Editing Battle of Actium

{{Short description|Naval battle between Octavian and Mark Antony/Cleopatra (31 BC)}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict    = Battle of Actium
| width       =
| partof      = the [[War of Actium]]
| image       = Medinaceli Actium reliefs 06.jpg
| image_size  = 300
| alt         =
| caption     = Detail of the naval battle from an early 1st-century [[relief]] commemorating Actium (extensively restored)
| date        = 2 September 31 BC
| place       = [[Ionian Sea]], near the promontory of [[Actium]] in [[Greece]]
| coordinates = {{Coord|38|55|30|N|20|43|30|E|region:GR_type:event_scale:50000|display=inline,title}}
| map_type    = Greece#Mediterranean#Europe
| map_relief  =
| map_size    = 300px
| map_caption =
| map_label   =
| result      = Octavian victory
| combatant1  = [[Octavian]]'s forces
| combatant2  = [[Mark Antony|Antony]]'s forces<br>[[Ptolemaic Kingdom|Ptolemaic Egypt]]
| commander1  = [[Octavian]]<br>[[Marcus Agrippa]]<br>[[Lucius Arruntius (consul 22 BC)|Lucius Arruntius]]<br>[[Marcus Lurius]]
| commander2  = [[Mark Antony]]<br>[[Gaius Sosius]]<br>[[Lucius Gellius Poplicola|Lucius Gellius]]<br>[[Cleopatra]]
| strength1   = 250–400 [[galley]]s<br>3,000 archers<br>16,000 infantry on ships<ref name=Livius.org>{{cite web |url=https://www.livius.org/articles/battle/actium-31-bce/ |title=Actium (31 BCE) |last=Lendering |first=Jona |date=10 October 2020 |website=Livius.org |access-date=16 October 2020}}</ref><ref name=Kellum>{{cite web |url=https://www.oxfordscholarship.com/view/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195389579.001.0001/acprof-9780195389579-chapter-12 |title=Representations and Re-presentations of the Battle of Actium |last=Kellum |first=Barbara |date=September 2010 |website=Oxford Scholarship Online |pages=187–203 |doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195389579.003.0012 |isbn=978-0-19-538957-9 |access-date=16 October 2020}} {{doi|10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195389579.003.0012}}</ref><ref name=Migiro>{{cite web |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-was-the-battle-of-actium.html |title=What Was the Battle of Actium? |last=Migiro |first=Geoffrey |date=31 December 2017 |website=WorldAtlas |access-date=16 October 2020}}</ref>
| strength2   = 250–500 larger [[galley]]s<br>30–50 transports<br>20,000–70,000 infantry on ships<br>2,000 archers<ref name=Livius.org/><ref name=Kellum/><ref name=Migiro/>
| casualties1 = About 2,500 killed
| casualties2 = Over 5,000 killed<br>250 ships sunk or captured
}}

The '''Battle of Actium''' was a [[Naval warfare|naval battle]] fought between [[Augustus|Octavian]]'s maritime fleet, led by [[Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa|Marcus Agrippa]], and the combined fleets of both [[Mark Antony]] and [[Cleopatra]]. The battle took place on 2 September 31 BC in the [[Ionian Sea]], near the former [[Roman Republic|Roman]] colony of [[Actium]], [[Greece]], and was the climax of over a decade of rivalry between Octavian and Mark Antony.

In early 31 BC, the year of the battle, Antony and Cleopatra were temporarily stationed in Greece. Mark Antony possessed 500 ships and 70,000 infantry, and made his camp at [[Actium]], and Octavian, with 400 ships and 80,000 infantry, arrived from the north and occupied [[Patras|Patrae]] and [[Corinth]], where he managed to cut Antony's southward communications with Egypt (via the [[Peloponnese]]) with help from [[Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa|Marcus Agrippa]]. Octavian previously gained a preliminary victory in Greece, where his navy successfully ferried troops across the [[Adriatic Sea]] under the command of Agrippa. Octavian landed on mainland Greece, opposite of the island of [[Corfu|Corcyra]] (modern Corfu) and proceeded south, on land.

Trapped on both land and sea, portions of Antony's army deserted and fled to Octavian's side, and Octavian's forces became comfortable enough to make preparations for battle.<ref name="eck 37">Eck (2003), 37.</ref> Antony's fleet sailed through the bay of Actium on the western coast of Greece, in a desperate attempt to break free of the [[Blockade|naval blockade]]. It was there that Antony's fleet faced the much larger fleet of smaller, more maneuverable ships under commanders [[Gaius Sosius]] and Agrippa.<ref name="eck 38">Eck (2003), 38.</ref> Antony and his remaining forces were spared only due to a last-ditch effort by Cleopatra's fleet that had been waiting nearby.<ref name="eck 38 39">Eck (2003), 38–39.</ref> Octavian pursued them and [[Battle of Alexandria (30 BC)|defeated their forces in Alexandria]] on 1 August 30&nbsp;BC—after which [[Death of Cleopatra|Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide]].

