ben – Események a várnai csatáig |trans-chapter=The Campaign of Varna in 1444 – Events up to the Battle of Varna |chapter-url=https://mek.oszk.hu/09400/09477/html/0010/752.html}}</ref><br><ref name=Warfare>Frank Tallett, D. J. B. Trim. ''European Warfare, 1350–1750''. Cambridge University Press, 2010. p. 143 {{ISBN|978-0-521-71389-4}}</ref>{{sfn|Setton|1978|pp=89–90}}<ref name=Sedlar>Jean W. Sedlar. ''East Central Europe in the Middle Ages, 1000–1500''. University of Washington Press, 2013. p. 247 {{ISBN?}}</ref><ref name="tdv">Emecen, Feridun {{cite web |title=Varna Muharebes  |url=https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/varna-muharebesi |website=islamansiklopedisi.org}} (in Turkish)</ref>
| casualties1       = 2,000 to 20,000
| casualties2       = About half the army{{sfn|Setton|1978|pp=89–90}}<ref name=Geschichte>Johann Wilhelm Zinkeisen, Geschichte des osmanischen Reiches in Europa, vol: 1, pp. 700–705</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Battle of Varna |url=https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Varna |website=britannica.com}}</ref><br>{{circa}} 10,000
}}
{{Campaignbox Crusade of Varna}}{{Campaignbox Ottoman-Hungarian War}}

The '''Battle of Varna''' took place on 10 November 1444 near [[Varna, Bulgaria|Varna]] in what is today eastern [[Bulgaria]]. The [[Military of the Ottoman Empire#Army|Ottoman army]] under Sultan [[Murad II]] (who did not actually rule the sultanate at the time) defeated the [[Crusades|Crusaders]] commanded by King [[Władysław III of Poland]] and [[King of Hungary|Hungary]], [[John Hunyadi]] (acting as commander of the combined Christian forces) and [[Mircea II of Wallachia]]. It was the final battle of the unsuccessful [[Crusade of Varna]], a last-ditch effort to prevent further Ottoman expansion into the Balkans.<ref>Bodnar, Edward W. ''Ciriaco d'Ancona e la crociata di Varna, nuove prospettive''. ''Il Veltro'' 27, nos. 1–2 (1983): 235–51</ref><ref>Halecki, Oscar, ''The Crusade of Varna''. New York, 1943</ref>

==Background==
The Hungarian Kingdom fell into crisis after the death of King [[Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor|Sigismund]] in 1437. His son-in-law and successor, King [[Albert II of Germany|Albert]], ruled for only two years and died in 1439, leaving his widow [[Elizabeth of Luxembourg|Elizabeth]] with an unborn child, [[Ladislaus the Posthumous]]. The Hungarian noblemen then called the young King [[Władysław III of Poland]] to the throne of Hungary, expecting his aid in defense against the Ottomans. After his Hungarian coronation, he never went back to his homeland again, assuming rule of the Hungarian Kingdom next to the influential nobleman [[John Hunyadi]].

After failed expeditions in 1440–1442 against [[Belgrade]] and [[Transylvania]] and the defeats of the Turks during Hunyadi's "[[long campaign]]" in 1442–1443, the Ottoman sultan [[Murad II]] signed a [[Peace of Szeged|ten-year truce]] with Hungary. After he had made peace with the [[Karamanids|Karaman Emirate]] in [[Anatolia]] in August 1444, he resigned the throne to his twelve-year-old son [[Mehmed II]].

Cesarini insisted that the Hungarian King Władysław III should break the treaty, arguing that it was not valid due to the fact that it had been made with infidels.<ref name="Modern Warfare">{{cite journal |last1=Pogãciaş |first1=Andrei |title=The Campaign of Varna, 1444: An Example of How to Lose a Victory |journal=Medieval Warfare |date=2011 |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=43–48}}</ref> Hungary co-operated with [[Venice]] and [[Pope Eugene IV]] to organize a new [[Crusades|crusader]] army led by Hunyadi and Władysław III. On receipt of this news, [[Çandarlı Halil Pasha the Younger|Çandarlı Halil Pasha]] recalled Murad II against the Christian Coalition, even though Mehmed II did not accept this and wanted to fight himself.{{fact|date=July 2023}} As a result, Murad II commanded the [[Military of the Ottoman Empire#Army|Ottoman army]].

