Editing Battle of Lechfeld

{{Short description|Part of the Hungarian invasions of Europe, 955}}
{{For|the first Battle of Lechfeld in 910|Battle of Lechfeld (910)}}
{{Infobox military conflict
|conflict    = Second Battle of Lechfeld
|partof      = the [[Hungarian invasions of Europe]]
|image       = Lechfeld1457.jpg
|image_size  = 300px
|caption     = The Battle of Lechfeld, from a 1457 illustration in Sigmund Meisterlin's codex of Nuremberg history
|date        = 10–12 August 955
|place       = Lechfeld plain, near [[Augsburg]], [[Bavaria]]
|result      = German victory
|combatant1  = {{unbulleted list |[[Kingdom of Germany]]
|[[Duchy of Saxony]] and [[Duchy of Thuringia]]
|[[Duchy of Bavaria]]| [[Duchy of Swabia]]
|[[Duchy of Bohemia|Bohemia]]}}
|combatant2  = [[Principality of Hungary]]
|commander1  = [[Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor|King Otto I]]<br />[[Conrad, Duke of Lorraine]] {{KIA}}<br />[[Burchard III, Duke of Swabia]]<br />[[Boleslaus I, Duke of Bohemia]]
|commander2  = ''[[Horka (title)|harka]]'' [[Bulcsú (chieftain)|Bulcsú]]{{Executed}} <br />[[Lehel|Lél]]{{Executed}}<br />[[Súr (chieftain)|Súr]]{{Executed}}<br />[[Taksony of Hungary|Taksony]]<br>[[Csaba (chieftain)|Csaba]]
|strength1   = 7,000–9,000 heavy cavalry<br/>Garrison
|strength2   = 8,000–10,000 horse archers<br/>Infantry<br/>Siege engines
|casualties1 = Heavy
|casualties2 = Majority killed
}}
{{Campaignbox Hungarian invasions of Europe}}
The '''Battle of Lechfeld''' also known as the '''Second Battle of Lechfeld''' was a series of military engagements over the course of three days from 10–12 August 955 in which the [[Kingdom of Germany]], led by King [[Otto I the Great]], annihilated the Hungarian army led by ''[[Horka (title)|Harka]] ''[[Bulcsú (chieftain)|Bulcsú]] and the chieftains [[Lehel|Lél]] and [[Súr (chieftain)|Súr]]. With the German victory, further invasions by the [[Magyars]] into [[Western Christianity|Latin Europe]] were ended.

The Hungarians invaded the [[Duchy of Bavaria]] in late June or early July 955 with 8,000–10,000 [[horse archer]]s, [[infantry]], and [[siege engine]]s, intending to draw the main German army, under Otto I, into battle in the open field and destroy it. The Hungarians laid siege to Augsburg on the river [[Lech (river)|Lech]]. Otto I advanced to relieve the city with an army of 8,000 [[heavy cavalry]], divided into eight legions.

As Otto I approached [[Augsburg]] on 10 August, a Hungarian surprise attack destroyed the [[Duchy of Bohemia]] rearguard legion. The Hungarian force stopped to plunder the German camp and [[Conrad, Duke of Lorraine]] led a counter-attack with heavy [[cavalry]], dispersing the Hungarians. Otto I then brought his army into battle against the main Hungarian army that barred his way to Augsburg. The German heavy cavalry defeated the lightly armed and armored Hungarians in close combat, but the latter retreated in good order. Otto I did not pursue, returning to Augsburg for the night and sending out messengers to order all local German forces to hold the river crossings in Eastern Bavaria and so prevent the Hungarians from returning to their homeland. On 11 and 12 August, the Hungarian defeat was transformed into disaster, as heavy rainfall and flooding slowed the retreating Hungarians and allowed German troops to hunt them down and kill them all. The Hungarian leaders were captured, taken to Augsburg, and hanged.

The German victory preserved the [[Kingdom of Germany]] and permanently ended nomad incursions into Western Europe. Otto I was proclaimed emperor and father of the fatherland by his army after the victory, and went on to be crowned [[Holy Roman Emperor]] in 962 largely on the basis of his strengthened position after the Battle of Lechfeld.