Octavian's victory enabled him to consolidate his power over Rome and its dominions. He adopted the title of [[Princeps]] ("first citizen"), and in 27 BC was awarded the title of [[Augustus (title)|Augustus]] ("revered") by the Roman Senate. This became the name by which he was known in later times. As Augustus, he retained the trappings of a restored Republican leader, but historians generally view his consolidation of power and the adoption of these honorifics as the end of the [[Roman Republic]] and the beginning of the [[Roman Empire]].<ref>{{Cite book |title=100 decisive battles: From ancient times to the present |last=Davis |first=Paul K. |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0195143669 |location=New York |page=63 |oclc=45102987}}</ref>

==Background==
{{further|War of Actium}}
[[File:Augustus Statue.JPG|thumb|upright|A reconstructed statue of [[Augustus]] as a younger [[Octavian]], dated c. 30 BC]]
[[File:M Antonius.jpg|thumb|upright|A [[Roman sculpture|Roman bust]] of the [[Roman consul|consul]] and [[triumvir]] [[Mark Antony]], [[Vatican Museums]]]]
The alliance among [[Augustus|Octavian]], [[Mark Antony]] and [[Lepidus]], commonly known as the [[Second Triumvirate]], was renewed for a five-year term at [[Tarentum (Campus Martius)|Tarentum]] in 37 BC.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=White Singer |first=Mary |date=1947 |title=Octavia's Mediation at Tarentum |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3293735 |journal=The Classical Journal |volume=43 |issue=3 |pages=174–175 |jstor=3293735 }}</ref> However, the triumvirate broke down when Octavian saw [[Caesarion]], the professed son of [[Julius Caesar]]<ref>{{cite book |last=Roller |first=Duane W. |title=Cleopatra: A Biography |date=2010 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=US |pages=70–73}}</ref> and Queen [[Cleopatra|Cleopatra VII]] of Egypt, as a major threat to his power.<ref>{{Cite book |title=OCR Ancient History GCSE Component 2 : Rome |last1=Fowler |first1=Paul |last2=Grocock |first2=Christopher |last3=Melville |first3=James |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-350-01520-3 |location=London |pages=192 |oclc=999629260}}</ref> This occurred when Mark Antony, the other most influential member of the triumvirate, abandoned his wife, Octavian's sister [[Octavia the Younger|Octavia Minor]]. Afterward he moved to Egypt to start a long-term romance with Cleopatra, becoming Caesarion's ''de facto'' stepfather. Octavian and the majority of the Roman Senate saw Antony as leading a separatist movement that threatened to break the Roman Republic's unity.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}}

Octavian's prestige and, more importantly, his legions' loyalty had been boosted by Julius Caesar's legacy of 44 BC, by which he was officially adopted as Caesar's only son and the sole legitimate heir of his enormous wealth. Antony had been the most important and most successful senior officer in Caesar's army (''[[Master of the Horse#Magister Equitum (Ancient Rome)|magister equitum]]'') and, thanks to his military record, claimed a substantial share of the political support of Caesar's soldiers and veterans. Both Octavian and Antony had fought against their common enemies in the [[Liberators' civil war]] that followed the [[Assassination of Julius Caesar|assassination of Caesar]].

After years of loyal cooperation with Octavian, Antony started to act independently, eventually arousing his rival's suspicion that he was vying to become sole master of Rome. When he left Octavia Minor and moved to [[Alexandria]] to become Cleopatra's official partner, many Roman politicians suspected that he was trying to become the unchecked ruler of Egypt and other eastern kingdoms while still maintaining his command over the many Roman legions in the East.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}} As a personal challenge to Octavian's prestige, Antony tried to get Caesarion accepted as a true heir of Caesar, even though the legacy did not mention him. Antony and Cleopatra formally elevated Caesarion, then 13, to power in 34 BC, giving him the title [[King of Kings|"King of the Kings"]] ([[Donations of Alexandria]]).{{sfn|David|David|2002|page=35}}{{sfn|Kebric|2005|page=109}} Such an entitlement was seen as a threat to Roman republican traditions.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}} It was widely believed that Antony had once offered Caesarion a [[diadem]].{{citation needed|date=December 2010}} Thereafter, Octavian started a propaganda war, denouncing Antony as an enemy of Rome and asserting that he intended to establish a monarchy over the Roman Empire on Caesarion's behalf, circumventing the Roman Senate.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}} It was also said that Antony intended to move the imperial capital to Alexandria.{{sfn|Potter|2009|page=161}}{{sfn|Scullard|2013|page=150}}

