Editing Battle of Navarino

{{short description|1827 naval battle during the Greek War of Independence}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2017}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict          = Battle of Navarino
| partof            = the [[Greek War of Independence]]
| map_type          = Greece Peloponnese#Greece
| map_mark          = Battle icon (crossed swords).svg
| map_marksize      = 30
| image             = Naval Battle of Navarino by Garneray.jpg
| image_size        = 300px
| caption           = ''The Naval Battle of Navarino'', [[Ambroise Louis Garneray]]
| date              = 20 October 1827
| place             = [[Pylos|Navarino]] harbour, [[Ionian Sea]]
| coordinates       = {{Coord|36|56|09|N|21|41|16|E|region:GR_source:frwiki_type:event_scale:50000|display=inline,title}}
| casus             = 
| territory         = 
| result            = Allied victory
| combatant1        = {{Tree list}}
* {{flag|British Empire}}
** {{navy|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland}}
* {{flag|Russian Empire}}
** {{navy|Russian Empire}}
* {{flag|Kingdom of France|restoration}}
**{{navy|Kingdom of France}}
{{Tree list/end}}
| combatant2        = {{Tree list}} 
*{{flagcountry|Ottoman Empire|1793}}
**{{flagicon image|Flag of Egypt (1844-1867).svg}} [[Egypt Eyalet|Egypt]]
**{{flagcountry|Regency of Algiers}}
{{Tree list/end}}
| commander1        = {{flagicon|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|naval}} [[Edward Codrington]] <br /> {{flagicon|Russian Empire|naval}} [[Lodewijk van Heiden]] <br /> {{flagicon|Kingdom of France|naval}} [[Henri de Rigny]]
| commander2        = {{flagicon image|Flag of the Ottoman Empire (eight pointed star).svg}} [[Battle of Navarino#Ottomans|Emir Tahir Pasha]]<br>{{flagicon image|Flag of Egypt (1844-1867).svg}} [[Battle of Navarino#Ottomans|Müharrem Bey]]<br>{{flagicon image|Flag of Egypt (1844-1867).svg}} Anonymous Capitan Bey<br /> {{flagicon image|Flag of Egypt (1844-1867).svg}} [[Hassan Pasha al-Iskandarani]]
| strength1         = {{tree list}}
* 10 ships of the line
** {{flagicon|size=20px|Russian Empire|naval}} 4 ships
** {{flagicon|size=20px|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|naval}} 3 ships
** {{flagicon|Kingdom of France|naval}} 3 ships
{{tree list/end}}
{{tree list}}
* 10 frigates
** {{flagicon|size=20px|Russian Empire|naval}} 4 ships
** {{flagicon|size=20px|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|naval}} 4 ships
** {{flagicon|Kingdom of France|naval}} 2 ships
{{tree list/end}} {{flagicon|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|naval}} 4 sloops <br /> {{flagicon|Kingdom of France|naval}} 2 schooners <br /> {{flagicon|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|naval}} 1 cutter <br> {{Centre|([[#Order of battle|OOB]])}} 1,252 guns<br>8,000 crewmen{{sfn|Bodart|1908|p=492}}
| strength2         = 3 ships of the line <br /> 17 frigates <br /> 30 corvettes <br /> 5 schooners  <br /> 28 brigs <br /> 5–6 fireships <br> {{Centre|([[#Order of battle|OOB]])}} 2,158 guns <br> 20,000 crewmen{{sfn|Bodart|1908|p=492}}
| casualties1       = 181 killed <br /> 480 wounded
| casualties2       = 4,000 killed or wounded<br>4,000 captured<br>55 ships lost{{sfn|Bodart|1908|p=492}}
| campaignbox       = {{Campaignbox Greek War of Independence}}{{Russo-Turkish War Series}}
}}

The '''Battle of Navarino''' was a naval battle fought on 20 October (O.S. 8 October) 1827, during the [[Greek War of Independence]] (1821–1829), in [[Pylos|Navarino Bay]] (modern [[Pylos]]), on the west coast of the [[Peloponnese]] peninsula, in the [[Ionian Sea]]. Allied forces from Britain, France, and Russia decisively defeated [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] and Egyptian forces which were trying to suppress the Greeks, thereby making Greek independence much more likely. An Ottoman armada which, in addition to Imperial warships, included squadrons from the ''[[eyalet]]s'' of [[Egypt Eyalet|Egypt]] and [[Regency of Algiers]] and [[Tunis Eyalet|Tunis]],{{efn|The fleet of the [[Ottoman Algeria|Regency of Algiers]] did not participate at Navarino: "Most of the Algerian ships were away on convoy duty when the Battle of Navarino occurred in 1827, and so avoided the severe loss suffered on that occasion by the Tunisian contingent".<ref>{{citation|author=[[John de Courcy Ireland]]|year=1976|title=The Corsairs of North Africa|journal=The Mariner's Mirror|volume=62|issue=3|pages=271–283|doi=10.1080/00253359.1976.10658971}}, at p. 281.</ref>}} was destroyed by an Allied force of British, [[Bourbon Restoration in France|French]] and [[Russian Empire|Russian]] warships. It was the last major naval battle in history to be fought entirely with [[sailing ships]], although most ships fought at anchor. The Allies' victory was achieved through superior firepower and gunnery.

The context of the three [[Great Power]]s' intervention in the Greek conflict was the [[Russian Empire]]'s long-running expansion at the expense of the [[Sick man of Europe|decaying Ottoman Empire]]. Russia's ambitions in the region were seen as a major [[geostrategy|geostrategic]] threat by the other European powers, which feared the disintegration of the Ottoman Empire and the establishment of Russian hegemony in the [[Eastern Mediterranean]]. The precipitating factor was support of elements in Orthodox Russia for  Greek coreligionists, despite the opposition of Tsar Alexander in 1821 following the Greek rebellion against their Ottoman overlords. Similarly, despite  official British interest in maintaining the Ottoman Empire, British public opinion strongly supported the Greeks. Fearing unilateral Russian action, Britain and France bound Russia, by treaty, to a joint intervention which aimed to secure Greek autonomy, whilst still preserving Ottoman territorial integrity as a check on Russia.

The Powers agreed, by the [[Treaty of London (1827)]], to force the Ottoman government to grant the Greeks autonomy within the empire and despatched naval squadrons to the Eastern Mediterranean to enforce their policy. The naval battle happened more by accident than by design as a result of a manoeuvre by the Allied commander-in-chief, Admiral [[Edward Codrington]], aimed at coercing the Ottoman commander to obey Allied instructions. The sinking of the Ottomans' Mediterranean fleet saved the fledgling [[First Hellenic Republic|Greek Republic]] from collapse. But it required two more military interventions, by Russia in the form of the [[Russo-Turkish War (1828–1829)|Russo-Turkish War of 1828–29]] and a [[Morea expedition|French expeditionary force]] to the Peloponnese to force the withdrawal of Ottoman forces from central and southern Greece, to finally secure Greek independence.
{{TOC limit|3}}

==Background==
The [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] [[Turkish people|Turks]] had conquered the Greek-controlled [[Byzantine Empire]] during the 15th century, taking over its territory and its capital, [[Constantinople]], and becoming its effective successor-state.<ref name="Runciman 1965 29-33, 133-159">Runciman (1965) 29–33, 133–159</ref> In 1821, Greek nationalists [[Greek War of Independence|revolted against the Ottomans]], aiming to liberate ethnic Greeks from four centuries of Ottoman rule.<ref>David Brewer, ''The Greek War of Independence: The Struggle for Freedom from Ottoman Oppression and the Birth of the Modern Greek Nation'' (2003).</ref> Fighting raged for several years but by 1825, a stalemate had developed, with the Greeks unable to drive the Ottomans out of most of Greece, but the Ottomans were unable to crush the revolt definitively. However, in 1825, the Sultan succeeded in breaking the stalemate. He persuaded his powerful ''wali'' (viceroy) of Egypt, [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammad Ali Pasha]], who was technically his [[vassal]] but in practice autonomous, to deploy his Western-trained and equipped army and navy against the Greeks. In return, the Sultan promised to grant the rebel heartland, the Peloponnese, as a hereditary [[fief]] to Ali's eldest son, [[Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt|Ibrahim]]. In February 1825, Ibrahim led an expeditionary force of 16,000 into the Peloponnese, and soon overran its western part; he failed, however, to take the eastern section, where the rebel government was based (at [[Nafplion]]).<ref>Woodhouse (1965) 22</ref>

The Greek revolutionaries remained defiant, and appointed experienced [[Philhellenism|philhellenic]] British officers at the head of the army and fleet: Maj [[Richard Church (general)|Sir Richard Church]] (land) and [[Thomas Cochrane, 10th Earl of Dundonald|Lord Cochrane]] (sea). By this time however, the [[First Hellenic Republic|Greek provisional government]]'s land and sea forces were far inferior to those of the Ottomans and Egyptians: in 1827, Greek regular troops numbered less than 5,000, compared to 25,000 Ottomans in central Greece and 15,000 Egyptians in the Peloponnese. Also, the Greek government was virtually bankrupt. Many of the key fortresses on what little territory it controlled were in Ottoman hands. It seemed only a matter of time before the Greeks were forced to capitulate.<ref>Woodhouse (1965) 39</ref> At this critical juncture, the Greek cause was rescued by the decision of three [[Great Powers]]—Great Britain, France and Russia—to intervene jointly in the conflict.