==Historical sources==
The most important source is a monograph commissioned by [[Ulrich of Augsburg]], which describes the series of actions from the German point of view.{{sfn|Bowlus|2016|p=9}} Another source is the chronicler [[Widukind of Corvey]], who provides some important details.{{sfn|Bowlus|2016|p=10}}

==Background==
{{Main|Hungarian invasions of Europe}}
{{See also|Battle of Pressburg}}
[[File:Kalandozasok.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Hungarian invasions of Europe|Hungarian raids across Europe]] in the 10th century.]]
In 947, [[Berthold, Duke of Bavaria]], a competent military leader, died and was succeeded by [[Henry I, Duke of Bavaria|Henry I]], brother of [[Otto the Great|King Otto I]].{{Sfn|Kristó|1985|p=76}} [[Johannes Aventinus|Aventinus]] stated that the Hungarians invaded [[Duchy of Bavaria|Bavaria]] for this reason, but they weren't able to penetrate deep into [[East Francia]]. In the following years, the Germans started to threaten [[Transdanubia]], with border clashes erupting along the [[Enns (river)|Enns River]]. According to [[Hrotsvitha]], Henry brought back much booty and prisoners from the Avars due to these.{{Sfn|Kristó|1985|p=77}} In 952, Otto put [[Kingdom of Italy (Holy Roman Empire)|Italy]] under the protection of the Bavarian army, and westward invasions by the Magyars stopped temporarily. However, 953 saw rebellion in Francia under the leadership of the king's son [[Liudolf, Duke of Swabia]], and son-in-law [[Conrad, Duke of Lorraine]], mainly because of the occupation of Italy. In 954, these men called in the Hungarians, who then plundered the [[Rhineland]] and devastated France.{{Sfn|Kristó|1985|pp=78-79}} The warriors returned from this successful adventure safely through [[Burgundy]] and [[Northern Italy]].{{Sfn|Kristó|1985|pp=79-80}}

The year 955 started badly for King Otto. Despite his best efforts, the [[archbishop]] of [[Salzburg]] joined the enemy. Harold was blinded and exiled to [[Tyrol]], while his wealth was taken by Henry's vassals, but this upset many more Bavarian counts, who took up arms against the king. In spite of the growing of the resistance, Otto gained a shining victory at [[Mühldorf]], proceeding to siege [[Regensburg]]. Much of the city had already burned down, however its defenders long endured bombardment by Otto's siege engines before surrendering due to hunger, as no relief arrived. The internal situation hardly improved after Otto's defeat of the rebellion, as the nephews of Prince Hermann of Saxony frequently raided the duchy, allying with [[Polabian Slavs|Polabian principalities]].{{Sfn|Kristó|1985|pp=81-82}} In early July Otto received Hungarian legates, who claimed to come in peace, but who the Germans suspected were actually assessing the outcome of the rebellion.{{sfn|Bowlus|2016|p=11}} After a few days, he let them go with some small gifts.{{sfn|Bowlus|2016|p=11}}{{sfn|Thatcher|McNeal|1905|p=75}}

Soon, couriers from Otto I's brother [[Henry I, Duke of Bavaria]], arrived to inform Otto I in [[Magdeburg]] of a Hungarian invasion.{{sfn|Bowlus|2016|p=11}}{{sfn|Thatcher|McNeal|1905|p=76}} According to Prince-Bishop Ulrich, "they devastated the land of [[Noricum]] from the Danube to the [[Black Forest]], which goes to the mountainous regions".{{Sfn|Kristó|1985|p=83}} According to [[Widukind of Corvey|Widukind]], "he (Otto) started the march against the enemy like he wouldn't get tired in the previous war{{clarification needed|date=January 2025}}, only taking some of the Saxons by him, as the Slavic war threatened them".{{sfn|Thatcher|McNeal|1905|p=76}}{{Sfn|Kristó|1985|p=82}} Saxony was distant from Augsburg and its environs, and considerable time would have elapsed waiting for Saxons' arrival.{{sfn|Delbrück|1990|p=115}} [[Ulm]] was chosen as the place to gather the anti-Hungarian forces.{{Sfn|Kristó|1985|p=87}} The battle took place six weeks after the first report of an invasion, and historian [[Hans Delbrück]] asserts that they could not have possibly made the march in time.{{sfn|Delbrück|1990|p=116}}[[File:The Hungarian campaign in Europe of 954.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|left|The Hungarian campaign in Europe of 954]]
The King ordered his troops to concentrate on the Danube, in the vicinity of [[Neuburg an der Donau|Neuburg]] and [[Ingolstadt]].{{sfn|Bowlus|2016|p=11}} He did this to march on the Hungarian line of communications and catch them in their rear while they were raiding northeast of Augsburg. It was also a central point of concentration for all the contingents that were assembling. Strategically, therefore, this was the best location for Otto I to concentrate his forces before making the final descent upon the Hungarians.{{sfn|Delbrück|1990|p=118}}