As the Second Triumvirate formally expired on the last day of 33 BC, Antony wrote to the Senate that he did not wish to be reappointed. He hoped that it might regard him as its champion against the ambition of Octavian, whom he presumed would not be willing to abandon his position in a similar manner.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}} The causes of mutual dissatisfaction between the two had been accumulating. Antony complained that Octavian had exceeded his powers in deposing [[Lepidus]], in taking over the countries held by [[Sextus Pompeius]] and in enlisting soldiers for himself without sending half to him. Octavian complained that Antony had no authority to be in Egypt; that his execution of Sextus Pompeius was illegal; that his treachery to the [[king of Armenia]] disgraced the Roman name; that he had not sent half the proceeds of the spoils to Rome according to his agreement; and that his connection with Cleopatra and acknowledgement of Caesarion as a legitimate son of Caesar were a degradation of his office and a menace to himself.{{sfn|Shuckburgh|1917|pp=775–779}}

In 32 BC, one-third of the Senate and both [[consul]]s, [[Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus (consul 32 BC)|Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus]] and [[Gaius Sosius]], allied with Antony. The consuls had determined to conceal the extent of Antony's demands. Ahenobarbus seems to have wished to keep quiet, but on 1 January Sosius made an elaborate speech in favor of Antony, and would have proposed the confirmation of his act had it not been vetoed by a tribune. Octavian was not present, but at the next meeting made a reply that provoked both consuls to leave Rome to join Antony; Antony, when he heard of it, after publicly divorcing Octavia, went at once to [[Ephesus]] with Cleopatra, where a vast fleet was gathered from all parts of the East, of which Cleopatra furnished a large proportion.{{sfn|Shuckburgh|1917|pp=775–779}} After staying with his allies at Samos, Antony moved to Athens. His land forces, which had been in Armenia, came down to the coast of Asia and embarked under [[Publius Canidius Crassus]].{{sfn|Shuckburgh|1917|pp=780–784}}

Octavian kept up his strategic preparations. Military operations began in 32 BC, when his general [[Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa|Agrippa]] captured [[Methoni, Messenia|Methone]], a Greek town allied to Antony. But by the publication of Antony's will, which [[Plancus|Lucius Munatius Plancus]] had put into Octavian's hands, and by carefully letting it be known in Rome what preparations were going on at [[Samos]] and how Antony was effectively acting as the agent of Cleopatra, Octavian produced such a violent outburst of feeling that he easily obtained Antony's deposition from the consulship of 31 BC, for which Antony had been designated. In addition to the deposition, Octavian procured a proclamation of war against Cleopatra. This was well understood to mean against Antony, though he was not named.{{sfn|Shuckburgh|1917|pp=780–784}} In issuing a war declaration, the Senate deprived Antony of any legal authority.

==Battle==
Antony initially planned to anticipate an attack by descent upon Italy toward the end of 32 BC; he went as far as [[Corcyra]]. Finding the sea guarded by a squadron of Octavian's ships, Antony retired to winter at [[Patras|Patrae]] while his fleet for the most part lay in the [[Ambracian Gulf]], and his land forces encamped near the promontory of Actium, while the opposite side of the narrow strait into the Ambracian Gulf was protected by a tower and troops.{{sfn|Shuckburgh|1917|pp=780–784}}

After Octavian's proposals for a conference with Antony were scornfully rejected, both sides prepared for the struggle the next year. The early months passed without any notable events, other than some successful forays by Agrippa along the coasts of Greece, primarily designed to divert Antony's attention. In August, troops landed near Antony's camp on the north side of the strait. Still, Antony could not be tempted out. It took some months for his full strength to arrive from the various places in which his allies or his ships had wintered. During these months Agrippa continued his attacks upon Greek towns along the coast, while Octavian's forces engaged in various successful cavalry skirmishes, so that Antony abandoned the strait's north side between the Ambracian Gulf and the Ionian Sea and confined his soldiers to the southern camp. Cleopatra now advised that garrisons be put into strong towns and that the main fleet return to Alexandria. The large contingent furnished by Egypt gave her advice as much weight as her personal influence over Antony, and it appears that this movement was agreed to.{{sfn|Shuckburgh|1917|pp=780–784}}

Octavian learned of this and debated on how to prevent it. At first of a mind to let Antony sail and then attack him, he was prevailed upon by [[Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa|Agrippa]] to give battle.<ref>[[Dio Cassius]] [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/50*.html#31 50.31].</ref> On 1 September he addressed his fleet, preparing them for battle. The next day was wet and the sea was rough. When the trumpet signal for the start rang out, Antony's fleet began issuing from the straits and the ships moved into line and remained quiet. Octavian, after a short hesitation, ordered his vessels to steer to the right and pass the enemy's ships. For fear of being surrounded, Antony was forced to give the word to attack.{{sfn|Shuckburgh|1917|pp=780–784}}

===Order of battle===
[[File:Battle of Actium-en.svg|thumb|right|300px|Order of battle.]]