==Diplomacy of the Great Powers==
From the inception of the Greek revolt until 1826, Anglo-Austrian diplomatic efforts were aimed at ensuring the [[Non-interventionism|non-intervention]] of the other great powers in the conflict.<ref>Dakin (1973) 64, 144, 147</ref> Their objective was to stall Russian military intervention in support of the Greeks, in order to give the Ottomans time to defeat the rebellion.<ref>Dakin (1973) 142, 154</ref> However, the Ottomans proved unable to suppress the revolt during the long period of non-intervention secured by Anglo-Austrian diplomacy. By the time the Ottomans were making serious progress, the situation evolved in ways that would make non-interventionism untenable. In December 1825, the diplomatic landscape changed with the death of [[Alexander I of Russia|Tsar Alexander]] and the succession of his younger brother [[Nicholas I of Russia|Nicholas I]] to the Russian throne. Nicholas was a more decisive and risk-taking character than his brother, as well as being far more [[Russian nationalism|nationalistic]]. The British government's response to the evolving situation was to move towards joint intervention instead to limit Russian [[expansionism]]. Britain, France, and Russia signed the [[Treaty of London, 1827|Treaty of London]] on 6 July 1827. The treaty called for an immediate [[armistice]] between the belligerents, in effect demanding a cessation of Ottoman military operations in Greece just when the Ottomans had victory in their grasp. It also offered Allied mediation in the negotiations on a final settlement that were to follow the armistice.<ref>''Treaty of London (1827)'' Article I</ref> The treaty called on the Ottomans to grant Greece a degree of autonomy, but envisaged it ultimately remaining under Ottoman suzerainty.<ref>''Treaty of London (1827)'' Article II</ref>

A secret clause in the agreement provided that if the Ottomans failed to accept the armistice within a month, each signatory Power would despatch a [[consul (representative)|consul]] to [[Nafplion]], the capital of the Hellenic Republic, thereby granting [[de facto recognition]] to the rebel government, something no Power had done hitherto.<ref>''Treaty of London (1827)'' Additional Clause (I)</ref> The same clause authorized the signatories in concert to instruct their naval commanders in the Mediterranean to "take all measures that circumstances may suggest" (i.e. including military action) to enforce the Allied demands, if the Ottomans failed to comply within the specified time limit. However, the clause added that Allied commanders should not take sides in the conflict.<ref>''Treaty of London (1827)'' Additional Clause (II)</ref> On 20 August 1827, the British naval [[Mediterranean Fleet|commander-in-chief in the Mediterranean]], Vice-Admiral [[Blue squadron|of the Blue]] Sir [[Edward Codrington]], a veteran of 44 years at sea and a popular hero for his role in the [[Battle of Trafalgar]], received his government's instructions regarding enforcement of the treaty. Codrington could not have been a less suitable person for a task which required great tact. An impetuous fighting sailor, he entirely lacked diplomatic finesse, a quality he despised and derisively ascribed to his French counterpart, [[Henri de Rigny]]. He was also a sympathiser with the Greek cause, having subscribed to the London Philhellenic Committee.<ref>Woodhouse (1965) 32–34</ref>

==Order of battle==
Exact figures for the Ottoman/Egyptian fleet are difficult to establish. The figures given above are mainly those enclosed by Codrington in his report. These were obtained by one of his officers from the French secretary of the Ottoman fleet, a M. Letellier. However, another report by Letellier to the British ambassador to the Ottomans gives two more frigates and 20 fewer corvettes/brigs for a total of 60 warships. James assesses the Ottomans' "effective" strength as even lower: three ships of the line, 15 large frigates and 18 corvettes, totaling just 36 ships.<ref>James (1837) Vol. 6, p.&nbsp;478.</ref>