==Preparations==
The mixed [[Papal army]] was composed mainly of Hungarian, Polish, Bohemian (whose combined armies numbered 16,000) and [[Wallachia]]n (4,000) forces,{{sfn|Setton|1978|pp=89–90}} with smaller detachments of [[Papal States|papal troops]], [[Teutonic Order|Teutonic Knights]], [[Bosnians]], [[Croats]], [[Bulgarians]], [[Lithuanians]], and [[Ruthenians]].<ref>Magyarország hadtörténete (1984), pp. 102–103</ref> Troops from [[Croatia in personal union with Hungary|Croatia]] and [[Kingdom of Bosnia|Bosnia]] were led by Croatian nobleman [[Franko Talovac]].{{sfn|Pogăciaș|2015|p=331}}

Papal, [[Republic of Venice|Venetian]] and Burgundian ships under [[Alvise Loredan]] had blockaded the [[Dardanelles]] as the Hungarian army was to advance on Varna, while a second flotilla comprising six ships (two Burgundian, two Ragusan and two Byzantine) blockaded the Bosphorus. Both failed, and the main Ottoman force from Asia, including the sultan, crossed the Bosphorus on 18 October 1444.<ref name="books.google">{{Cite book | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=FpvqWWpUYSoC | title = The Holy Wars of King Wladislas and Sultan Murad | isbn = 978-9004219045 | last1 = Jefferson | first1 = John | year = 2012|pages= 437–438| publisher = Brill }}</ref> The Hungarian advance was rapid, Ottoman fortresses were bypassed, while local Bulgarians from [[Vidin]], [[Oryahovo]], and [[Nikopol, Bulgaria|Nicopolis]] joined the army ([[Fruzhin]], son of [[Ivan Shishman]], also participated in the campaign with his own guard). On 10 October near Nicopolis, some 7,000<ref name="books.google" /> Wallachian cavalrymen under [[Mircea II]], one of [[Vlad Dracul]]'s sons, also joined.

[[Armenians in Hungary|Armenian refugees in the Kingdom of Hungary]] also took part in the wars of their new country against the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottomans]] as early as the battle of Varna in 1444, when some Armenians were seen amongst the Christian forces.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AC71zQEACAAJ | author = Basmadjian, Garabed|publisher=J. Gamber | title = Histoire moderne des Armeniens | location = Paris | year = 1922 | page = 45 | language = fr }}</ref>

==Deployment==
[[File:Wagenburg.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Hussite Wagenburg]] – an old sketch from the 15th century.]]
Late on November 9, a large [[Military of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman army]] of around 40,000 or 60,000 men approached Varna from the west. At a supreme military council called by Hunyadi during the night, the [[papal legate]], cardinal [[Julian Cesarini]], insisted on a quick withdrawal. However, the Christians were caught between the [[Black Sea]], [[Lake Varna]], the steep wooded slopes of the [[Franga Plateau]] (356 m high), and the enemy. Cesarini then proposed a defense using the [[Wagenburg of the Hussites]] until the arrival of the Christian fleet. The Hungarian magnates and the Croatian and Czech commanders backed him, but the young (20-year-old) Władysław and Hunyadi rejected the defensive tactics. Hunyadi declared: "To escape is impossible, to surrender is unthinkable. Let us fight with bravery and honor our arms." Władysław accepted this position and gave him the command. Andreas del Palatio states that Hunyadi commanded the "Wallachian army" indicating a large [[Romanians|Romanian]] component in Hunyadi's personal army.<ref>''Istoria Romaniei'', Vol. II, p. 440, 1960 {{ISBN?}}</ref>

In the morning of 10 November, Hunyadi deployed the army of some 20,000 [[Crusades|crusaders]] as an arc between Lake Varna and the Franga plateau; the line was about 3.5&nbsp;km long. Two [[Chorągiew (military unit)|banners]] with a total of 3,500 men from the king's Polish and Hungarian bodyguards, Hungarian royal mercenaries, and banners of Hungarian nobles held the center. The Wallachian cavalry was left in reserve behind the center.

The right flank that lined up the hill towards the village of [[Kamenar, Varna Province|Kamenar]] numbered 6,500 men in 5 banners. [[Dalmatia|Dalmatian]] John de Dominis, Bishop of [[Oradea|Varadin]] with his personal banner led the force; Cesarini commanded a banner of German mercenaries and a Bosnian one. The [[Bishop of Eger]]  [[Simon Rozgonyi]] led his own banner, and the military governor of [[Slavonia]], ban Franko Talovac, commanded one Croatian banner.