The two fleets met outside the [[Gulf of Actium]] on the morning of 2 September. Antony's fleet had 250 larger [[galley]]s,{{sfn|Shuckburgh|1917|pp=780–784}} with towers full of armed men. He led them through the straits towards the open sea. Octavian's fleet had 400 [[galley]]s.{{sfn|Shuckburgh|1917|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=sqopAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA781 781]}} His fleet was waiting beyond the straits, led by the experienced admiral Agrippa, commanding from the left wing of the fleet, [[Lucius Arruntius (consul 22 BC)|Lucius Arruntius]] the centre<ref name="65-66">[[Plutarch]], ''Antony'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Antony*.html#65 65–66].</ref> and [[Marcus Lurius]] the right.<ref name="ii.85">[[Velleius Paterculus]], ''History of Rome'', [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Velleius_Paterculus/2C*.html#85 ii.85.]</ref> [[Titus Statilius Taurus]]<ref name="ii.85"/> commanded Octavian's armies, and observed the battle from shore to the north of the straits. Antony and [[Lucius Gellius Poplicola]] commanded the Antonian fleet's right wing, Marcus [[Octavia gens|Octavius]] and Marcus [[Insteia gens|Insteius]] commanded the centre, while [[Gaius Sosius]] commanded the left wing; Cleopatra's squadron was behind them. Sosius launched the initial attack from the fleet's left wing while Antony's chief lieutenant [[Publius Canidius Crassus]] commanded the triumvir's land forces.<ref name="ii.85"/>

Pelling notes that the presence of two former consuls on Antony's side commanding the wings indicates that it was there that the major action was expected to take place. Octavius and Insteius, commanding Antony's centre, were lower-profile figures.{{sfn|Pelling|1988|p=281}}

===Combat===
[[File:IAN 0212 d Anville 1734 Battle of Actium.jpg|thumb|300px|Plan of the battle by Jean Baptiste Bourguignon d'Anville, Paris, 1734]]
It is estimated that Antony had around 140 ships,{{sfn|Shuckburgh|1917|pp=780–784, says 500}} to Octavian's 260. Antony had shown up to Actium with a much larger force of around 500 ships, but could not man all of them. The problem facing Antony was desertion. [[Plutarch]] and [[Cassius Dio|Dio]] speak of how desertion and disease plagued Antony's camp. What Antony lacked in quantity was made up for in quality: his ships were mainly the standard Roman warship, [[quinquereme]]s with smaller [[quadrireme]]s, heavier and wider than Octavian's, making them ideal weapon platforms. However, due to their larger size, they were less manoeuvrable than Octavian's ships.<ref>Plutarch, ''Antony'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Antony*.html#61 61].</ref>

Antony's personal flagship, like his admirals', was a "ten". An "eight" war galley had around 200 heavy marines, archers and at least six ballista catapults. Larger than Octavian's ships, Antony's war galleys were very difficult to board in close combat and his troops were able to rain missiles onto smaller and lower ships. The [[harpax]], Agrippa's device made for grappling and boarding enemy ships, made this task a bit easier. The galleys' bows were armoured with [[bronze]] plates and square-cut timbers, making a successful ramming attack with similar equipment difficult. The only way to disable such a ship was to smash its oars, rendering it immobile and isolated from the rest of its fleet. Antony's ships' main weakness was lack of manoeuvrability; such a ship, once isolated from its fleet, could be swamped with boarding attacks. Also, many of his ships were undermanned with rowing crews; there had been a severe malaria outbreak while they were waiting for Octavian's fleet to arrive.<ref>[[Dio Cassius]] [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/50*.html#13 50.13].</ref>

[[File:Ballistae on roman ship.JPG|thumb|[[Ballista]]e on a Roman Galley]]
Octavian's fleet was largely made up of smaller "[[Liburna|Liburnian]]" vessels.{{sfn|Shuckburgh|1917|pp=780–784}} His ships, though smaller, were still manageable in the heavy surf and could outmanoeuvre Antony's ships, get in close, attack the above-deck crew with arrows and ballista-launched stones, and retreat.<ref>[[Dio Cassius]] [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/50*.html#32 50.32].</ref> Moreover, his crews were better-trained, professional, well-fed and rested. A medium ballista could penetrate the sides of most warships at close range and had an effective range of around 200 yards. Most ballistas were aimed at the marines on the ships' fighting decks.

