Editing Badakhshan

{{Short description|Historical region of Central Asia}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2024}}
{{About|the region|the province in Afghanistan|Badakhshan Province|the autonomous region in Tajikistan|Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region}}
{{More citations needed|date=March 2022}}
[[File:Badakhshan.svg|thumb|Map of '''Badakhshan''', divided between {{flag|Tajikistan}}-[[Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region]] in the north, {{flag|Afghanistan}}-[[Badakhshan Province]] in the south, with a smaller part in {{flag|China}}-[[Taxkorgan Tajik Autonomous County]] in the east.]]
[[File:Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Province in Tajikistan.svg|thumb|{{flagdeco|Tajikistan}} [[Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region]], [[Tajikistan]].]] [[File:Badakhshan in Afghanistan.svg|thumb|{{flagdeco|Afghanistan}} [[Badakhshan Province]], [[Afghanistan]].]]

'''Badakhshan''' is a [[historical region]] comprising the [[Wakhan Corridor]] in northeast [[Afghanistan]], eastern [[Tajikistan]], and [[Taxkorgan Tajik Autonomous County]] in China. [[Badakhshan Province]] is one of the 34 [[provinces of Afghanistan]]. Much of historic Badakhshan lies within [[Tajikistan]]'s [[Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region]] in the southeastern part of the country. The [[music of Badakhshan]] is an important part of the region's cultural heritage.<ref>[https://www.iis.ac.uk/media/jjzb441j/van_belle_badakhshan-212506472.pdf&ved=2ahUKEwi-9_bvzPD7AhUeEDQIHXGZCisQFnoECCEQAQ&usg=AOvVaw0NQsYZdB8GgMZQK7xDJyc- The Music of Tajik Badakhshan], Jan van Belle, The Institute of Ismaili Studies, 2003.</ref>

== Name ==
The name "Badakhshan" ({{langx|fa|بدخشان}}, ''Badaxšân''; {{langx|ps|بدخشان}}; {{langx|tg|Бадахшон}}, ''Badakhshon''; {{Langx|ru|Бадахшан}}) is derived from the [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanian]] official title ''bēdaxš'' or ''badaxš'', which may be from an earlier *pati-axša; the suffix -''ān'' indicates that the country belonged, or had been assigned as a fief, to a person holding the rank of a ''[[Bidaxsh|badaxš]]''.<ref>W. Eilers, "[http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/badaksan#pt3 BADAḴŠĀN iii. The name] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304052122/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/badaksan |date=2016-03-04 }}", ''Encyclopædia Iranica'', December 15, 1988.</ref>

== People ==
Badakhshan has a diverse ethnolinguistic and religious community of Badakhshanites. [[Tajiks]] and [[Pamiris]] are in the majority while a tiny minority of [[Kyrgyzs]], [[Uzbeks]], [[Hazaras]], and [[Pashtuns]] are also found in some villages. There are also groups of speakers of several [[Pamir languages]] of the [[Eastern Iranian languages|Eastern Iranian language group]].<ref>G. Morgenstierne ''Iranica'' {{usurped|1=[https://web.archive.org/web/20080517055144/http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/unicode/v1f5/v1f5a040a.html Link]}}</ref> During the 20th century within [[Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region]] in Tajikistan, the speakers of Pamir languages formed their own separate [[ethnic identity]] as [[Pamiris]].{{when|date=December 2022}} The Pamiri people were not officially recognized as a separate ethnic group in Tajikistan, but Tajikistan Pamiri movements and associations have been formed.<ref name="davlat">{{cite web|access-date=2006-08-25|archive-date=2007-09-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926123218/http://etd.lib.metu.edu.tr/upload/12607111/index.pdf|author=Suhrobsho Davlatshoev|publisher=School of Social Sciences of Middle East Technical University, Turkey (M.S. thesis)|title=The Formation and Consolidation of Pamiri Ethnic Identity in Tajikistan. Dissertation|url=http://etd.lib.metu.edu.tr/upload/12607111/index.pdf|url-status=dead|year=2006}}</ref> The main religions of Badakhshan are [[Ismaili|Ismaili Islam]] and [[Sunni|Sunni Islam]]; [[Nasir Khusraw]] propagated Ismailism there in 11th century.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Foltz |first1=Richard |title=A History of the Tajiks: Iranians of the East |date=2019 |publisher=Bloomsbury Collections |page=90}}</ref> The people of this province have a rich cultural heritage and they have preserved unique ancient forms of music, poetry, and dance.{{cn|date=March 2023}}