The left flank, a total of 5,000 men in 5 banners, was led by [[Michael Szilágyi]], Hunyadi's brother in law, and was made up of Hunyadi's [[Transylvanians]], Bulgarians, German mercenaries and banners of Hungarian [[magnate]]s. Behind the Hungarians, closer to the Black Sea and the lake, was the Wagenburg, defended by 300 or 600 Czech and [[Ruthenians|Ruthenian]] mercenaries under hetman Ceyka, along with Poles, Lithuanians and Wallachians. Every wagon was crewed with 7 to 10 soldiers and the Wagenburg was equipped with [[Bombard (weapon)|bombards]].

The Ottoman center included the [[Janissary|Janissaries]] and levies from [[Rumelia]] deployed around two [[Thracians|Thracian]] burial mounds. Murad observed and directed the battle from one of them. The Janissaries dug in behind ditches and two palisades. The right wing consisted of [[Kapikulu]]s and [[Sipahi]]s from [[Rumelia]], and the left wing was made up by [[Akinji|Akıncı]]s, Sipahis from [[Anatolia]], and other forces. Janissary archers and Akıncı light cavalry were deployed on the Franga plateau.

==Battle==
[[File:Battle of Varna.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Movements of the forces during the battle.]]
The light Ottoman cavalry assaulted the Croats of [[Ban (title)|ban]] Franco Talotsi.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.varnenchikmuseum.com/Eng/Istoria/Kyrvavata_bitka_na_narodite.html|title=Park–Museum of the Combat Friendship 1444 "Wladislaw Warnenchik"|website=www.varnenchikmuseum.com|access-date=2019-10-26|archive-date=2014-12-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141219081747/http://www.varnenchikmuseum.com/Eng/Istoria/Kyrvavata_bitka_na_narodite.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> Christians from the left riposted with bombards and [[History of the firearm|firearms]] and stopped the attack. Christian soldiers chased the Ottomans in a disorderly pursuit. The [[Sipahi|Anatolian cavalry]] ambushed them from the flank. The Christian right wing attempted to flee to the small fortress of Galata on the other side of [[Varna Bay]], but most of them were slain in the marshland around Varna Lake and the River Devnya, where Cesarini also met his end. Only [[Ban (title)|ban]] Talotsi's troops managed to withdraw behind the Wagenburg.

[[File:Varna 1444 Polski Kronika from 1564.jpg|thumb|left|A scene from the Battle of Varna (1444) on the ''Kronika wszystkiego świata'' of [[Marcin Bielski]], published in 1564.]]
The other Ottoman flank assaulted the Hungarians and Bulgarians of Michael Szilagyi. Their push was stopped and turned back; then Sipahis attacked again. Hunyadi decided to help and advised Władysław to wait until he returned; then advanced with two cavalry companies. The young king, ignoring Hunyadi's advice, rushed 500 of his Polish knights against the Ottoman center. They attempted to overrun the Janissary infantry and take Murad prisoner, and almost succeeded, but in front of Murad's tent Władysław's horse either fell into a trap or was stabbed, and the king was beheaded by mercenary Kodja Hazar.<ref name=jaczynowski>{{cite book|surname1=Jaczynowski|first1=Lech|title=Supposed Gravesites of Władysław III of Varna|date=2017|isbn=9788374555265|page=193|publisher=Wydawnictwo im. Stanisława Podobińskiego Akademii im. Jana Długosza |url=http://dlibra.bg.ajd.czest.pl:8080/Content/4173/14.pdf|access-date=21 December 2017}}</ref> The remaining coalition cavalry were demoralized and defeated by the Ottomans.

On his return, Hunyadi tried frantically to salvage the king's body, but all he could accomplish was to organize the retreat of the remains of his army; it suffered thousands of casualties in the chaos, and was virtually annihilated. Neither the head nor body of the king were ever found. The [[Minnesang|minnesinger]] [[Michael Beheim]] wrote a song based on the story of Hans Mergest, who spent 16 years in Ottoman captivity after the battle.

==Aftermath==
{{See also|Battle of Kosovo (1448)|l1=Second Battle of Kosovo}}
[[File:VarnaMemorial.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Park-museum Władysław Warneńczyk|Memorial of the Battle in Varna]], built on an ancient Thracian [[Tumulus|mound tomb]], bearing the name of the fallen king.]]