There were other troops that had an influence on the course of the battle. On previous occasions, in 932 and 954 for example, there had been Hungarian incursions that had invaded the German lands to the south of the Danube, and then retreated back to their native country via [[Lotharingia]], to the [[West Frankish Kingdom]] and finally, through [[Italy]]. That is to say, a wide sweeping U-turn that initially started westward, then progressed to the south, and then finally to the east back to their homeland; and thus escaping retribution in German territory. The King was aware of the escape of these Hungarians on the above-mentioned occasions, and was determined to trap them. He therefore ordered his brother, [[Bruno the Great|Archbishop Bruno]], to keep the Lotharingian forces in Lotharingia. With a powerful force of knights pressing them from the west, and an equally strong force of knights chasing them from the east, the Hungarians would be unable to escape.{{sfn|Delbrück|1990|p=122}}

Located south of Augsburg, the Lechfeld is the flood plain that lies along the river [[Lech (river)|Lech]]. The battle appears as the second '''Battle of Augsburg''' in [[Hungary|Hungarian]] [[historiography]].{{snf|Szabados|2006|p=134}} The [[Battle of Lechfeld (910)|first Battle of Lechfeld]] happened in the same area forty-five years earlier.{{sfn|Bowlus|2016|p=166}}

==Prelude==
[[File:Lehel Litho.JPG|thumb|upright|The Hungarian commander Lél. Lithograph by Josef Kriehuber, 1828.]]
Gerhard writes that the Hungarian forces advanced across the Lech to the river [[Iller]] and ravaged the lands in between. They then withdrew from the Iller and placed Augsburg, a border city of Swabia, under siege. Augsburg had been heavily damaged during a rebellion against Otto I in 954. The city was defended by [[Ulrich of Augsburg|Bishop Ulrich]].{{sfn|Bowlus|2016|p=9}} He ordered his contingent of soldiers not to fight the Hungarians in the open, but to reinforce the main south gate of the fortress instead. He motivated them with the [[Psalm 23|23rd Psalm]] ("Yea, though I walk through the valley of the shadow of death"). While this defense was going on, the King was raising an army to march south.{{sfn|Bowlus|2016|p=9}}{{sfn|Delbrück|1990|p=115}} [[Simon of Kéza]] mentions that the Hungarians harassed Augsburg with attacks all day and night. That would seem to indicate that before the real siege they wished to take the city by sudden onslaughts.{{Sfn|Kristó|1985|p=84}}

After it had become apparent that this tactic wouldn't work, a major action took place on 8 August at the eastern gate, into which the Magyars tried to storm in large numbers,{{sfn|Bowlus|2016|p=9}} suspecting that it would be more weakly defended because of its limited accessibility.{{Sfn|Kristó|1985|p=84}} Ulrich led his professional ''milites'' (knights, soldiers) out into the field to engage the enemy in close combat. Ulrich writes of himself that he was unarmed, wearing only a [[stola]] while mounted on a warhorse, and all the arrows and stones bypassed him.{{sfn|Bowlus|2016|pp=9–10}} According to him, the Hungarians could have entered the gates at any time; however, they lost their commander during the attack, and withdrew to their camp, taking the body.{{Sfn|Kristó|1985|p=86}} At first the defenders thought that the Hungarians were victorious and resuming the siege, only to realize that they were going back to the other side of the Lech.{{sfn|Bowlus|2016|p=10}}