Before the battle one of Antony's generals, [[Quintus Dellius]], defected to Octavian, bringing with him Antony's battle plans.<ref>[[Dio Cassius]] [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/50*.html#23 50.23.1–3].</ref>

Shortly after midday, Antony was forced to extend his line from the protection of the shore and finally engage the enemy. Seeing this, Octavian's fleet put to sea. Antony had hoped to use his biggest ships to drive back Agrippa's wing on the north end of his line, but Octavian's entire fleet, aware of this strategy, stayed out of range. By about noon the fleets were in formation but Octavian refused to be drawn out, so Antony was forced to attack. The battle raged all afternoon without decisive result.

Cleopatra's fleet, in the rear, retreated to the open sea without engaging. A breeze sprang up in the right direction and the Egyptian ships were soon out of sight.{{sfn|Shuckburgh|1917|pp=780–784}} Lange argues that Antony would have had victory within reach were it not for Cleopatra's retreat.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lange |first1=Carsten |date=December 2011 |title=The Battle of Actium: A reconsideration |url=https://www-cambridge-org.ezproxy1.lib.asu.edu/core/journals/classical-quarterly/article/battle-of-actium-a-reconsideration/0DD01E5FBBCA2198FB105C20014F9662 |journal=[[Classical Quarterly]] |volume=New Series, 61 |issue=2 |pages=608–623 |jstor=41301557 |doi=10.1017/S0009838811000139 |s2cid=171027512 |access-date=28 November 2017}}</ref>

[[File:Castro Battle of Actium.jpg|thumb|''The Battle of Actium'' (1672) by [[Laureys a Castro]]]]

Antony had not observed the signal, and believing that it was mere panic and all was lost, followed the fleeing squadron. The contagion spread fast; everywhere sails unfurled and towers and other heavy fighting gear went by the board. Some fought on, and only long after nightfall, when many a ship was blazing from the firebrands thrown upon them, was the work done.{{sfn|Shuckburgh|1917|pp=780–784}} Making the best of the situation, Antony burned the ships he could no longer man while clustering the remainder tightly together. With many oarsmen dead or unfit to serve, the powerful, head-on ramming tactic for which the Octaries had been designed was now impossible. Antony transferred to a smaller vessel with his flag and managed to escape, taking a few ships with him as an escort to help break through Octavian's lines. Those left behind were captured or sunk.

J. M. Carter gives a differing account of the battle. He postulates that Antony knew he was surrounded and had nowhere to run. To turn this to his advantage, he gathered his ships around him in a quasi-horseshoe formation, staying close to the shore for safety. Then, should Octavian's ships approach his, the sea would push them into the shore. Antony foresaw that he would not be able to defeat Octavian's forces, so he and Cleopatra stayed in the rear of the formation. Eventually Antony sent the ships on the northern part of the formation to attack. He had them move out to the north, spreading out Octavian's ships, which until this point were tightly arranged. He sent Sosius to spread the remaining ships to the south. This left a hole in the middle of Octavian's formation. Antony seized the opportunity and, with Cleopatra on her ship and him on a different ship, sped through the gap and escaped, abandoning his entire force.

With the end of the battle, Octavian exerted himself to save the crews of the burning vessels and spent the whole night on board. The next day, as much of the land army had not escaped to their own lands, submitted, or were followed in their retreat to Macedonia and forced to surrender, Antony's camp was occupied, bringing an end to the war.{{sfn|Shuckburgh|1917|pp=780–784}}

===Alternative theories===
Scientists researching the "[[dead water]]" phenomenon are investigating whether the Egyptian fleet may have been trapped in dead water, which can substantially reduce the speed of a ship.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://phys.org/news/2020-07-dead-water-phenomenon.html |title=Behind the dead-water phenomenon |author=CNRS |date=6 July 2020 |website=phys.org |access-date=16 October 2020}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |date=July 15, 2020 |title=Scientists find clue to mysterious 'dead water' effect that stops a ship |journal=The Week |url=https://www.theweek.in/news/sci-tech/2020/07/15/scientists-find-clue-to-mysterious-dead-water-effect-that-stops-a-ship.html |access-date=18 September 2020}}</ref>