===Ships===
{| class="wikitable" style="width:100%;"
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
!colspan="11" bgcolor="white"|British squadron (Vice Admiral [[Edward Codrington]])
|- valign="top"|- style="vertical-align:top;"
! width="12%" align="center" rowspan="2" | <small> Ship </small>
! width="15%" align="center" rowspan="2" | <small> Rate </small>
! width="5%" align="center" rowspan="2" | <small> Guns </small>
! width="5%" align="center" rowspan="2" | <small> Navy </small>
! width="22%" align="center" rowspan="2" | <small> Commander </small>
! width="15%" align="center" colspan="3" | <small>Casualties</small>
! width="25%" align="center" rowspan="2" | <small>Notes</small>
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
! width="5%" align="center" | <small> Killed </small>
! width="5%" align="center" | <small> Wounded </small>
! width="5%" align="center" | <small> Total</small>
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
| align= left    | [[HMS Asia (1824)|''Asia'']]
| align= center  | [[Second-rate]]
| align= center  | 84
| align= center  | {{flagdeco|United Kingdom|naval}}
| align= left    | Captain Edward Curzon ; commander [[Robert Lambert Baynes]]
| align= right   | 18
| align= right   | 67
| align= right   | 85
| align= left    | Flagship of the British squadron, flagship of the Allied fleet.
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
| align= left  | [[HMS Genoa (1814)|''Genoa'']]
| align= center  | [[Third-rate]]
| align= center  | 76
| align= center  | {{flagdeco|United Kingdom|naval}}
| align= left    | Captain [[Walter Bathurst]] ; commander Richard Dickenson
| align= right   | 26
| align= right   | 33
| align= right   | 59
| align= left    |
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
| align= left    | [[HMS Albion (1802)|''Albion'']]
| align= center  | [[Third-rate]]
| align= center  | 74
| align= center  | {{flagdeco|United Kingdom|naval}}
| align= left    | Captain [[John Ommanney|John Acworth Ommanney]] ; commander John Norman Campbell
| align= right   | 10
| align= right   | 50
| align= right   | 60
| align= left    |
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
| align= left    | ''Glasgow''
| align= center  | [[Fifth-rate]]
| align= center  | 50
| align= center  | {{flagdeco|United Kingdom|naval}}
| align= left    | Captain Hon. [[James Ashley Maude]]
| align= right   | 0
| align= right   | 2
| align= right   | 2
| align= left    |
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
| align= left    | [[HMS Cambrian (1797)|''Cambrian'']]
| align= center  | [[Fifth-rate]]
| align= center  | 48
| align= center  | {{flagdeco|United Kingdom|naval}}
| align= left    | Captain Gawen William Hamilton, C.B.
| align= right   | 1
| align= right   | 1
| align= right   | 2
| align= left    |
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
| align= left    | ''Dartmouth''
| align= center  | [[Fifth-rate]]
| align= center  | 42
| align= center  | {{flagicon|United Kingdom|naval}}
| align= left    | Captain [[Thomas Fellowes (Royal Navy officer, born 1778)|Thomas Fellowes, C.B.]]
| align= right   | 6
| align= right   | 8
| align= right   | 14
| align= left    |
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
| align= left    | [[HMS Talbot (1824)|''Talbot'']]
| align= center  | [[Sixth-rate]]
| align= center  | 28
| align= center  | {{flagicon|United Kingdom|naval}}
| align= left    | Captain [[Frederick Spencer, 4th Earl Spencer|Hon. Frederick Spencer]]
| align= right   | 6
| align= right   | 17
| align= right   | 23
| align= left    |
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
| align= left    | [[HMS Rose (1821)|HMS ''Rose'']]
| align= center  | [[Sloop-of-war#Ship sloop|Sloop]]
| align= center  | 18
| align= center  | {{flagicon|United Kingdom|naval}}
| align= left    | Commander Lewis Davies
| align= right   | 3
| align= right   | 15
| align= right   | 18
| align= left    |
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
| align= left    | HMS ''Brisk''
| align= center  | [[Sloop-of-war#Brig sloop|Brig-sloop]]
| align= center  | 10
| align= center  | {{flagdeco|United Kingdom|naval}}
| align= left    | [[Anson family|Commander Hon. William Anson]]
| align= right   | 1
| align= right   | 2
| align= right   | 3
| align= left    |
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
| align= left    | {{HMS|Musquito|1825|6}}
| align= center  | [[Sloop-of-war#Brig sloop|Brig-sloop]]
| align= center  | 10
| align= center  | {{flagicon|United Kingdom|naval}}
| align= left    | Commander George Bohun Martin
| align= right   | 2
| align= right   | 4
| align= right   | 6
| align= left    |
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
| align= left    | {{HMS|Philomel|1823|6}}
| align= center  | [[Sloop-of-war#Brig sloop|Brig-sloop]]
| align= center  | 10
| align= center  | {{flagicon|United Kingdom|naval}}
| align= left    | Commander [[Henry Chetwynd-Talbot, 18th Earl of Shrewsbury|Henry Chetwynd-Talbot]]
| align= right   | 1
| align= right   | 7
| align= right   | 8
| align= left    |
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
| align= left    | {{HMS|Hind|1790|6}}
| align= center  | [[Cutter (boat)|Cutter]]
| align= center  | 10
| align= center  | {{flagicon|United Kingdom|naval}}
| align= left    |
| align= right   |
| align= right   |
| align= right   |
| align= left    |
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="width:100%;"
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
!colspan="11" bgcolor="white"|French squadron (Rear Admiral [[Henri de Rigny]])
|- valign="top"|- style="vertical-align:top;"
! width="12%" align="center" rowspan="2" | <small> Ship </small>
! width="15%" align="center" rowspan="2" | <small> Rate </small>
! width="5%" align="center" rowspan="2" | <small> Guns </small>
! width="5%" align="center" rowspan="2" | <small> Navy </small>
! width="22%" align="center" rowspan="2" | <small> Commander </small>
! width="15%" align="center" colspan="3" | <small>Casualties</small>
! width="25%" align="center" rowspan="2" | <small>Notes</small>
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
! width="5%" align="center" | <small> Killed </small>
! width="5%" align="center" | <small> Wounded </small>
! width="5%" align="center" | <small> Total</small>
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
| align= left    | [[French ship Breslaw (1808)|''Breslaw'']]
| align= center  | [[Second-rate]]
| align= center  | 84
| align= center  | {{flagicon|France}}
| align= left    | Captain [[Valdémar Guillaume Nème Botherel de La Bretonnière|Botherel de La Bretonnière]]
| align= right   | 1
| align= right   | 14
| align= right   | 15
| align= left    |
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
| align= left    | [[French ship Scipion (1813)|''Scipion'']]
| align= center  | [[Third-rate]]
| align= center  | 80
| align= center  | {{flagicon|France}}
| align= left    | Captain [[Pierre Bernard Milius]]
| align= right   | 2
| align= right   | 36
| align= right   | 38
| align= left    |
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
| align= left    | [[French ship Trident (1811)|''Trident'']]
| align= center  | [[Third-rate]]
| align= center  | 74
| align= center  | {{flagicon|France}}
| align= left    | Captain Morice
| align= right   | 0
| align= right   | 7
| align= right   | 7
| align= left    |
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
| align= left    | [[French frigate Sirène (1823)|''Sirène'']]
| align= center  | First-rank frigate
| align= center  | 60
| align= center  | {{flagicon|France}}
| align= left    | Contre-amiral [[Henri de Rigny]], Captain Robert
| align= right   | 2
| align= right   | 42
| align= right   | 44
| align= left    | Flagship of the French squadron.
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
| align= left    | [[French frigate Armide (1812)|''Armide'']]
| align= center  | Second-rank frigate
| align= center  | 44
| align= center  | {{flagicon|France}}
| align= left    | Captain Hugon
| align= right   | 14
| align= right   | 29
| align= right   | 43
| align= left    |
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
| align= left    | [[French schooner Alcyone (1825)|''Alcyone'']]
| align= center  | [[Schooner]]
| align= center  | 10 to 16
| align= center  | {{flagicon|France}}
| align= left    | Captain Turpin
| align= right   | 1
| align= right   | 9
| align= right   | 10
| align= left    |
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
| align= left    | [[French schooner Daphné (1824)|''Daphné'']]
| align= center  | [[Schooner]]
| align= center  | 6
| align= center  | {{flagicon|France}}
| align= left    | Captain Frézier
| align= right   | 1
| align= right   | 5
| align= right   | 6
| align= left    |
|}

{| class="wikitable" style="width:100%;"
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
!colspan="11" bgcolor="white"|Russian squadron (Rear Admiral [[Lodewijk van Heiden]])
|- valign="top"|- style="vertical-align:top;"
! width="12%" align="center" rowspan="2" | <small> Ship </small>
! width="15%" align="center" rowspan="2" | <small> Rate </small>
! width="5%" align="center" rowspan="2" | <small> Guns </small>
! width="5%" align="center" rowspan="2" | <small> Navy </small>
! width="22%" align="center" rowspan="2" | <small> Commander </small>
! width="15%" align="center" colspan="3" | <small>Casualties</small>
! width="25%" align="center" rowspan="2" | <small>Notes</small>
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
! width="5%" align="center" | <small> Killed </small>
! width="5%" align="center" | <small> Wounded </small>
! width="5%" align="center" | <small> Total</small>
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
| align= left    | [[Russian ship of the line Gangut (1825)|''Gangut'']]
| align= center  | [[Second-rate]]
| align= center  | 84
| align= center  | {{flagicon|Russian Empire|naval}}
| align= left    | Captain Alexander Pavlovich Avinov
| align= right   | 14
| align= right   | 37
| align= right   | 51
| align= left    | Lieutenant [[Pyotr Anjou]] distinguished himself during the battle.
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
| align= left    | [[Russian ship Azov (1826)|''Azov'']]
| align= center  | [[Third-rate]]
| align= center  | 80
| align= center  | {{flagicon|Russian Empire|naval}}
| align= left    | Captain [[Mikhail Lazarev]]
| align= right   | 24
| align= right   | 67
| align= right   | 91
| align= left    | Flagship of the Russian squadron.
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
| align= left    | [[Russian ship Iezekiil' (1826)|''Iezekiil''']]
| align= center  | [[Third-rate]]
| align= center  | 80
| align= center  | {{flagicon|Russian Empire|naval}}
| align= left    | Captain Svinkin
| align= right   | 13
| align= right   | 18
| align= right   | 31
| align= left    |
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
| align= left    | [[Russian ship Aleksandr Nevskii (1826)|''Aleksandr Nevskii'']]
| align= center  | [[Third-rate]]
| align= center  | 80
| align= center  | {{flagicon|Russian Empire|naval}}
| align= left    | Captain Bogdanovich
| align= right   | 5
| align= right   | 7
| align= right   | 12
| align= left    |
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
| align= left    | [[Russian frigate Provornyi (1820)|''Provornyi'']]
| align= center  | Fifth-rate
| align= center  | 48
| align= center  | {{flagicon|Russian Empire|naval}}
| align= left    | Captain Yepanchin
| align= right   | 3
| align= right   | 4
| align= right   | 7
| align= left    |
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
| align= left    | [[Russian frigate Konstantin (1824)|''Konstantin'']]
| align= center  | Fifth-rate
| align= center  | 44
| align= center  | {{flagicon|Russian Empire|naval}}
| align= left    | Commander Khrushchev
| align= right   | 0
| align= right   | 1
| align= right   | 1
| align= left    |
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
| align= left    | [[Russian frigate Elena (1825)|''Elena'']]
| align= center  | Fifth-rate
| align= center  | 38
| align= center  | {{flagicon|Russian Empire|naval}}
| align= left    | Captain Yepanchin
| align= right   | 0
| align= right   | 5
| align= right   | 5
| align= left    |
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
| align= left    | [[Russian frigate Kastor (1823)|''Kastor'']]
| align= center  | Fifth-rate
| align= center  | 36
| align= center  | {{flagicon|Russian Empire|naval}}
| align= left    | Captain Sytin
| align= right   | 0
| align= right   | 0
| align= right   | 0
| align= left    |
|}