During the night, the defenders took positions in all the towers of the city, and the Hungarians completely surrounded it with siege engines and infantry, who were driven forward by the whips of the Hungarian leaders. Next day, when the fights had scarcely started, they were informed by the traitor [[Berchtold of Risinesburg]] that Otto I had deployed his troops nearby. The siege was suspended, and the Hungarian leaders withdrew to hold a war council.{{sfn|Bowlus|2016|p=10}}{{Sfn|Kristó|1985|p=87}} As the Hungarians departed, Count Dietpald of Dillingen used the opportunity to lead soldiers to Otto I's camp during the night.{{sfn|Bowlus|2016|p=10}}

==Opposing forces==
According to Widukind, Otto I had at his disposal eight ''legiones'' (divisions) that included three from [[Duchy of Bavaria|Bavaria]], two from [[Duchy of Swabia|Swabia]], one from [[Franconia]] under Duke Conrad and one well-trained legion from [[Duchy of Bohemia|Bohemia]], under a prince of an unknown name, son of [[Boleslaus I of Bohemia|Boleslaus I]].{{sfn|Bowlus|2016|p=120}}{{sfn|Bowlus|2016|pp=11–12}} The eighth division, commanded by Otto I, and slightly larger than the others, included Saxons, [[Thuringians]], and the King's personal guard, the ''legio regia''. The King's contingent consisted of hand-picked troops.{{sfn|Bowlus|2016|p=11}} A late Roman legion had 1,000 men, so Otto I's army may have numbered 7,000–9,000 troops.{{efn|Beeler gives no figures for the Magyars.{{sfn|Beeler|1971 |p=229}}}}{{sfn|Bowlus|2016|p=120}}{{sfn|Beeler|1971 |p=229}} Augsburg was defended by professional ''milites'' (soldiers).{{sfn|Bowlus|2016|p=9}}

The Hungarians, also known as the Magyars, had a very different structure and fighting style than the Ottonian military. The Magyars preferred fighting at a distance with mounted archers over fighting in close combat with melee weapons, furthermore, the Magyars wore much lighter armor than Otto I's men. While there is some debate as to the number of mounted archers included in the Magyar forces, historians believe there was anywhere between 8,000–10,000 mounted archers.{{sfn|Bowlus|2016|p=50}} While this fighting style was effective, especially during raids against small villages and small military forces, historians have pointed out some weaknesses. One such weakness is the difficulty that came with raising horses that were suited for battle. Not only do horses require a large area to graze, but training them to be comfortable in battle takes a significant amount of time. This weakness was the biggest factor that limited the number of mounted archers available for the Hungarians. Another weakness is the fact that the bows used by the Magyars proved ineffective during inclement weather like rain. Without the ability to play to their strength, the Magyars would be forced to rely on melee combat, which was another weakness for them.{{sfn|Bowlus|2016|pp=55–65}}

