Editing Battle of Maldon

{{Short description|Battle near Maldon, Essex, in 991}}
{{About|the battle|the poem|The Battle of Maldon}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2016}}
{{Use British English|date=January 2016}}
{{More citations needed|date=April 2017}}

{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict          = Battle of Maldon
| partof            = the [[Viking activity in the British Isles|Viking invasions of England]]
| image             = Alfred Pearseː Battle of Maldon in 991 (Hutchinson's Story of the British Nation, 1922).jpg
| caption           = [[Alfred Pearse]]ː ''Battle of Maldon in 991'' (''Hutchinson's Story of the British Nation'', 1922)
| date              = 10 or 11 August 991<ref name=btr>{{cite web |url=http://www.battlefieldstrust.com/media/149.pdf |title=Maldon Battle and Campaign |work=UK Battlefields Resource Centre |last=Foard |first=Glenn |date=10 September 2003 |publisher=The Battlefields Trust |access-date=4 June 2017|page= 18}}</ref>
| place             = [[Maldon, Essex]], [[England]]
| casus             = 
| territory         = 
| coordinates       = {{Coord|51|42|55|N|0|42|3|E|type:event_region:GB|display=ti}}
| map_type          = England
| map_relief        = 1
| result            = Viking victory
| combatant1        = [[England]]
| combatant2        = [[Vikings]]
| commander1        = [[Byrhtnoth]]{{KIA}}
| commander2        = Olaf, possibly [[Olaf Tryggvason]]
| strength1         = Unknown
| strength2         = 2,000–4,000 men
| casualties1       = Unknown
| casualties2       = Unknown
}}
{{Campaignbox Norse invasions of England|state=collapsed}}

The '''Battle of Maldon''' took place on 10 or 11 August 991 AD<ref name=btr/> near [[Maldon, Essex|Maldon]] beside the [[River Blackwater, Essex|River Blackwater]] in [[Essex]], [[England]], during the reign of [[Æthelred the Unready]]. Earl [[Byrhtnoth]] and his [[thegns]] led the [[English people|English]] against a [[Viking]] invasion. The battle ended in an Anglo-Saxon defeat. After the battle [[Sigeric (archbishop)|Archbishop Sigeric of Canterbury]] and the aldermen of the south-western provinces advised King Æthelred to buy off the Vikings rather than continue the armed struggle. The result was a payment of [[Danegeld]] of 10,000 [[Roman pound]]s (3,300&nbsp;kg) of [[silver]] (approx £1.8M at 2022 prices).

An account of the battle, embellished with many speeches attributed to the warriors and with other details, is related in an [[Old English]] poem which is usually named ''[[The Battle of Maldon]]''. A modern embroidery created for the millennium celebration in 1991 and, in part, depicting the battle, can be seen at the [[Maeldune Centre]] in Maldon.

One manuscript of the ''[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]'' states that a certain Olaf, possibly the Norwegian [[Olaf Tryggvason]], led the Viking forces, these estimated to have been between 2,000 and 4,000 fighting men. A source from the 12th-century {{lang|la|[[Liber Eliensis]]}}, written by the monks at Ely, suggests that Byrhtnoth had only a few men to command: "he was neither shaken by the small number of his men, nor fearful of the multitude of the enemy". Not all sources indicate such a disparity in numbers.

==The poem "The Battle of Maldon"==
{{main article|The Battle of Maldon}}

"The Battle of Maldon" is the name conventionally given to a surviving 325-line fragment of [[Old English]] poetry. Linguistic study has led to the conjecture that initially the complete poem was transmitted orally, then in a lost manuscript in the East Saxon dialect and now survives as a fragment in the West Saxon form, possibly that of a scribe active at the Monastery of Worcester late in the 11th century.<ref>E. V.Gordon, ''The Battle of Maldon'' (London, 1968) p. 38</ref> It is fortuitous that this was attached at an early date to a very notable manuscript, Asser's ''Life of King Alfred'', which undoubtedly assisted in its survival. The manuscript, by now detached, was burned in the [[Cotton library]] fire at [[Ashburnham House]] in 1731. The keeper of the collection, John Elphinstone (or his assistant, David Casley),<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fulk|first1=Robert|last2=Cain|first2=Christopher|title=A history of Old English literature|url=https://archive.org/details/historyoldenglis00fulk|url-access=limited|year=2003|publisher=Blackwell|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-6312-2397-9|page=[https://archive.org/details/historyoldenglis00fulk/page/n231 220]}}</ref> had transcribed the 325 lines of the poem in 1724, but the front and back pages were already missing from the manuscript (possibly around 50 lines each): an earlier catalogue described it as {{lang|la|fragmentum capite et calce mutilatum}} ('mutilated at head and heel'). As a result, vital clues about the purpose of the poem and perhaps its date have been lost.