=== Ottomans ===

{| class="wikitable" style="width:100%;"
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
!colspan="11" bgcolor="white"|Imperial squadron (Amir Tahir)
|- valign="top"|- style="vertical-align:top;"
! width="12%" align="center" rowspan="2" | <small> Ship </small>
! width="15%" align="center" rowspan="2" | <small> Rate </small>
! width="5%" align="center" rowspan="2" | <small> Guns </small>
! width="15%" align="center" rowspan="2" | <small> Navy </small>
! width="12%" align="center" rowspan="2" | <small> Commander </small>
! width="15%" align="center" colspan="3" | <small>Casualties</small>
! width="25%" align="center" rowspan="2" | <small>Notes</small>
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
! width="5%" align="center" | <small> Killed </small>
! width="5%" align="center" | <small> Wounded </small>
! width="5%" align="center" | <small> Total</small>
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
| align= left    | ''Ghiuh Rewan''
| align= center  | [[Third-rate]]
| align= center  | 84
| align= center  | {{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Ottoman Empire]]
| align= left    |
| align= right   | ~650
| align= right   |
| align= right   |
| align= left    | Flagship, commander-in-chief
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
| align= left    | ''Fahti Bahri''
| align= center  | [[Third-rate]]
| align= center  | 74
| align= center  | {{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Ottoman Empire]]
| align= left    |
| align= right   |
| align= right   |
| align= right   |
| align= left    | Flagship
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
| align= left    | ''Burj Zafer''
| align= center  | [[Third-rate]]
| align= center  | 70
| align= center  | {{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Ottoman Empire]]
| align= left    |
| align= right   | ~400
| align= right   |
| align= right   |
| align= left    |

|- style="vertical-align:top;"
| align= left    | ''Fevz Nusrat''
| align= center  | Double-decked frigate
| align= center  | 64
| align= center  | {{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Ottoman Empire]]
| align= left    |
| align= right   |
| align= right   |
| align= right   |
| align= left    |
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
| align= left    | ''Ka'íd Zafer''
| align= center  | Double-decked frigate
| align= center  | 64
| align= center  | {{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Ottoman Empire]]
| align= left    |
| align= right   |
| align= right   |
| align= right   |
| align= left    |
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
| align= left    | Keywan Bahri
| align= center  | Double-decked frigate
| align= center  | 48
| align= center  | {{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Ottoman Empire]]
| align= left    |
| align= right   |
| align= right   |
| align= right   |
| align= left    |
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
| align= left    | Feyz Mi' 'raj
| align= center  | Double-decked frigate
| align= center  | 48
| align= center  | {{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Ottoman Empire]]
| align= left    |
| align= right   |
| align= right   |
| align= right   |
| align= left    |
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
| align= left    | Mejra Zafer
| align= center  | Double-decked frigate
| align= center  | 48
| align= center  | {{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Ottoman Empire]]
| align= left    |
| align= right   |
| align= right   |
| align= right   |
| align= left    |
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
| align= left    | ''Guerrière''
| align= center  | Double-decked frigate
| align= center  | 60
| align= center  | {{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Egypt Eyalet]]
| align= left    |
| align= right   |
| align= right   |
| align= right   |
| align= left    | Flagship Moharrem Bey
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
| align= left    | ''Ihsanya''
| align= center  | Double-decked frigate
| align= center  | 64
| align= center  | {{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Egypt Eyalet]]
| align= left    |
| align= right   |
| align= right   |
| align= right   |
| align= left    | Flagship Hassen Bey
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
| align= left    | ''Surya''
| align= center  | Double-decked frigate
| align= center  | 56
| align= center  | {{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Egypt Eyalet]]
| align= left    |
| align= right   |
| align= right   |
| align= right   |
| align= left    |
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
| align= left    | ''Leone''
| align= center  | Double-decked frigate
| align= center  | 60
| align= center  | {{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Egypt Eyalet]]
| align= left    |
| align= right   |
| align= right   |
| align= right   |
| align= left    |
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
|colspan=9|8 single-deck frigates, 30 corvettes, 5 schooners, 28 brigs, and 5–6 fireships. The corvettes and brigs carried 1,134 guns.
|}

Source: Compiled from information in W. James ''Naval History of Great Britain''  (London, 1837) Vol. VI, pp.&nbsp;476–489 and the French ''Revue maritime et coloniale de 1883''.

'''**''' Ottoman Empire/Egypt/Tunisia (Ibrahim Pasha)
* Capitan Bey Squadron ([[Alexandria]]): two ships of the line, five frigates, 12 corvettes
* Moharram Bey Squadron (Alexandria): four frigates, 11 corvettes, 21 brigs, five [[schooner]]s, and five or six [[fireship]]s
* [[Tunisian navy (1705-1881)#Defeat at Navarino (1821-1837)|Tunis Squadron]]: two frigates, one brig
* Tahir Pasha Squadron (Admiral commanding) ([[Constantinople]]): one ship of the line, six frigates, seven corvettes, six brigs

==Battle==
===Preliminary moves===
[[File:Navarino Bay in Peloponnese.jpg|thumb|Satellite picture of the [[Peloponnese]]. Navarino Bay is visible in the inset in the lower left.]]
[[File:Plan de la Bataille de Navarin.png|thumb|Map of Navarino Bay. The diagram of the order of battle contains inaccuracies]]Vice-Admiral Codrington's instructions were to impose and enforce an armistice on both sides and to interdict the flow of reinforcements and supplies from Asia Minor and Egypt to Ottoman forces in Greece. He was to use force only as a last resort.<ref>''Letter to his senior officers from Codrington Sept 8 1827'' reproduced in James (1837) 473 London</ref>

On 29 August, the Ottomans formally rejected the Treaty of London's stipulations, triggering the dispatch of Allied representatives to Nafplion. On 2 September, the Greek provisional government accepted the armistice. This freed Codrington to concentrate on coercing the Ottoman side.<ref>Woodhouse (1965) 58–60</ref>

Navarino Bay is a large [[natural harbour]] on the west coast of [[Messinia]] in the south-west Peloponnese. It is approximately 5&nbsp;km long (between the headlands) and 3&nbsp;km wide. The bay is sheltered from the open sea by a long, narrow islet, [[Sphacteria]]. This islet leaves two entrances to the bay. Because of a sandbank, the northern one is very narrow and shallow, 100&nbsp;m wide and just 1&nbsp;m deep in places, impassable to large boats. The southern one is much wider, 1,500&nbsp;m, with an effective passage of 1,000&nbsp;m width because of rocks. The southern entrance was at that time guarded by the Ottoman-held [[New Navarino fortress]] ([[Pylos]]). During the Greek insurgency, the bay was used by the Ottoman navy as its main operational base in the Peloponnese.

A large Ottoman–Egyptian fleet, which had been warned by the British and French to stay away from Greece, left Alexandria on 5 August 1827 and joined other Ottoman units at Navarino on 8 September.<ref>Woodhouse (1965) 56</ref> In response, Codrington arrived with his squadron off Navarino on 12 September. In talks on 25 September with Ibrahim Pasha and the Ottoman admiral, he extracted no explicit verbal promises that they would cease offensive operation. However, Codrington did get the pasha to commit a ceasefire until further instructions from the sultan were given.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Mazower |first=Mark |title=The Greek Revolution: 1821 and the making of modern Europe |publisher=[[Penguin Books]] |year=2022 |isbn=9780143110934 |edition=1st |location=United States of America |pages=411 |language=en-us}}</ref> After these talks, Codrington withdrew to the nearby British-controlled Ionian island of [[Zante]] (Zakynthos), leaving a frigate off Navarino to keep watch on the Ottoman fleet.