==Battle==
[[File:1744 Seeg Schlacht auf dem Lechfeld.jpg|thumb|left|upright|''The Battle of Lechfeld'', a 1744 fresco by [[Balthasar Riepp]]]]
On 9 August, the German scouts reported that the Hungarian army was in the vicinity. Otto I deployed his army for battle the next day.{{sfn|Bowlus|2016|p=11}} It is likely that Otto and Ulrich had communicated in the previous days, and informing the king that the city needed a relief force quickly. He departed from Ulm within seven days at most.{{Sfn|Kristó|1985|p=87}} The order of march of the German army was as follows: the three Bavarian contingents, the Frankish contingent under Duke Conrad, the royal unit (the center), the two contingents of Swabians and the Bohemian contingent guarding the supply train in the rear.{{sfn|Bowlus|2016|pp=11–12}} The Bavarians were placed at the head of column, according to Delbrück, because they were marching through Bavarian territory and they therefore knew the territory best. All of these were mounted.{{sfn|Delbrück|1990|p=118}} They could achieve a maximum distance of 25 kilometers per day.{{Sfn|Kristó|1985|p=87}} The German army marched through woodland that protected them from the Hungarian arrow-storm, but also made it more difficult to see the Hungarian movements.{{sfn|Bowlus|2016|p=170}}
[[File:The Hungarian campaign in the German kingdom from 955.jpg|thumb|upright=1.4|The Hungarian campaign in the German kingdom from 955]]
According to the chronicler [[Widukind of Corvey]], Otto I "pitched his camp in the territory of the city of Augsburg and joined there the forces of [[Henry I, Duke of Bavaria]], who was himself lying mortally ill nearby, and by [[Conrad, Duke of Lorraine|Duke Conrad]] with a large following of Franconian knights. Conrad's unexpected arrival encouraged the warriors so much that they wished to attack the enemy immediately."{{sfn|Thatcher|McNeal|1905|p=76}}
The arrival of Conrad, the exiled Duke of [[Lotharingia]] (Lorraine), and Otto I's son-in-law, was particularly heartening because he had recently thrown in his lot with the Magyars, but now returned to fight under Otto I; in the ensuing battle he lost his life. A legion of Swabians was commanded by [[Burchard III, Duke of Swabia]], who had married Otto I's niece Hedwig. Also among those fighting under Otto I was [[Boleslaus I, Duke of Bohemia]]. Otto I himself led the ''legio regia'', stronger than any of the others in both numbers and quality.{{sfn|Bowlus|2016|p=11}}

[[File:Michael Echter Ungarnschlacht.jpg|thumb|left|''The Hungarian Battle of Lechfeld 955'', an 1860 painting by [[Michael Echter]]]]
[[File:Augsburg battle.jpg|thumb|238x238px|Map of the battle{{Sfn|Kristó|1985|p=89}}]]
The main Hungarian army blocked Otto I's way to Augsburg. A contingent of Hungarian horse-archers crossed the river west of Augsburg and immediately attacked the [[Czechs|Bohemian]] legion from the flank. The Bohemians were routed and the two Swabian legions were badly damaged.{{sfn|Bowlus|2016|pp=12–13}}{{sfn|Thatcher|McNeal|1905|p=77}} The Hungarians stopped to plunder the German baggage train and Duke Conrad the Red used the opportunity to attack the vulnerable Hungarians and shatter them.{{sfn|Bowlus|2016|p=170}}{{sfn|Bowlus|2016|p=12}} Conrad returned to Otto I with captured Hungarian banners.{{sfn|Bowlus|2016|p=12}} Conrad's victory prevented the German army from being encircled.{{sfn|Bowlus|2016|p=13}}

Otto I rallied his men with a speech in which he claimed the Germans had better weapons than the Hungarians. Otto I then led the German army into battle with the main Hungarian force, defeating them.{{sfn|Bowlus|2016|p=13}} How the main Ottonian military defeated the Hungarians, however, is somewhat unclear. This is because Widukind's account of the battle is remarkably short and lacking in detail, which is surprising considering the significance of the battle.{{sfn|Bowlus|2016|p=119–121}} This has left some historians to speculate how the battle played out, based on the strategies outlined in Vegetius's ''Epitome of Military Science'', which heavily influenced Ottonian strategy. According to these historians, while the infantry approached the center of the Magyar formation, Conrad's cavalry, posted on the left wing and protected on its flank from nearby cliffs, would stay out of range of the Hungarian archers but would also attempt to draw them more to their right. Meanwhile the royal legion, under Otto I's personal leadership, engaged the enemy from the right. Although the King's forces suffered losses from the archers, this gave the royal legion the opportunity to directly assault the Magyars in close combat, which was not the Magyar's area of strength. Conrad's forces would then wheel in from Otto I's left wing, putting the Hungarians in danger of being enveloped.{{sfn|Bowlus|2016|p=127–128}} Seeing the day going against them, the Hungarians retreated in ordered formations across the Lech to the east. Otto I's army pursued, killing every captured Hungarian.{{sfn|Bowlus|2016|p=10}} The Germans took the Hungarian camp, liberating prisoners and reclaiming booty.{{sfn|Bowlus|2016|p=13}}