At the time of battle, English royal policy of responding to [[Viking]] incursions was split. Some favoured [[Danegeld|paying off the Viking invaders]] with land and wealth, while others favoured fighting to the last man. The poem suggests that Byrhtnoth held this latter attitude, hence his moving speeches of patriotism.

The [[Viking]]s sailed up the [[River Blackwater, Essex|Blackwater]] (then called the Panta), and Byrhtnoth called out his levy. The poem begins with him ordering his men to stand and to hold weapons. His troops, except for personal household guards, were local farmers and villagers of the Essex [[Fyrd]] militia. He ordered them to "send steed away and stride forwards": they arrived on [[horse]]s but fought on foot. The Vikings sailed up to a small island in the river. At low tide, the river leaves a land bridge from this island to the shore; the description seems to have matched the [[Northey Island]] causeway at that time. This would place the site of the battle about two miles southeast of Maldon. Olaf addressed the Saxons, promising to sail away if he was paid with [[gold]] and [[armour]] from the lord. Byrhtnoth replied, "We will pay you with spear tips and sword blades."

[[File:Brythnoth statue Maldon.jpg|thumb|right|A modern statue of [[Byrhtnoth]] in Maldon, by [[John Doubleday (sculptor)|John Doubleday]]]]
With the ebb of the tide, Olaf's forces began an assault across the small land bridge. Three Anglo-Saxon warriors, Wulfstan, Ælfhere and Maccus blocked the bridge, successfully engaging any Vikings who pressed forward (lines 72–83). The Viking commander requested that Byrhtnoth allow his troops onto the shore for formal battle. Byrhtnoth, {{lang|ang|for his ofermōde}} (line 89b), let the enemy force cross to the mainland. Battle was joined, but an Englishman called Godrīc fled riding Byrhtnoth's horse. Godrīc's brothers Godwine and Godwīg followed him. Then many English fled, recognizing the horse and thinking that its rider was Byrhtnoth fleeing. To add insult to injury, it is stated that Godric had often been given horses by Byrhtnoth, a detail that, especially during the time period, would have had Godric marked as a coward and a traitor, something that could have easily been described as worse than death. The Vikings overcame the Saxons after losing many men, killing Byrhtnoth. After the battle Byrhtnoth's body was found with its head missing, but his gold-[[hilt]]ed [[sword]] was still with his body.

There is some discussion about the meaning of "{{lang|ang|ofermōd}}".  Although literally meaning "over-heart" or "having too much heart", it could mean either "pride" or "excess of courage" (compare the [[Danish language|Danish]] {{lang|da|overmod}} or [[German language|German]] {{lang|de|Übermut}}, which mean both "hubris" and "recklessness").  One argument is that the poem was written to celebrate Byrhtnoth's actions and goad others into heroic action, and Byrhtnoth's action stands proudly in a long tradition of heroic literature. Another viewpoint, most notably held by [[J. R. R. Tolkien]], is that the poem is an elegy on a terrible loss and that the monastic author pinpoints the cause of the defeat in the [[commander]]'s [[sin]] of [[pride]], a viewpoint bolstered by the fact that {{lang|ang|ofermōd}} is, in every other attested instance, used to describe Satan's pride.<ref>[http://etd.lib.fsu.edu/theses/available/etd-09182003-170138/ ''Tolkien's Heroic Criticism: A Developing Application Of Anglo-Saxon Ofermod To The Monsters Of Modernity''] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101113195338/http://etd.lib.fsu.edu/theses/available/etd-09182003-170138/ |date=13 November 2010 }}. 2003. Rorabeck, Robert. Thesis, Florida State University.</ref> There is a memorial window, representing Byrhtnoth's dying prayer, in St Mary's church at [[Maldon, Essex|Maldon]].

It is believed by many scholars that the poem, while based upon actual events and people, was created to be less of a historical account and more of a means of enshrining and lifting up the memories of the men who fought and lost their lives on the battlefield protecting their homeland, especially in the case of the English commander of the battle, Byrhtnoth. He (Byrhtnoth) seems to embody many of the virtues that are uplifted in the Anglo-Saxon world, and is compared often by many scholars to the character Beowulf.