==Aftermath==
{{further|Death of Cleopatra}}
[[File:Cleopatra VII, marble, Vatican Museums, Pius-Clementine Museum, Room of the Greek Cross 2.jpg|thumb|A (restructured) [[Roman sculpture|Roman statue]] of [[Cleopatra]] wearing a [[diadem]] and [[Greco-Roman hairstyle|'melon' hairstyle]] similar to [[Ptolemaic coinage|coinage portraits]], marble, found near the [[:it:Tomba di Nerone|Tomba di Nerone]], Rome along the [[Via Cassia]], [[Museo Pio-Clementino]]<ref>{{cite web |last1=Raia |first1=Ann R. |last2=Sebesta |first2=Judith Lynn |title=The World of State |publisher=College of New Rochelle |date=September 2017 |url=https://www2.cnr.edu/home/sas/araia/state.html |access-date=2 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180306202531/https://www2.cnr.edu/home/sas/araia/state.html |archive-date=6 March 2018 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Lippold |first=Georg |title=Die Skulpturen des Vaticanischen Museums |language=de |volume=3 |year=1936 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter & Co |location=Berlin |url={{GBurl|7FNmEAAAQBAJ|p=169}} |doi=10.1515/9783110875737 |isbn=9783110875737 |pages=169–171}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Curtius |first=L. |title=Ikonographische Beitrage zum Portrar der romischen Republik und der Julisch-Claudischen Familie |language=de |journal=RM |volume=48 |year=1933 |pages=184 ff. Abb. 3 Taf. 25–27}}</ref>]]
The battle had extensive political consequences. Under cover of darkness some 19 legions and 12,000 [[cavalry]] fled before Antony was able to engage Octavian in a land battle. Thus, after Antony lost his fleet, his army, which had been equal to Octavian's, deserted. Though he had not laid down his [[imperium]], Antony was a fugitive and a rebel without that shadow of a legal position the presence of the consuls and senators had given him in the previous year. Some of the victorious fleet went in pursuit of him, but Octavian visited Greece and Asia and spent the winter at Samos, though he had to briefly visit Brundisium to settle a mutiny and arrange for assignations of land.{{sfn|Shuckburgh|1917|pp=780–784}}

At [[Samos]] Octavian received a message from Cleopatra with the present of a gold crown and throne, offering to abdicate in favor of her sons. She was allowed to believe that she would be well treated, for Octavian was anxious to secure her for his [[Roman triumph|triumph]]. Antony, who had found himself generally deserted, after vainly attempting to secure the army stationed near [[Mersa Matruh|Paraetonium]] under [[Lucius Pinarius|Pinarius]] and sending his eldest son [[Marcus Antonius Antyllus|Antyllus]] with money to Octavian and an offer to live at Athens as a private citizen, found himself in the spring attacked on two sides. Cornelius Gallus was advancing from Paraetonium and Octavian landed at Pelusium, with the connivance, it was believed, of Cleopatra. Antony was defeated by Gallus and, returning to Egypt, advanced on Pelusium.

[[File:Actium Cameo.jpg|thumb|The Augustan-era Actium Cameo, depicting Octavian in a [[quadriga]] drawn by four "[[Triton (mythology)#Tritons|mermen]]," with the two on each side carrying symbols of the naval victory]]
Despite a [[Battle of Alexandria (30 BC)|minor victory at Alexandria]] on 31 July 30 BC, more of Antony's men deserted, leaving him with insufficient forces to fight Octavian. A slight success over Octavian's tired soldiers encouraged him to make a general attack, in which he was decisively beaten. Failing to escape by ship, he stabbed himself in the stomach upon mistakenly believing false rumours propagated by Cleopatra claiming that she had committed suicide.<ref>[[Plutarch]], ''Antony'' [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Plutarch/Lives/Antony*.html#76 76].</ref> He did not die at once, and when he found out that Cleopatra was still alive, he insisted on being taken to the mausoleum where she was hiding and died in her arms. She was soon brought to the palace and vainly attempted to move Octavian to pity.{{sfn|Shuckburgh|1917|pp=780–784}}

Cleopatra killed herself on 12 August 30 BC. Most accounts say she put an end to her life by the bite of an [[asp (reptile)|asp]] conveyed to her in a basket of figs.{{sfn|Shuckburgh|1917|pp=780–784}} Octavian had [[Caesarion]] killed later that month, finally securing his legacy as Caesar's only 'son', while sparing Cleopatra's children by Antony, with the exception of Antony's [[Marcus Antonius Antyllus|older son]].<ref>Green (1990), 697.</ref><ref>Scullard (1982), 171.</ref> Octavian admired the bravery of Cleopatra and gave her and Antony a public military funeral in Rome. The funeral was grand and a few of Antony's legions marched alongside the tomb. A day of mourning throughout Rome was enacted. This was partly due to Octavian's respect for Antony and partly because it further helped show the Roman people how benevolent Octavian was. Octavian had previously shown little mercy to surrendered enemies and acted in ways that had proven unpopular with the Roman people, yet he was given credit for pardoning many of his opponents after the Battle of Actium.<ref name="eck 49">Eck (2003), 49.</ref> Further, after the battle, upon Octavian's return to Rome he celebrated his triple triumph spread over three days: the first for his [[Roman–Dalmatae Wars|victory over Illyria]], the second for the Battle of Actium, and the third for his conquest of Egypt.