However, Otto I wisely and for several reasons did not chase the Magyars much longer that day. Although the Hungarians suffered heavy losses, so did the king's forces. Three legions, in the rear of the relief column, had been decimated. Furthermore, because of their heavy equipment, Otto I's men were no doubt more affected by the stifling heat than their lightly armored opponents. Simply put, the King and his men were in no position to pursue and destroy the Magyars that day, leaving the initial battle a draw. The Magyars were also known to pull off feigned retreats, when they would lure their opponents into more advantageous positions, like open fields, then they would turn and defeat them, a notable example having occurred in 910 against East Frankish forces.{{sfn|Bowlus|2016|p=131}} This time the King instead opted to spend the night after the battle in Augsburg.{{sfn|Delbrück|1990|p=118}} On 11 August he specifically issued the order that all river crossings were to be held.{{sfn|Bowlus|2016|p=11}}{{sfn|Delbrück|1990|p=122}} This was done so that as many of the Hungarians as possible, and specifically their leaders, could be captured and killed.{{sfn|Bowlus|2016|p=11}} This strategy proved successful, as Duke Henry of Bavaria captured a number of their leaders and killed them.{{sfn|Bowlus|2016|p=11}}{{sfn|Delbrück|1990|p=123}} Some Hungarians tried to flee across an unknown river but were swept away by the current.{{sfn|Bowlus|2016|p=13}} Some sought refuge in nearby villages.{{sfn|Thatcher|McNeal|1905|p=76}} The destruction of the Hungarian army continued on 12 August, when heavy rainfall and flooding allowing the German troops, operating from nearby fortifications, to kill almost all the fleeing Hungarian soldiers.{{sfn|Bowlus|2016|p=13}}{{sfn|Bowlus|2016|p=172}} The majority of these fortifications had been built and fortified during the reign of Otto I's father, Henry I of Saxony, as part of his [[defense-in-depth]] strategy against enemy invaders.{{sfn|Bowlus|2016|p=47}} If these had not been in place, it is very likely that the Hungarians could have completed an orderly retreat once the floodwaters had receded and the Battle of Lechfeld would have remained a draw.{{sfn|Bowlus|2016|p=140}}

The captured Magyars were either executed or sent back to their ruling prince, [[Taksony of Hungary|Taksony]], missing their ears and noses. The Hungarian leaders Lél, Bulcsú and Súr, who were not [[Árpáds]], were executed after the battle.{{sfn|Engel|2001|pp=14–15}} Duke Conrad was also killed, after he loosened his mail armour in the summer heat and an arrow struck his throat.{{sfn|Bowlus|2016|p=181}}

==Aftermath==
[[File:CruxVictorialis.jpg|thumb|An [[Ulrich cross]] (''Crux Victorialis Sancti Udalrici'') circa 1600.]]
Upon destruction of the Hungarian forces, the German army proclaimed Otto I father of the fatherland and emperor.{{sfn|Bowlus|2016|p=181}} In 962, on the strength of this, Otto I went to [[Rome]] and had himself crowned [[Holy Roman Emperor]] by [[Pope John XII]].{{sfn|Bowlus|2016|p=5}} Historian Pierre Riché writes that Otto I was regarded by many thereafter as a "new Charlemagne", which also led to him being called "Otto the Great."{{sfn|Riché|1993|p=246}}

The Hungarian leaders [[Bulcsú (chieftain)|Bulcsú]], [[Lehel]] and Súr were taken to Regensburg and hanged with many other Hungarians.{{sfn|Bowlus|2016|p=11}} 

The German annihilation of the Hungarian army definitively ended the attacks of Magyar nomads against Latin Europe.{{sfn|Bowlus|2016|p=170}} One of Otto's allies, the bishop of Cremona, claimed that the victory at Lechfeld left the Hungarians so cowed that they would not "dare to mutter."{{sfn|Rady|2023|p=54}} The Hungarian historian [[Gyula Kristó]] calls it a "catastrophic defeat".{{sfn|Kristó|Makk|1996|p=23}}{{efn|As Kristó and Makk write, "One may ask why the Hungarians abruptly ended their century old-tradition of raiding western Europe after that battle if it was insignificant."{{sfn|Kristó|Makk|1996|p=23}}}} Following the tactical disaster, the Hungarians reached the end of almost a century as Europe's dominant military.{{sfn|István|2000}} Moreover, after 955, the Hungarians completely ceased all campaigns westwards. In addition, Otto I did not launch any further military campaigns against them; their leader [[Fajsz]] was dethroned following their defeat and succeeded as [[Grand Prince of the Hungarians]] by [[Taksony of Hungary|Taksony]].{{sfn|Molnár|2001|pp=17–18}}