Hunyadi reached the Danube but was captured by [[Vlad Dracul]] in Wallachia and imprisoned as insurance in case of Ottoman retaliation or for a high ransom. He was released in exchange for a large amount of money when Hungarian nobles loyal to Hunyadi began to threaten Vlad Dracul with a campaign against him. Another version of the story is that he was mistakenly captured by Wallachian border guards, who didn't recognize him, and released by Vlad Dracul once they met face to face.<ref name="Modern Warfare" /> After the death of Władysław III, Hunyadi became one of the most important and powerful members of the Hungarian nobility, becoming the Governor of Hungary on 5 June 1446. He was later made a Duke by the Pope in 1447.<ref name="Modern Warfare" />

Hungarian nobles found it hard to believe that both their king and Cesarini had died, leading to spies being sent south of the Danube, but no information was found other than what was already known.<ref name="Modern Warfare" /> 

The death of Władysław III left Hungary in the hands of the four-year-old [[Ladislas the Posthumous|Ladislaus Posthumous of Bohemia and Hungary]]. He was succeeded in Poland by [[Casimir IV Jagiellon]] after a three-year interregnum.

Murad's casualties at Varna were so heavy, it was not until three days later that he realized he was victorious.<ref name="Setton90">Kenneth Meyer Setton, ''The Papacy and the Levant, 1204–1571: The Fifteenth Century'', Vol. II, (American Philosophical Society, 1978), p. 90.</ref> Nevertheless, the Ottoman victory in Varna, followed by the Ottoman victory in the [[Battle of Kosovo (1448)|Second Battle of Kosovo]] in 1448, deterred the European states from sending any substantial military assistance to the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]] during the Ottoman [[Fall of Constantinople|siege of Constantinople]] in 1453. Hunyadi signed a three-year truce with the Ottoman central government in 1451.

Only the [[Siege of Belgrade (1456)|European victory at Belgrade]] would stop the Ottomans from conquering large parts of Europe. Hungary would be safe for another 70 years after this victory until the Hungarian army was crushed by the Ottomans at the [[Battle of Mohács]] in 1526, which would lead to the end of Hungary as an independent united kingdom for almost 400 years.<ref name="Modern Warfare" />

==Legacy==
In the aftermath, the Ottomans had removed a significant opposition to their expansion into central and eastern Europe; subsequent battles forced a large number of Europeans to become Ottoman subjects.

The fallen Polish king was named Ladislaus of Varna (''Władysław III Warneńczyk'') in memory of the battle.

The Battle of Varna is commemorated on the [[Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, Warsaw]], with the inscription "WARNA 10 XI 1444".

The ''Rise of the Ottomans'' bookmark of the [[grand strategy]] game ''[[Europa Universalis IV]]'' is intentionally set one day after the battle.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Scenarios – Europa Universalis 4 Wiki|url=https://eu4.paradoxwikis.com/Scenarios|access-date=15 November 2023|website=eu4.paradoxwikis.com}}</ref>

==Footnotes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
{{Refbegin|2}}
* Ervin Liptai (1984), ''Magyarország hadtörténete I''. Zrínyi Katonai Kiadó, Budapest. {{ISBN|963-326-320-4}} – {{in lang|hu}}
* {{cite book|last=Pogăciaș|first=Andrei|editor-last=Sabaté|editor-first=Flocel|year=2015|title=Life and Religion in the Middle Ages|chapter=John Hunyadi and the Late Crusade|publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing|isbn=9781443881654|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N37WCgAAQBAJ}}
* {{The Papacy and the Levant|volume=2}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
* [http://www.mek.oszk.hu/01900/01919/html/cd4a/kepek/history/to056gf95172.jpg Oszk.hu: Battle map of the Battle of Varna] – {{in lang|hu}}
* {{cite book | last = Imber | first = Colin | title = The Crusade of Varna, 1443–45 | date = 2006 | publisher = Ashgate Publishing | isbn = 0-7546-0144-7 | format = PDF | chapter = Introduction | url = https://archive.org/details/crusadeofvarna140000imbe | access-date = 2007-04-17 | url-access = registration }} – {{in lang|en}}
{{Commons category|position=left|Battle of Varna}}

{{Lithuanian wars and conflicts}}
{{Ottoman battles}}
{{Polish wars and conflicts}}
{{Portal bar|Bulgaria|Christianity|Middle Ages}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Varna 1444}}
[[Category:Battles of the Crusade of Varna]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1444]]
[[Category:History of Varna, Bulgaria]]
[[Category:1444 in Europe|Battle of Varna]]
[[Category:1440s in the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:15th century in Bulgaria]]
[[Category:Battles involving Bulgaria]]
[[Category:Battles of the Polish–Ottoman wars]]
[[Category:Battles involving Bohemia]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Grand Duchy of Lithuania]]
[[Category:Battles of the Ottoman–Hungarian Wars]]
[[Category:Battles involving Wallachia]]
[[Category:Battles of the Middle Ages]]
[[Category:15th-century crusades]]
[[Category:Bulgaria–Poland relations]]
[[Category:Battles of Mehmed the Conqueror]]