== History ==

=== Early history ===
{{original research|date=April 2022}}
Badakhshan was an important trading center during [[ancient history|antiquity]]. The only then-known deposits of [[lapis lazuli]] were mined there as early as the second half of the [[4th millennium BC]].<ref>{{cite journal|title=Lapis Lazuli: The Early Phases of Its Trade |author= Georgina Herrmann |journal=Iraq |volume= 30 |number= 1 |year = 1968 |pages= 21–57 | publisher= British Institute for the Study of Iraq |doi=10.2307/4199836 |jstor= 4199836 |s2cid= 130955760 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/4199836 }}</ref> Badakhshan was an important region,  crossed by the [[Silk Road]].<ref>[https://www.bbc.com/travel/article/20160930-an-ancient-route-through-the-clouds- An ancient route through the clouds: Once part of the legendary Silk Road, Central Asia’s Pamir Mountains might be the world’s last true adventure.], Pascal Mannaerts, BBC, 3 October 2016</ref> Its significance was its geo-economic role in the [[silk]] trade and ancient commodities transactions between the East and West.<ref>[https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000382993.locale=en The Migration of Silk Production from China to Europe and its Subsequent Development], Claudio Zannier,  Chapter 17, p. 289 in ''Textiles and Clothing along the Silk Roads: Thematic Collection of Cultural Exchanges along the Silk Roads'', 2022, by UNESCO and China National Silk Museum. Zhao Feng, Marie Louise Nosch, eds. {{ISBN|978-92-3-100539-8}}, 413 pages</ref>

[[File:Badakshan patera Triumph of Bacchus.jpg|thumb|Badakshan [[patera]], "Triumph of [[Bacchus]]", [[British Museum]]. (1st–4th century CE).<ref>The Diffusion of Classical Art in Antiquity, John Boardman, Princeton University Press 1993, p. 96</ref>]]
[[Marco Polo]] wrote that [[Balas ruby]] could be found under the  "Syghinan" ([[Shighnan]]) mountain in Badashan/Badakshan.<ref>
[https://en.m.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Travels_of_Marco_Polo/Book_1/Chapter_29 The Travels of Marco Polo] via Wikisource</ref>  "Balas" is derived from ''Balascia'', the ancient name for Badakhshan, a region in [[Central Asia]] in the upper valley of the [[Panj River]], one of the principal tributaries of the [[Oxus River]]. However, "Balascia" itself may be derived from the [[Sanskrit]] ''bālasūryaka'', which translates as "crimson-coloured morning sun".<ref>{{cite book |last1=Biswas |first1=A.K. |editor1-last=Ramachandra Rao |editor1-first=P. |editor2-last=Goswami |editor2-first=N.G. |title=Metallurgy in India : a retrospective |date=2001 |publisher=India International Publisher |location=New Delhi |asin=B002A9M6QU |pages=1–22 |chapter=Minerals and their Exploitation in Ancient and Pre-modern India}}</ref> Mines in the [[Gorno Badakhshan]] region of [[Tajikistan]] constituted for centuries the main source for red and pink [[spinel]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pardieu |first1=V. |last2=Farkhodova |first2=T. |title=Spinel from Tajikistan |journal=InColor |date=Summer 2019 |pages=30–33 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/339439345 |accessdate=28 April 2021}}</ref>