But the Ottomans soon violated these understandings. Ibrahim was outraged that, while he was expected to observe a ceasefire, Codrington seemingly allowed the Greeks to continue military operations onn his vessels unhindered. The Greeks' British commanders were on the offensive at the entrance of the strategically vital [[Gulf of Corinth]]. Church's army laid siege to the Ottoman-held port of [[Patras]], while Cochrane organised a revolt behind Ottoman lines in [[Epirus]]. By sea, [[Frank Abney Hastings]], a former British naval officer now serving with the Greeks, used a steam-powered warship, the {{ship||Karteria|Greek warship|2}}, to launch a daring night raid on 29/30 September at [[Itea (Phocis)|Itea]] on the northern shore of the gulf, sinking nine Ottoman gunboats. The problem for Codrington was that these officers were acting on their own initiative, largely ignoring the often contradictory directives of their employer, the Greek provisional government. Recognising that appeals to the latter were ineffective, Codrington despatched aides directly to the British commanders to demand that they cease operations, but with little result.<ref>Woodhouse (1965) 82–83</ref>
[[File:Action between the Asia, Dartmouth and the Turkish and Egyptian Fleet, 1-6 Oct 1827 PW4841.jpg|thumb|right|Codrington's squadron prevents the Ottoman reinforcements from reaching Patras on 4 October.]]
After a vain protest to Codrington, Ibrahim decided to act. On 1 October, he despatched a naval squadron to reinforce the Patras garrison. It was intercepted by Codrington's squadron at the entrance to the gulf, and forced to return to Navarino, shadowed by Codrington. Ibrahim tried again on the night of 3/4 October, this time leading the squadron in person. Using the darkness, he succeeded in slipping past the British picket ship unobserved, but was prevented from entering the gulf by a strong headwind. His squadron was obliged to anchor in the lee of [[Cape Pappas]] and wait out the storm. This gave Codrington time to catch up, and the British squadron, after a whole day of fighting the wind, arrived off Pappas on the evening of 4 October. Codrington fired a series of warning broadsides, and Ibrahim reluctantly decided to turn back.<ref>Woodhouse (1965) 83–86</ref>

In the meantime, Ibrahim's scorched-earth policy continued unabated on land. The fires of burning villages and fields were clearly visible from Allied ships standing offshore. A British landing party reported that the population of Messinia was close to mass starvation.<ref>''Report to Codrington from Capt Hamilton ({{HMS|Cambrian|1797|6}})'', reproduced in James (1837) VI. 476</ref>

On 13 October, Codrington was joined off Navarino by a French squadron under Rigny and a Russian squadron under [[Lodewijk van Heiden|L. van Heiden]]. On 18 October, after futile attempts to contact Ibrahim Pasha, Codrington, in conference with his Allied colleagues, took the fateful decision to enter Navarino Bay and anchor his ships face-to-face with the Ottoman/Egyptian fleet. It was decided that with winter approaching, it was impracticable to maintain an effective blockade of Navarino, and that in any event, the population of the Peloponnese had to be safeguarded.<ref>''Protocol of conference of Allied commanders 18 Oct 1827'' reproduced in James (1837) VI. 489</ref> Although this was a highly provocative act, Codrington claimed that there was no intention to engage in battle, but only to make a show of force to induce the Ottomans to respect the armistice and to desist from atrocities against the civilian population.<ref>''Codrington's report on battle to Admiralty 21 Oct 1827'' reproduced in James (1837) VI. 486–488</ref>[[File:Admiral Edward Codrington.jpg|thumb|Vice-Admiral Sir [[Edward Codrington]], Allied commander-in-chief at the Battle of Navarino]]

===Strength of the two fleets===
====Allies====
The Allied navies at this time were still deploying essentially the same technology as during the Napoleonic Wars: sailing ships, unarmoured wooden hulls and [[muzzle-loading]] [[smoothbore]] [[cannon]]. The navies, especially the British one, had ignored the new technologies that were to transform them by the 1850s: [[steam propulsion]], [[ironclad|ironclad hulls]], [[rifling|rifled guns]] and [[shell (projectile)|explosive shells]]. All these had been invented by 1827, but their development for naval warfare, let alone introduction, met dogged resistance from senior naval echelons. In the words of one scholar: "The great admirals of the 18th century would have had no difficulty in taking over Codrington's command at short notice."<ref name="Woodhouse 1965 28">Woodhouse (1965) 28</ref>

However, the Royal Navy's warships had seen some improvements. Ships with triple gun-decks such as [[Horatio Nelson|Nelson]]'s famous {{HMS|Victory}} had been phased out. Triple-deckers had been found to be too unstable and difficult to manoeuvre. The standard {{sclass|Canopus|ship of the line|0}} was a double-deck 74–84 ship of the line, based on the successful "[[Seventy-four (ship)|74]]" French design. In addition, gun-calibres had been upgraded. The Napoleonic-era {{sclass|Fame|ship of the line|0}} had been equipped with 32-pounders on the main gun-deck, 18-pounders on the upper deck and 9- and 12-pounders on the super-structures (quarterdeck and forecastle). In contrast, the guns were now all 24- or 32-pounders (plus a couple of massive 68-pounder [[carronades]] on the super-structures). [[Frigates]] were either double-deckers of 50–60 guns (known as large frigates) or single-deckers with 24–44 guns.<ref name="Woodhouse 1965 28"/>

Most of the Allied ships, however, were still veteran Napoleonic-era warhorses (e.g. {{HMS|Albion|1802|6}}). Codrington's only ''Canopus''-class was his flagship, {{HMS|Asia|1824|6}} (launched 1824), although ''Genoa'' (an impounded French "74") was also post-Napoleonic (1816). In the French squadron, Rigny was so appalled by the state of the three ships of the line sent to him that he decided to keep his flag on the ''Sirène'', a modern frigate.<ref>Woodhouse (1965) 70</ref>

====Ottomans====
[[File:IbrahimBaja.jpg|thumb|right|[[Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt|Ibrahim Pasha]], the commander of the Egyptian expedition to the Peloponnese. The atrocities committed by his forces against the Greek population made him one of the most reviled figures in Europe.]]Overall at Navarino, the Allies had 22 ships and 1,258 guns against the Ottomans' 78 ships with 2,180 guns (figures exclude smaller boats and fireships).<ref>James (1837) VI. 473–489</ref> But the numbers masked major Allied advantages in ship-types, gun-calibres and crew quality. As a result of these, Allied gun-crews could fire more powerful, more frequent and more accurate cannonades than their Ottoman counterparts.

The Allies had a substantial superiority in front-line combat vessels: 10 ships of the line to the Ottomans' three. This advantage was only partially offset by the Ottomans' seven double-deck frigates against one Allied vessel of this kind. The great majority of the Ottoman–Egyptian fleet were smaller vessels&nbsp;– 58 [[corvettes]] and [[brigs]]&nbsp;– which were of little use against the Allied heavyweights: they had much smaller firepower, and, their decks being lower, could easily be dismasted by raking fire. In addition, the Ottoman–Egyptians mainly deployed smaller-calibre guns than the Allies (often the guns discarded by the Allies when they upgraded their own calibres). Most of the Allied crews had gained extensive combat experience in the Napoleonic Wars, which had only ended 12 years previously, and were service professionals. In contrast, the Ottoman crews only had combat experience against the Greek revolutionary naval forces, which although gallant and effective, bore no resemblance to the navies of the Great Powers. In many cases, Ottoman crews practiced [[impressment]] to fill their ships' complements. Some Ottoman crew were even found, after the battle, to have been shackled at their posts (convicts, Greek prisoners or other involuntary recruits).<ref>Woodhouse (1965) 121</ref>

The Egyptian contingent, the largest and best-equipped of the Ottoman fleet at Navarino, had been trained by a team of French officers, under the overall direction of Capt J-M. Letellier. These officers acted as "shadow-captains" of the large Egyptian vessels, each advising the nominal Egyptian captain. The day before the battle, Rigny persuaded these officers to withdraw from the Egyptian fleet so as to avoid the possibility of fighting against their own navy (they moved to an Austrian brig that was in the bay, ostensibly neutral but in reality providing logistical support for Ottoman operations). Letellier himself was sick and also took no part.<ref name="Woodhouse 1965 108">Woodhouse (1965) 108</ref> This deprived the Egyptians of experienced command.