===Analysis===
This battle has been viewed as a symbolic victory for the [[knight]]ly [[heavy cavalry|cavalry]], who would define European warfare in the [[High Middle Ages]], over the nomadic [[light cavalry]] that characterized warfare during the [[Early Middle Ages]] in [[Central Europe|Central]] and [[Eastern Europe]].{{sfn|Archer|Ferris|Herwig|Travers|2002|pp=136–137}}

[[Paul K. Davis (historian)|Paul K. Davis]] writes, the "Magyar defeat ended more than 90 years of their pillaging western Europe and convinced survivors to settle down, creating the basis for the state of [[Hungary]]."{{sfn|Davis|2001|pp=110–112}}

== Notes ==
{{Notelist}}
== References ==
{{Reflist|35em}}

=== Sources ===
{{refbegin|35em|indent=yes}}
*{{cite book |last1=Archer |first1=Christon |first2=John Robert |last2=Ferris |first3=Holger H |last3=Herwig |first4=Timothy |last4=Travers |chapter=Migrations and Invasions |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/worldhistoryofwa00arch/page/136/mode/2up |chapter-url-access=registration |title=World History of Warfare |publisher=University of Nebraska Press |publication-place=Lincoln |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-8032-4423-8 |oclc=49650247 |via=Internet Archive}}<!--{{sfn|Archer|Ferris|Herwig|Travers|2002|pp=}}-->
*{{cite book |last=Beeler |first=John |chapter=8. Military Feudalism in Germany |title=Warfare in Feudal Europe, 730–1200 |publisher=Cornell University Press |publication-place=Ithaca |year=1971 |doi=10.7591/9781501726828-011 |isbn=978-1-5017-2682-8 |oclc=570334282 |pages=215–244 |s2cid=243161649}}
*{{cite book |last=Bowlus |first=Charles R. |title=The Battle of Lechfeld and its Aftermath, August 955: The End of the Age of Migrations in the Latin West |publisher=Routledge |publication-place=London |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-351-89417-3 |doi=10.4324/9781315241142 |oclc=965444179}} Partial previews are at the {{Google books|tKOoDQAAQBAJ|2016 edition}} and the {{Google books|0XBtVwukIog|2006 edition}}.
*{{cite book |last=Davis |first=Paul K. |author-link=Paul K. Davis (historian) |chapter=Lechfeld |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/100decisivebattl0000davi_a8s3/page/110/mode/2up |chapter-url-access=registration |title=100 Decisive Battles: From Ancient Times to the Present |publisher=Oxford University Press |publication-place=New York |year=2001 |orig-date=1999 |isbn=978-0-19-514366-9 |oclc=1164836234 |via=Internet Archive}}<!--{{sfn|Davis|2001|pp=}}-->
*{{cite book |last=Delbrück |first=Hans |author-link=Hans Delbrück |translator-first=Walter J. |translator-last=Renfroe |chapter=II: The Battle on the Lechfeld, 10 August 955 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/historyofartofwa0000delb/page/114/mode/2up |chapter-url-access=registration |title=History of the Art of War |volume=3 Medieval Warfare |publisher=University of Nebraska Press |publication-place=Lincoln |year=1990 |orig-date=1923 |isbn=978-0-8032-6585-1 |oclc=1055170672 |via=Internet Archive |pages=115–129}}
*{{cite book |last=Engel |first=Pál |translator-last=Tamás |translator-first=Pálosfalvi |editor-last=Ayton |editor-first=Andrew |title=The Realm of St Stephen: History of Medieval Hungary, 895–1526 |publisher=I.B. Tauris |publication-place=London & New York |year=2001 |doi=10.5040/9780755699926 |isbn=978-1-86064-061-2 |oclc=56676014}}<!--{{sfn|Engel|2001|pp=}}-->