Octavian's victory at Actium gave him sole, uncontested control of "Mare Nostrum" ("Our Sea", i.e., the Roman Mediterranean) and he became "Augustus Caesar" and the "first citizen" of Rome. The victory, consolidating his power over every Roman institution, marked Rome's transition from republic to empire. Egypt's surrender after Cleopatra's death marked the demise of both the [[Hellenistic Period]] and the [[Ptolemaic Kingdom]],<ref>[http://www.vizin.org/projects/actium/html/actiumsol.htm Actium – the solution] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070306120845/http://www.vizin.org/projects/actium/html/actiumsol.htm |date=March 6, 2007 }}</ref> turning it into a [[Egypt (Roman province)|Roman province]].

[[File:Octavian's campsite memorial at Actium 02.jpg|thumb|alt=Terrace wall of Octavian's campsite memorial, with cuttings for ship's rams|Terrace wall of [[Campsite Memorial of Augustus|Octavian's Campsite Memorial]], with cuttings for ship's rams]]To commemorate his victory, Octavian founded the nearby city of [[Nicopolis]] ("City of Victory") in 29&nbsp;BC on the southernmost promontory of [[Epirus]], opposite Actium at the mouth of the [[Ambracian Gulf]].<ref>''[[Chronicon (Jerome)|Chronicon]]'' of [[Jerome]], [http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/jerome_chronicle_03_part2.htm 2005 online edition] (tertullian.org)</ref> He also built a series of memorials around the battlefield and campsites. On a hill just north of the newly founded [[Nicopolis]], at the site where he had made his camp during the war, he constructed the [[Campsite Memorial of Augustus|Campsite Memorial]], a [[tropaion]] dedicated to [[Neptune (mythology)|Neptune]], [[Mars (mythology)|Mars]], and [[Apollo]], renown for the display of the bronze ''[[wiktionary:rostrum#Latin|rostra]]'' ([[Naval ram|rams]]) taken from the captured warships.<ref>[[Cassius Dio|Dio Cassius]] [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/51*.html#1 51.1]; [[Suetonius]], ''Augustus'' 18.2; Murray and Petsas (1989).</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Zachos |first=Konstantinos L. |date=2003 |title=The <i>tropaeum</i> of the sea-battle of Actium at Nikopolis: interim report |url=https://doi.org/10.1017/s1047759400013003 |journal=Journal of Roman Archaeology |volume=16 |pages=64–92 |doi=10.1017/s1047759400013003 |issn=1047-7594}}</ref> At the cape of Actium, Octavian built the [[Actian dekanaia|Actian ''dekanaia,'']] another [[tropaion]] composed of the dedication a whole set of ten warships captured from his enemy's fleet. The [[Actian dekanaia|Actian ''dekanaia'']] was symbolically located adjacent to the naval battlefield and probably within the area of [[Mark Antony]]'s camp.<ref>{{cite book |last=Reitz-Josse |first=B |title=Valuing Landscape in Classical Antiquity |date= |publisher=Brill |year=2016 |isbn= |editor-last=McInerney |editor-first=J |location=Leiden and Boston |pages=279 |chapter=Land at Peace and Sea at War. Landscape and the Memory of Actium in Greek Epigrams and Propertius' Elegies |editor-last2=Sluiter |editor-first2=I}}</ref> Meanwhile, it was situated down the hill where the [[Temple of Apollo Aktios]] stood. Apollo Aktios was a deity which Octavian repetitively invoked in his post-war commemoration, and the temple was renovated and enlarged following his victory.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Suetonius, Divus Augustus, Chapter 18, Section 2 |url=http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:latinLit:phi1348.abo012.perseus-lat1:18.2 |access-date=2025-01-26 |website=www.perseus.tufts.edu}}</ref><ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Cassius Dio, Historiae Romanae, Book 51, chapter 1, section 2 |url=http://data.perseus.org/citations/urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0385.tlg001.perseus-grc1:51.1.2 |access-date=2025-01-26 |website=www.perseus.tufts.edu}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite book |last=Lorenzo |first=K |title=Signs of Place: A Visual Interpretation of Landscape |date= |publisher=Edition Topoi |year=2019 |isbn= |editor-last=Döhl |editor-first=R |location=Berlin |pages=134 |chapter=Post-Actium place making: Octavian and the Ambracian Gulf |editor-last2=Rensburg |editor-first2=J. J.}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Altar of Victory]]
* ''[[Antony and Cleopatra]]''
* [[Nicopolis]]
* [[Shield of Aeneas]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
* {{cite book |last=Carter |first=John M. |title=The Battle of Actium: The Rise & Triumph of Augustus Caesar |publisher=Hamilton |year=1970 |isbn=0241015162 |oclc=77602}}
* {{cite book |last1=David |first1=Rosalie |last2=David |first2=Anthony E. |title=A Biographical Dictionary of Ancient Egypt |year=2002 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1135377045}}
* {{Citation |last=Everitt |first=Anthony |title=Augustus: The Life of Rome's First Emperor |year=2006 |publisher=[[Random House]] |location=New York |isbn=1-4000-6128-8 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/augustus00anth}}
* {{cite book |last=Kebric |first=Robert B. |title=Roman People |year=2005 |publisher=McGraw-Hill |isbn=978-0072869040}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Pelling |year=1988 |editor-first=C.B.R. |title=Plutarch: Life of Antony |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-24066-2 |url={{googlebooks|Pet9U_4cC7IC |plainurl=y}} |editor-link=C.B.R. Pelling}}
* {{cite book |last1=Murray |first1=William M. |last2=Petsas |first2=Photios M. |title=Octavian's Campsite Memorial for the Actian War |series=Transactions of the American Philosophical Society |volume=79 |date=1989 |issue=4 |publisher=American Philosophical Society |location=Philadelphia |url=https://archive.org/details/octavians-campsite-memorial-for-the-actian-war/}}
* {{cite book |last=Potter |first=D.S. |title=Rome in the Ancient World: From Romulus to Justinian |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zSU_AQAAIAAJ&q=Antony+intended+to+move+the+capital+to+alexandria |publisher=Thames & Hudson |year=2009 |isbn=978-0500251522}}
* {{cite book |last=Scullard |first=H. H. |title=From the Gracchi to Nero: A History of Rome 133 BC to AD 68 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vyMrMh8BuY4C&q=Antony+intended+to+move+the+capital+to+alexandria |publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |isbn=978-1136783876}}