For the Allies, probably the Ottomans' most dangerous weapon were their [[fireships]]. These had long been deployed to devastating effect by the Greek revolutionaries against the Ottomans, who had learnt how to use them through hard experience.<ref>Woodhouse (1965) 22, 117</ref> Fireships were posted on the wings of the Ottoman formation, and could, if effectively deployed, wreak mayhem on Allied boats concentrated in enclosed waters, especially as Allied sailors had no experience of this kind of warfare. The danger was graphically demonstrated in the early phase of the battle, when the French ship of the line ''Scipion'' narrowly escaped being destroyed by a fireship.<ref name="Woodhouse 1965 117-8">Woodhouse (1965) 117–118</ref>

The Ottomans possessed a [[shore battery]] on each side of the main entrance to the bay, in Navarino fort and on the southern tip of Sphacteria island. These could have seriously impeded Allied entry into the bay, but Codrington was clearly confident that the Ottomans would not start a shooting war. (Or, in an alternative interpretation, he hoped that they would, to give him an excuse to destroy the Ottoman fleet.)

===Strategies for battle===
Following an elaborate defensive plan proposed by Letellier, the Ottoman-Egyptian fleet was anchored in a horseshoe formation, in three lines, extending from Navarino fort to the southern tip of Sphacteria island, where the Ottoman shore battery lay. The front line consisted of the ships of the line and large frigates; the second line contained the remaining frigates and larger corvettes; the third consisted of the remaining smaller vessels. The idea was that the smaller vessels could fire through the gaps in the frontline, whilst being protected by the larger ships from Allied attack. On the ends of the horseshoe were stationed corvettes and fireships.<ref>Woodhouse (1965) 98</ref> The latter could be towed by boats into position covered by the smaller corvettes and shore batteries.<ref>''Codrington's report'' reproduced in James (1837) VI. 486</ref><ref>Woodhouse (1965) 100</ref>

The Allied plan was to anchor in the free water inside the crescent. Codrington's squadron would take up position facing the centre of the Ottoman line; the French and Russian squadrons would face the Ottoman left and right wings respectively. The French position in the line had been specifically determined so that they would face the Egyptian fleet, which had been trained by the French and might be reluctant to fight against Egypt's closest European ally.<ref>Woodhouse (1965) 106</ref> In conventional naval doctrine, Codrington's plan would have been regarded as an unacceptable risk, as it would have invited the enemy to try to surround the Allies.<ref>James (1837) VI. 483</ref> Furthermore, with the prevailing wind blowing from the SW, straight up the entrance, Codrington risked becoming trapped, unable to extricate his squadrons quickly if necessary. The adoption of this high-risk plan shows the total confidence of the Allied commanders in the [[Military tactics|tactical]] superiority of their vessels.

===Engagement===
[[File:Navarino.jpg|thumb|Ottoman fleet ablaze in Navarino bay, 20 Oct 1827]]
At 1.30 p.m., on 20 October 1827, off the entrance to Navarino Bay, Codrington signalled to the Allied fleet: "PREPARE FOR ACTION" and Allied crews were ordered to stand to their guns.<ref name="Woodhouse 1965 112">Woodhouse (1965) 112</ref> Gun-ports were left half-open, but Allied captains were under strict orders to open fire only if attacked. At 2.00 p.m., Allied warships, with Codrington in the lead in ''Asia'', began filing into the bay through the southern entrance, proceeding in two lines, British followed by French to starboard (SE, closest to Navarino) and Russians to port abreast but slightly behind the French. There was no attempt to prevent their entry by the Ottoman shore batteries or their corvettes posted at the entrance, but Codrington received a launch carrying a message from Ibrahim Pasha. This stated that he had not given permission for the Allies to enter the bay, and demanded that they withdraw. Codrington dismissed Ibrahim's objection, replying that he had come to give orders, not to take them. He warned that if the Ottomans opened fire, their fleet would be destroyed.<ref name="Woodhouse 1965 112"/><ref>James (1837) VI. 480</ref>
[[File:Navarino.JPG|thumb|Action at close quarters during the battle. This detail shows Codrington's flagship, HMS ''Asia'' (centre, flying [[Blue Ensign]]), simultaneously demolishing two Ottoman flagships]]
[[File:Russians at navarino.jpg|thumb|''Battle of Navarino'', by [[Ivan Aivazovsky]], showing the Russian squadron, in line ahead (left-centre, white flags with blue transversal crosses) bombarding the Ottoman fleet (right, with red flags)]]As his flagship dropped anchor in the middle of the Ottoman line, Codrington ordered a brass band to play on deck to emphasize his peaceful intentions. By 2.15 p.m., the three British ships of the line had dropped anchor in their allotted positions.<ref>Woodhouse (1965) 114</ref> Meanwhile, as the Allied vessels moved into position, along the Ottoman lines trumpets sounded action stations. Ottoman crews scrambled to meet the unexpected intrusion into their base.

At this point, at the entrance, fighting broke out. Codrington claimed that hostilities were started by the Ottomans. The outbreak, according to Allied sources, occurred in the following manner:

At the entrance to the bay, Capt [[Thomas Fellowes (1778-1853)|Thomas Fellowes]] on the frigate ''Dartmouth'' had been detailed, with six smaller vessels (2 brigs and 4 schooners) to keep watch on the group of Ottoman corvettes and fireships on the left flank of the Ottoman line. As the Allied ships continued moving into the bay, Fellowes noticed that an Ottoman crew was preparing a fireship and sent a boat to instruct them to desist. The Ottomans fired on the boat and lighted the fireship. Fellowes sent a [[cutter (ship)|cutter]] to tow the fireship to a safe distance, but the Ottomans fired on the cutter, inflicting casualties. Fellowes opened musket fire on the fireship crew to cover his men. At this point the French [[flagship]] ''Sirène'', which was just then entering the bay on the tail of the British-French line, opened fire with muskets to support ''Dartmouth''. An Ottoman corvette then attacked ''Sirène'' with its guns. This chain reaction spread along the line, so that within a short time, there was general engagement.<ref>''Codrington's report'' reproduced in James (1837) VI. 486–488; Dakin (1973)</ref>

The battle thus began before the Allies could complete their deployment. In fact, this proved to be a tactical advantage, as it meant some Allied ships were not yet at anchor and could therefore manoeuvre more swiftly. Nevertheless, most ships fought at anchor. There was naturally very little scope for manoeuvre, except to change the orientation of the ship by hauling on the springs on the anchor chains.<ref>Woodhouse (1965) 127</ref> With ships blasting each other at very close range, the encounter was mostly a matter of attrition, in which superior Allied firepower and gunnery were critical.