Norse invaders and Norse raiders differed in purpose. The forces engaged by the Anglo-Saxon were raiding, or (in [[Old Norse]]) "{{lang|non|í víking}}", to gather loot, rather than to occupy land for settlement. Therefore, if Byrhtnoth's forces had kept the Vikings off by guarding the causeway or by paying them off, Olaf would likely have sailed farther up the river or along the coast, and raided elsewhere. As a man with troops and weapons, it might be that Byrhtnoth had to allow the Vikings ashore to protect others. The poem may, therefore, represent the work of what has been termed the "monastic party" in Ethelred's court, which advocated a military response, rather than tribute, to all Norse attacks.

==Other sources==
[[File:Northey Island Essex.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|left|The battlefield from the air. Earl [[Byrhtnoth]]'s forces were drawn up on the shore (top); Olaf's men had to cross the causeway from [[Northey Island]] (left).]]
[[File:Battle of Maldon Plains.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|left|Battle of Maldon plains]]

The death of Byrhtnoth, an [[ealdorman]] of Essex, was recorded in four versions of the ''[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]''. Its [[Cotton Tiberius]] [[manuscript]] (Version B) says for the year 991:

{{Verse translation |lang=ang
|1=Her wæs Gypeswic gehergod, ⁊ æfter þæm swyðe raþe wæs Byrihtnoð ealdorman ofslagan æt Meldune. ⁊ on þam geare man gerædde þæt man geald ærest gafol Deniscum mannum for þam myclan brogan þe hi worhton be þam særiman, þæt wæs ærest .x. þusend punda. Þæne ræd gerædde ærest Syric arcebisceop.
|2=Here [[Ipswich]] was raided. Very soon after that, ealdorman Byrhtnoth was killed at Maldon. And on that year it was decided to pay [[Danegeld|tax]] to [[Danes (ancient people)|Dane]]s for the great terror which they made by the sea coast; that first [payment] was 10,000 [[Pound sterling|pounds]]. [[Archbishop]] Sigerīc decided first on the matter.
}}

''The [[Oswald of Worcester|Life of Oswald]]'', written in [[Ramsey, Cambridgeshire|Ramsey]] around the same time as the battle, portrays Byrhtnoth as a great religious warrior, with references to Biblical prophetic era figures.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.battlefieldstrust.com/resource-centre/viking/battlepageview.asp?pageid=352&parentid=343 |title=Life of Saint Oswald – Information from The UK Battlefields Resource Centre  |author=<!--Not stated--> |website=www.battlefieldstrust.com |publisher=The Battlefields Trust |access-date=4 June 2017 }}</ref>

In 1170, the ''[[Liber Eliensis]]'' retold and embroidered the story and made the battle two fights, with the second being a fortnight long against overwhelming odds. These texts show, to some degree, the growth of a local hero [[cult (religious practice)|cultus]].

===Chronology===
The Winchester (or [[Parker Library, Corpus Christi College|Parker]]) version of the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' (Version A), has the most detailed account of the battle, but places it under the heading for the year 993. As all the other versions of the ''Chronicle'' place it in 991, this is believed to be either a transcription error, or because the battle was inserted later when its importance had become apparent. The widely accepted precise date is taken from notices for the death of Byrhtnoth in three abbey calendars; those of [[Ely Cathedral|Ely]], [[Winchester Cathedral|Winchester]] and [[Ramsey Abbey|Ramsey]]. The date in the Ely calendar is 10 August, whereas Winchester and Ramsey give 11 August. However, Byrhtnoth's close connections with Ely imply that 10 August is more likely to be the accurate date.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://content.historicengland.org.uk/content/docs/battlefields/maldon.pdf |title=English Heritage Battlefield Report: Maldon 991 |date=1995 |page=5|website=historicengland.org.uk |publisher=English Heritage |access-date=4 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170917032722/https://content.historicengland.org.uk/content/docs/battlefields/maldon.pdf |archive-date=17 September 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Topography===
[[File:Byrhtnoth's Plaque - geograph.org.uk - 1462906.jpg|thumb|Plaque at the battle-site]]
It is clear from the ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicles'' that Maldon in Essex is the site of the battle, because of its proximity to [[Ipswich]] and because Byrhtnoth was an [[Ealdorman]] of Essex.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.battlefieldstrust.com/media/149.pdf |title=Maldon Battle and Campaign |work=UK Battlefields Resource Centre |last=Foard |first=Glenn |date=10 September 2003 |publisher=The Battlefields Trust |access-date=4 June 2017|page= 18}}</ref> More precise details come from ''The Battle of Maldon'' narrative, which describes how the Vikings established themselves on an island, separated from the mainland by a tidal inlet which could be crossed by a "bridge" or "ford" at low tide. The poem describes how the Vikings and Saxons negotiated by calling across the water while waiting for the tide to go out. Northey Island seems to fit this description. An investigation in 1973 suggested that the channel between Northey Island and the mainland would have been about 120 yards (110 metres) rather than 240 yards (220 metres) today. The causeway which crosses the channel today may not have existed in its present form in the 10th century, but there was certainly some form of crossing present. Other sites have been suggested, one being [[Osea Island]] which can be reached by a causeway, but is too far from the mainland to shout across. A bridge a mile inland from Maldon, now called [[Heybridge, Maldon|Heybridge]], has also been suggested, but the river is not tidal at that point.<ref>English Heritage Battlefield Report, pp. 2–4</ref>