*{{cite news |last=István |first=Bóna |url=http://www.historia.hu/archivum/2000/0003bona.htm |title=A kalandozó magyarság veresége. A Lech-mezei csata valós szerepe |trans-title=The defeat of the adventurous Hungarians. The real role of the Battle of the Lech Fields |date=March 2000 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721110056/http://www.historia.hu/archivum/2000/0003bona.htm |archive-date=21 July 2011 |language=hu}}<!--{{sfn|István|2000}}-->
*{{cite book |last1=Kristó |first1=Gyula |year=1985 |isbn=963-05-3838-5 |editor1-last=Szakály |editor1-first=Ferenc |title=Az augsburgi csata |publisher=[[Akadémiai Kiadó]] |volume=Sorsdöntő történelmi napok 8 |location=[[Budapest]] |language=hu |trans-title=The Battle of Augsburg |issn= |author-link=Gyula Kristó}}<!--{{sfn|Kristó|1985|pp=}}-->
*{{cite book |last1=Kristó |first1=Gyula |author-link=Gyula Kristó |last2=Makk |first2=Ferenc |title=Az Árpád-ház uralkodói |trans-title=Rulers of the House of Árpád |year=1996 |publisher=I.P.C. Könyvek |orig-date=1994 |isbn=963-7930-97-3 |oclc=1175710413 |language=hu}}<!--{{sfn|Kristó|Makk|1996|p=}}-->
*{{cite book |last=Molnár |first=Miklós |chapter=From the beginnings until 1301 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00moln/page/16/mode/2up |chapter-url-access=registration |title=A Concise History of Hungary |publisher=Cambridge University Press |publication-place=Cambridge, UK; New York |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-107-05071-6 |oclc=881237106 |via=Internet Archive}}<!--{{sfn|Molnár|2001|pp=}}-->
*{{cite book |last=Rady |first=Martyn| year=2023 | title=The Middle Kingdoms: A New History of Central Europe | location=New York | publisher=Basic Books |isbn=978-1-54161-978-4}}
*{{cite book | last=Riché | first=Pierre | year=1993 | translator=Michael Idomir Allen | title=The Carolingians: A Family Who Forged Europe | place=Philadelphia | publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press | isbn=978-0-81221-342-3}}
*{{cite book |author-link=:hu:György Szabados (historian) |last=Szabados |first=György |title=A magyar történelem kezdeteiről: az előidő-szemlélet hangsúlyváltásai a XV–XVIII. században |trans-title=On the beginnings of Hungarian history: the shifts in emphasis in the 15th–18th centuries |publisher=Balassi |publication-place=Budapest |year=2006 |isbn=978-963-506-685-8 |oclc=123759633 |language=hu}}<!--{{snf|Szabados|2006|p=}}-->
*{{cite book |last1=Thatcher |first1=Oliver James |first2=Edgar Holmes |last2=McNeal |chapter=Otto I and the Hungarians |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/sourcebookformed00thatiala/page/74/mode/2up |title=A Source Book for Medieval History: Selected Documents Illustrating the History of Europe in the Middle Age |publisher=C. Scribner's Sons |publication-place=New York |year=1905 |oclc=571837034 |via=Internet Archive |pages=75–77}} Reprinted: {{ISBN|978-1298668035}}<!--{{sfn|Thatcher|McNeal|1905|pp=}}-->
{{refend}}

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Lechfeld}}
[[Category:10th century in East Francia]]
[[Category:10th century in Germany]]
[[Category:10th century in Hungary]]
[[Category:950s conflicts|Lechfeld 955]]
[[Category:955]]
[[Category:Augsburg]]
[[Category:Invasions of Germany]]
[[Category:Military history of Bavaria|Lechfeld 955]]
[[Category:Battles involving Bohemia|Lechfeld 955]]
[[Category:Battles involving Hungary in the Middle Ages|Lechfeld 955]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Holy Roman Empire|Lechfeld 955]]
[[Category:Battles of the Hungarian invasions of Europe|Lechfeld 955]]
[[Category:Medieval Bavaria]]
[[Category:Otto the Great]]
[[Category:Battles involving East Francia]]