Combat action may be summarised as follows:
[[File:Battle of Navarino. Vladimir Kosov.jpg|alt=Battle of Navarino. Vladimir Kosov|thumb|285x285px|Battle of Navarino. Vladimir Kosov]]
# The French ship [[French ship Scipion (1813)|''Scipion'']] (80 guns), behind Rigny's [[French frigate Sirène (1823)|''Sirène'']] (60), immediately came under intense attack, by a combination of Egyptian frigates on both sides, the shore batteries and a fireship. The latter was nearly fatal. The fireship jammed under ''Scipion''{{'}}s bowsprit, the fore sails caught fire and the fire spread onto the upper gun-deck. Men flung themselves on the fire to prevent it spreading to the forward powder magazine, with inevitable horrendous burn injuries. Nevertheless, the gunners continued to fire on the attackers. ''Scipion'' was saved from destruction by her sister ship [[French ship Trident (1811)|''Trident'']] (74), which succeeded in attaching a tow-line to the fireship and, with the assistance of ''Dartmouth'' and two other British boats<!-- Were these boats as in small vessels propelled by oars, or were these larger vessels such as frigates, corvettes or schooners? -->, pulling it clear.<ref name="Woodhouse 1965 117-8"/>
# Rigny's ''Sirène'' fought a lengthy duel with the 64-gun frigate ''Ihsania'', which finally blew up. ''Sirène'' suffered significant casualties and damage. ''Sirène'', with the support of ''Trident'' and ''Scipion'', then bombarded the fort of Navarino and eventually silenced its shore battery.<ref>Woodhouse (1965) 119</ref>
# The captain of French [[French ship Breslaw (1808)|''Breslaw'']] (84), Captain [[Valdémar Guillaume Nème Botherel de La Bretonnière|Botherel de La Bretonnière]], seeing that Rigny did not need further support, decided on his own initiative to break away from the French formation and move into the centre of the bay, at the junction of the British and Russian lines, to reinforce British ''Albion'' (74) and Russian ''Azov'' (80). Both were hard pressed. ''Albion'', which had wrecked an Ottoman frigate as she anchored, was under fire from all three Ottoman ships of the line simultaneously. Fortunately for her, the enemy gunnery was inept. Even so, ''Breslaw''{{'}}s intervention was later acknowledged by the captain of ''Albion'' as having saved his ship from annihilation. ''Breslaw'' then proceeded to play a leading role in the destruction of Ottoman admiral Tahir Pasha's flagship, the ''Ghiuh Rewan'' (84), and at least four frigates.<ref>Woodhouse (1965) 120</ref>
# Codrington's ''Asia'' (84) was anchored between Ottoman admiral Capitan Bey's flagship, ''Fahti Bahri'' (74), and Egyptian Moharram Bey's frigate ''Guerrière'' (60). Capitan Bey opened fire, but Moharram Bey sent word to Codrington that he was not going to attack. This enabled ''Asia'' to concentrate its fire on ''Fahti Bahri'', which was in a poor condition and inadequately manned. ''Asia''{{'}}s deadly fire shortly disabled her. Codrington then sent an interpreter, a Greek, P. Mikelis, to parley with Moharram Bey; but Mikelis was shot dead as he went aboard. ''Guerrière'' then opened fire, but was reduced to a burning wreck within 20 minutes by crushing broadsides from ''Asia'' and ''Azov''.<ref>''Codrington's report'' reproduced in James (1837) VI. 486–488</ref> However, ''Asia'' suffered severe casualties and damage due to a concentration of heavy fire from smaller Ottoman boats in the second and third lines of the Ottoman formation: as Letellier had planned, these boats fired through the gaps in the front line. Codrington also believed that ''Asia'' had taken serious hits by mistake from sister ''Genoa''.<ref>Woodhouse (1965) 134</ref>[[File:Battle of Navarin (4552424940).jpg|thumb|Battle of Navarin, National Historical Museum, Athens, Greece]]
# The Russians under Van Heiden were the last to take up station, as was planned. Their position, on the right end of the Ottoman crescent, was the most exposed. The fighting in this sector was even more intense than elsewhere. ''Azov'' sank or disabled three large frigates and a corvette, but herself took 153 hits, several below the waterline.<ref>Woodhouse (1965) 137</ref>
# The British frigates ''Armide'' and ''Talbot'' initially had to face the frigates on the Ottoman right wing and the island shore battery unsupported, as the other two frigates were away and arrived later. They were saved from annihilation by the arrival of the Russian frigates.<ref>Woodhouse (1965) 139</ref>
# The smaller British and French vessels (brigs and the schooners ''Alcyone'' and ''Daphné''), under the overall direction of frigate ''Dartmouth'', had been allotted the vital task of preventing fireship attacks. Their success was complete: apart from the initial fireship attack on ''Scipion'', not a single fireship struck a target during the battle. A number of the smaller vessels greatly distinguished themselves, suffering casualties as great, in proportion, as the ships of the line.<ref>Woodhouse (1965) 139–140</ref>
By about 4 p.m., all three Ottoman ships of the line and most of the large frigates of the first line had been despatched. This left the mass of smaller vessels in the second and third lines at the mercy of the Allied ships of the line, all of which were still operational. During the ensuing massacre, Codrington tried twice to order a ceasefire, but his signals were either invisible because of the thick smoke or ignored in the heat of the battle.<ref>Woodhouse (1965) 124</ref> Within the following two hours, virtually the entire Ottoman fleet was destroyed, despite the signal bravery of the Ottoman crews, which was praised by Codrington himself in his despatches. Three quarters were sunk: many of them, dismasted but still afloat and reparable, were blown up or set on fire by their own crews to prevent them falling into Allied hands.<ref>''Codrington's report'' rep. in James  (1837) VI. 486–488.</ref>

[[File:Le soir de la bataille de Navarin en 1827 (Grèce).jpg|thumb|Burning and beached hulks of Ottoman warships under the cliffs of Navarino. Painting by [[Auguste Mayer]]]]
This contributed to the horrendous Ottoman and Egyptian casualty figures, as many men were trapped in burning or exploding vessels. Some, as mentioned, were shackled to their posts. Ottoman casualties given to Codrington by Letellier were approx. 3,000 killed, 1,109 wounded, although Codrington claimed the reverse was more likely. Of the entire Ottoman-Egyptian armada of 78 vessels, just eight remained seaworthy: one dismasted ship of the line, two frigates, and five corvettes.

Allied casualties were given by Codrington as 181 killed, 480 wounded (including Codrington's youngest son, midshipman H. Codrington, serving on ''Asia'' under his father, who was badly injured but made a full recovery).<ref>Woodhouse (1965) 33</ref> Several Allied ships were severely damaged: the Russian ships ''Azov'', ''Gangut'' and ''Iezekiil'' were disabled. The three British ships of the line had to be sent back to the United Kingdom for repairs.<ref>Codrington's report rep. James (1837) VI. 486–488</ref> According to one source, despite the rough handling all the ships of the line had endured and the danger from exploding Ottoman vessels, not a single Allied vessel was sunk.{{citation needed|date=July 2015}}

As the guns fell silent at dusk in Navarino Bay, news of the outcome raced over the Peloponnese and to the rest of Greece. In village after village, church bells started a continuous peal in the night. People rushed into village squares, to be greeted by the news that the Ottoman Sultan and his hated vassal Ibrahim Pasha no longer possessed a Mediterranean fleet. In a maritime country like Greece, the implication was evident—the fledgling Greek state was saved. Wild rejoicing broke out, and lasted through the night and for days after. Huge bonfires were lit on the mountaintops of the Peloponnese and [[Mount Parnassus|Mount Parnassos]] in central Greece.<ref>Dakin (1973) 230</ref> Celebrations swept even the occupied regions, which the demoralised Ottoman garrisons made little effort to prevent.

==Aftermath==
{{more citations needed section|date=October 2011}}
[[File:Sultan Mahmud II.jpg|thumb|[[Mahmud II]], Ottoman sultan 1808–39, who struggled for eight years to defeat the Greek Revolution, ultimately in vain]]Despite the celebrations, the Sultan still disposed of a total of around 40,000 troops in central and southern Greece, entrenched in powerful fortresses. The final liberation of Greece was still far off, unless the Ottomans could be induced to accept the Treaty of London.

Russia's long-expected declaration of war on the Ottomans occurred in April 1828, starting the 11th [[Russo-Turkish War (1828–1829)]]. A Russian army of 100,000 men swept aside the Ottoman forces in the Romanian Principalities, crossed the [[Danube]], and laid siege to [[Silistra]], [[Varna, Bulgaria|Varna]] and [[Shumla]], the key Ottoman-held fortresses in [[Rumelia]] (Bulgaria).

In August 1828, Ali agreed to the withdrawal of his forces from the Peloponnese. Ibrahim initially refused to comply with his father's evacuation orders, but gave way shortly after the French troops landed in Navarino Bay at the end of August, to a jubilant reception by the Greeks, to begin their [[Morea expedition]]. The Egyptians finally left in October 1828, a year after the naval battle. The French proceeded to clear the remaining Ottoman garrisons in the Peloponnese, which offered only token resistance, by the end of 1828. In the subsequent months, Greek forces regained control of central Greece in a lightning campaign.

[[File:Greece1830EN.png|thumb|left|210px|The modern Greek state (then the [[Kingdom of Greece]]) was established at the [[London Conference of 1832|London Conference]] in 1832]]
In September 1829, with the Russian army camped just 40 miles from his palace, the Ottoman Sultan was forced to capitulate. By the [[Treaty of Adrianople (1829)|Treaty of Adrianople]], he conceded a long list of Russian demands, one of which was acceptance of Greek autonomy as defined in the Treaty of London. However, the Sultan's acceptance came too late to save Ottoman sovereignty over Greece. Buoyed by the Ottoman disasters on land and sea, and their own military successes, the Greeks refused to accept anything less than full independence. Finally, at the [[London Protocol of 1830]], the Allies dropped their policy of Ottoman suzerainty and accepted Greek independence. Later that year, the Sultan was forced by the Allied powers to sign the [[Treaty of Constantinople (1832)]], formally recognizing the new [[Kingdom of Greece (Wittelsbach)|Kingdom of Greece]] as an independent state.