==Manuscript sources==
In the [[Cotton library]], the "Battle of Maldon" text had been in Otho A xii. The Elphinstone transcription is in the [[Bodleian Library]], where it is pp.&nbsp;7–12 of MS Rawlinson B. 203.

==See also==
*''[[The Homecoming of Beorhtnoth Beorhthelm's Son]]''
*''[[The Long Ships]]''

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Bibliography===
* {{cite book|first=E.V.|last=Gordon|title=The Battle of Maldon|place=London|date= 1968|ref= p. 38}}
* {{cite book|title=Anglo-Saxon poetry: an anthology of Old English poems|editor= S. A. J. Bradley|editor-link= Sid Bradley|place=London|publisher= Dent|date= 1982 |language= en}}
* {{cite book|first=Verio|last= Santoro|title= La ricezione moderna della Battaglia di Maldon: Tolkien, Borges e gli altri|place= Roma|publisher=Aracne|date= 2012}}

===Editions and translations===
* Foys, Martin ''et al.'' [https://oepoetryfacsimile.org/ ''Old English Poetry in Facsimile Project''], Madison, 2019; edited with digital images of its manuscript and early print pages, and translated.

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20091205190949/http://www.battleofmaldon.org.uk/poem_1.htm Modern English text of The Battle of Maldon poem, trans. by Wilfred Berridge] from the Battle of Maldon.org.uk website
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090109124524/http://www8.georgetown.edu/departments/medieval/labyrinth/library/oe/texts/a9.html Old English text of the Battle of Maldon poem]
* [http://www.wuffings.co.uk/WuffSites/Maldon.htm The Battle of Maldon, with photograph of the famous causeway]
* [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/britannia/anglo-saxon/maldon/maldon.html James Grout: ''The Battle of Maldon'', part of the Encyclopædia Romana]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20080106152835/http://www.btlse.co.uk/node/11 Battle of Maldon] Battlefields Trust London and South East article. Contains some discussion of the aftermath and consequences of the battle.
* Derek Punchard [https://web.archive.org/web/20080511173948/http://www.maldonsx.freeserve.co.uk/Maeldune/battle_of_maldon.htm The Battle of Maldon] from the Maeldune website
* Alexander M. Bruce [http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Maldon+and+Moria:+on+Byrhtnoth,+Gandalf,+and+heroism+in+The+Lord+of...-a0171579964 Maldon and Moria: on Byrhtnoth, Gandalf, and heroism in The Lord of the Rings] Article from "Mythlore", 22 September 2007.
* {{cite book |editor-last=Giles |editor-first=J A |date=1914 |title=The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle |url=https://archive.org/stream/anglosaxonchroni00gile#page/86/mode/2up |location=London |publisher=G Bell & Sons Ltd |page=87 }} (the entry for the year 991 in modern English).

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Maldon, Battle of}}
[[Category:991]]
[[Category:10th century in England]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Anglo-Saxons]]
[[Category:Battles involving Norway]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Vikings]]
[[Category:Battles involving Essex|Maldon]]
[[Category:Registered historic battlefields in England]]
[[Category:990s conflicts]]
[[Category:Maldon, Essex|Battle]]