===Attribution===
* {{source attribution|{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sqopAAAAYAAJ |title=A History of Rome to the Battle of Actium |last=Shuckburgh |first=Evelyn Shirley |date=1917 |publisher=Macmillan and Company |location=New York}} }}

==Further reading==
* [[Military Heritage]] published a feature about the Battle of Actium (Joseph M. Horodyski, August 2005, Vol. 7, No. 1, pp.&nbsp;58–63, 78), {{ISSN|1524-8666}}.
* {{cite book |last=Califf |first=David J. |title=Battle of Actium |publisher=Chelsea House Publishers |year=2004 |isbn=0791074404 |oclc=52312409}}
* {{cite book |last=Green |first=Peter |title=Alexander to Actium: The Historical Evolution of the Hellenistic Age |url=https://archive.org/details/alexandertoactiu0000gree |url-access=registration |publisher=University of California Press |year=1990 |isbn=0520056116 |oclc=13332042}}
* {{cite book |last=Gurval |first=Robert Alan |title=Actium and Augustus: The Politics and Emotions of Civil War |publisher=University of Michigan Press |year=1995 |isbn=0472105906 |oclc=32093780}}
* {{cite book |last=Sheppard |year=2009 |first=Si |title=Actium 31 BC: Downfall of Antony and Cleopatra |publisher=Osprey Publishing |place=Oxford7 |isbn=978-1-84603-405-3 |url=http://droppdf.com/files/rF04b/actium31.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223022058/http://droppdf.com/files/rF04b/actium31.pdf |archive-date=2019-12-23}}

{{Library resources box}}

==External links==
{{EB1911 poster|Actium}}
* [http://luna.cas.usf.edu/~murray/actium/brochure.html The Actium Project]
* [https://www.livius.org/aa-ac/actium/actium.html The Naval Battle of Actium] {{Webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140228091630/http://www.livius.org/aa-ac/actium/actium.html |date=2014-02-28 }}
* [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/50*.html Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', Book 50]

{{Egypt topics}}
{{Augustus}}
{{Ancient seafaring}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Actium, Battle of}}
[[Category:30s BC conflicts]]
[[Category:31 BC]]
[[Category:1st-century BC battles|Actium]]
[[Category:1st century BC in Egypt]]
[[Category:1st century BC in the Roman Republic]]
[[Category:Ancient Acarnania]]
[[Category:Augustus]]
[[Category:Caesarion]]
[[Category:Cleopatra]]
[[Category:Naval battles involving the Ptolemaic Kingdom|Actium]]
[[Category:Naval battles of the Hellenistic period|Actium]]
[[Category:Naval battles involving the Roman Republic|Actium]]
[[Category:Roman Epirus]]
[[Category:War of Actium]]