==Codrington controversy==
In the aftermath of Navarino, Codrington pressed for an Egyptian withdrawal from the Peloponnese, but it took a year to achieve it. The news of Navarino made Codrington a hero twice over in the eyes of the general British public. But in [[Whitehall]], senior naval and diplomatic echelons were appalled by the outcome of his campaign. It was considered that Codrington had grossly exceeded his instructions by provoking a showdown with the Ottoman fleet, and that his actions had gravely compromised the Ottoman ability to resist Russian encroachment. At a social event, King [[George IV of the United Kingdom|George IV]] was reported as referring to the battle as "this untoward [''i.e.'', undesirable] event". Codrington's political situation in London became even more precarious in January 1828, when [[Wellington–Peel ministry|Wellington became Prime Minister]]. The coincident launch of Tsar Nicholas's war on the Ottomans realised the worst fears of British policy-makers and deepened their anger at Codrington.

Initially, official disapproval of Codrington had to be restrained because of the admiral's huge popularity with the public. The [[British Admiralty|Admiralty]]'s revenge took petty form, such as its refusal, despite repeated requests by Codrington, to pay his crews their traditional [[prize money]] from the sale of captured Ottoman treasure and goods. Meanwhile, Wellington was biding his time until he felt it was politically safe to remove Codrington from the Mediterranean theatre. Finally, in June 1828, the Admiralty announced that Codrington was being relieved of his command (although he remained in acting-command until his replacement arrived in August). Although the King felt obliged by public opinion to grant Codrington the high honour of the [[Order of the Bath|Grand Cross of the Bath]], the Admiralty's failure to give him another operational command in his remaining decade of service was eloquent testimony to his fall from favour.

Codrington spent much time in his later years defending his actions in Greece. His enemies accused him of deliberately plotting the destruction of the Ottoman fleet because of his Hellenophile sympathies, a charge that Codrington vehemently denied. The issue turned on whether he knew that his move into Navarino Bay would result in a battle. The evidence is mixed. On the one hand, there are Codrington's clear orders to his captains to engage only if attacked. On the other, is Codrington's private correspondence, notably to his sister, which suggests that he regarded a military showdown as inevitable.<ref>Woodhouse (1965)</ref>

==Commemoration of the battle==
[[File:Filatelia gr navarin codrington.jpg|thumb|right|170px|Greek stamp issued in 1927 on the 100th anniversary of the Battle of Navarino.]]
There are a number of memorials to the battle around Navarino Bay. The main square of [[Pylos]], Three Admirals' Square ({{langx|el|Πλατεία Τριών Ναυάρχων}}), has as its centrepiece a three-sided marble monument, with profiles of Codrington, Van Heiden, and Rigny on the three sides.

Memorials to the dead of the three allies are to be found on the islands in the bay: Helonaki islet (British), Pylos islet (French), and [[Sphacteria]] island (Russian). The Russian memorial is the most impressive, consisting of a small wooden chapel in the Russian Orthodox style. Additionally, there is a memorial to the philhellene [[Annibale Santorre di Rossi de Pomarolo, Count of Santarosa|Santarosa]], who was killed in an earlier battle, on the shore of Sphacteria.

The battle is commemorated each year on 20 October by all-day celebrations in Three Admirals' Square in Pylos, hosted by the Mayor of Pylos. The Russian, French and British governments send representatives to the ceremonies, and in the case of the Russians, a warship and its crew. It was the source of the name for the [[Russian corvette Navarin|Russian corvette ''Navarin'']], the [[Russian battleship Navarin|Russian battleship ''Navarin'']], and the [[French ship Navarin (1854)|French ship of the line ''Navarin'']].

Some bronze from the sunken Ottoman ships was bought by [[Anton Samassa, Jr.|Anton Samassa]] in [[Trieste]] and was in 1834 used for the main bell of St. Judoc's Church in [[Sveti Jošt nad Kranjem|Sveti Jošt]] near [[Kranj]], [[Carniola]] (now Slovenia).<ref name="Kolar" /><ref name="KLDB1937">{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.scribd.com/doc/41938463/9/Srez-Kranj |title=Srez Kranj |trans-title=Kranj District |page=354 |encyclopedia=Krajevni leksikon Dravske banovine [Lexicon of Place Names of the Drava Banovina] |year=1937 |publisher=Administration of the Lexicon of Place Names of the Drava Banovina |language=sl|id={{COBISS|ID=17618945}}}}</ref> It bears an inscription by the Slovene [[Romantic poetry|Romantic]] poet [[France Prešeren]]: "My bronze was found at the bottom of the sea, when the kingdom of Turkey was ended in Helade by Navarino. It was bought by a pilgrim; cast into a bell by Samassa, now I announce God's honour from St. Jodocus's embrasures."<ref name="Kolar">{{cite journal |url=http://www.dlib.si/details/URN:NBN:SI:DOC-DI95EBTF?=&language=eng |title=Literarni sprehod po delu stare Ljubljane |trans-title=A Literary Walk Through a Part of the Old Ljubljana |first=Ivan |last=Kolar |journal=Jezik in slovstvo |year=1957 |volume=2 |issue=2 |pages=297–298}}</ref>

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==Citations==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==References==
* Dakin, D. (1973) ''The Greek Struggle for Independence''
* James, W. (1837) ''Naval History of Great Britain (Vol. VI)''
* Runciman, S. (1965) ''The Fall of Constantinople 1453'', Cambridge University Press
* Woodhouse, Christopher Montague (1965) ''The Battle of Navarino''
* Nicholas Petsalis-Diomidis (1975) ''The History of the Greek People (Vol. ΙΒ)''
* {{Cite book | last=Bodart | first=Gaston | date=1908 | title=Militär-historisches Kriegs-Lexikon (1618–1905) | url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_A0kNAAAAYAAJ | access-date=27 June 2023|author-link=Gaston Bodart}}

==Further reading==
* {{Naval Wars in the Levant 1559–1853}}
* Beaton, Roderick.  ''Byron’s War: Romantic Rebellion, Greek Revolution'' (Cambridge UP, 2013).
* Dakin, Douglas.  ''Greek Struggle for Independence: 1821–1833'' (U of California Press, 1973).
* Frary, Lucien J. "Russian consuls and the Greek war of independence (1821–31)." ''Mediterranean Historical Review'' '''28''':1:46–65 (2013).
* Frary, Lucien J. ''Russia and the Making of Modern Greek Identity, 1821–1844'' (Oxford UP, 2015).
* Gallant, Thomas. ''[[The Edinburgh History of the Greeks|The Edinburgh history of the Greeks]], 1768 to 1913: the long nineteenth century'' (Edinburgh University Press, 2015).
* Koliopoulos, John S., and Thanos M. Veremis. ''Modern Greece: A history since 1821'' (John Wiley & Sons, 2009. pp 15–27

==External links==
{{Commons category|Battle of Navarino}}
{{EB1911 Poster|Navarino, Battle of|Battle of Navarino}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130406050400/http://www.pbenyon.plus.com/Naval_History/Vol_VI/P_471.html Extract from W. James Naval History of Great Britain (1837) Vol VI 471–490]<br>Includes reproduction of several original documents, esp. Codrington's own report on the battle

{{Greek War of Independence|state=collapsed}}

{{Ottoman battles}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Navarino}}
[[Category:Conflicts in 1827]]
[[Category:Naval battles of the Greek War of Independence]]
[[Category:Naval battles involving the Russian Empire]]
[[Category:Naval battles involving the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Naval battles involving France]]
[[Category:Naval battles involving the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:Naval battles involving Ottoman Egypt]]
[[Category:Naval battles involving Ottoman Tunisia]]
[[Category:Military history of the Mediterranean]]
[[Category:1827 in Greece]]
[[Category:History of Pylos]]
[[Category:October 1827]]
[[Category:Peloponnese in the Greek War of Independence]]
[[Category:Military history of the Peloponnese]]