The excavations along the banks of the [[Amu Darya]] show evidence of trade with the early civilizations of the Ancient Near East in the 4th–3rd millennia BC.<ref>[https://unesdoc.unesco.org/in/documentViewer.xhtml?v=2.1.196&id=p::usmarcdef_0000105703&file=/in/rest/annotationSVC/DownloadWatermarkedAttachment/attach_import_76fde7f5-57b8-446a-969d-39a2a77ff7a6%3F_%3D105703engo.pdf&locale=en&multi=true&ark=/ark:/48223/pf0000105703/PDF/105703engo.pdf#%5B%7B%22num%22%3A762%2C%22gen%22%3A0%7D%2C%7B%22name%22%3A%22XYZ%22%7D%2C0%2C842%2Cnull%5D "Ancient Iranian Nomads in Western Central Asia"], A. Abetekov and H. Yusupov. {{ISBN|978-92-3-102846-5}}, pp. 33–34 in ''History of Civilizations of Central Asia: The development of sedentary and nomadic civilizations: 700 B.C. to A.D. 250'' Volume II. János Harmatta, B.N. Puri, G.F. Etemadi eds. UNESCO Publishing, 1996. {{ISBN|92-3-102846-4}}</ref>

Through the [[Khyber Pass]], precious stones and rubies were transported to all corners of the Middle East for sale. Jewelry and clothing decorated with rubies from the 3rd millennium BC have been discovered in Southeast Asia, Mesopotamia, Egypt, Iran, Indo-China, and even in Western countries. At that time, the presence of Badakhshan laurel{{what|this is later referred to as a gem(?)|date=December 2022}} in India ([[Mohenjo-Daro]]), Egypt ([[Necropolis of Thebes]]), and other places was proven. There was a special [[trade route|caravan route]] from Badakhshan to these civilizations, which introduced Badakhshan to the world in ancient times through these precious stones. 

There is also evidence in Badakhshan from the [[Stone Age]]. In the Stone Age, construction of new clay huts in Badakhshan began. Later, in the Neolithic period, the tribes of the Middle East, including the Badakhshans, used wooden gates with their heels running over stone holes.{{what|likely translation problem|date=December 2022}} Scientists also attribute the appearance of a window for smoke and light to the [[Neolithic]] period. Archaeologists call the Neolithic artifacts in Takharistan (Badakhshan) in the historical literature "Mountain Neolithic of Hissar culture". This civilization lasted from the 6th to the 3rd millennium BC.

The [[Bronze Age]] in Badakhshan, from the 3rd millennium BC to the 9th-8th centuries BC, was the most important historical stage of development and evolution. The development of productive forces and significant changes in the social system took place during this period. People learned the production and use of minerals, learned how to melt metals to make iron stronger, and began to produce weapons and household items. On this basis, handicrafts developed, and new and large camps were built. Other production activities, such as agriculture, animal husbandry, handicrafts, the emergence of horses and carts, road construction, etc., accelerated the division of society into classes. The construction of shields, sickles, axes, pickaxes, and shovels flourished during this period of bronze.

The great ruby road appeared on the maps of merchants during this period and became known as the [[Silk Road]], which later became a major trade route and served the peoples of different nations until the 17–18th century. Badakhshan was at that time a land called [[Airyanem Vaejah]], and "Varena" in the [[Avesta]] refers to a part of Badakhshan in the [[Khatlon]] conflict. Badakhshan gained its status among the world civilizations with these two types of precious stones, both in the time of the [[Elam]]ites, in the time of the Maud, and in the time of the [[Achaemenids]] when the roads of communication were so long that the "Road of the King" was 2400&nbsp;km long, and was used to transport rubies from Badakhshan, turquoise from [[Xorazm Region|Khorezm]], and [[jade]] from [[Lake Baikal]]. The mineralogist [[Alexander Fersman|A. E. Fersman]] wrote that one stone was known throughout the long history of culture – the bright blue [[lapis lazuli]] of Afghanistan (Badakhshan), which was transported by caravan routes to Egypt, China, Rome, and Byzantium. Some scholars claim that the "[[Gates of Alexander|mountain valley]]" mentioned by the Greeks was Badakhshan.{{cn|date=December 2022}}

===Early modern history===
[[File: Sultan Muḥammad Vays offers Babur a healthy horse to replace his ailing one.jpg|thumb|Sultan Muḥammad Vays offers Babur a healthy horse to replace his ailing one.]]

The region was ruled over by the [[List of mirs of Badakhshan|mirs of Badakhshan]]. [[Sultan Muhammad (Badakhshan)|Sultan Muhammad]] of Badakhshan was the last of a series of kings who traced their descent to [[Alexander the Great]]. He was killed by [[Abu Sa'id (Timurid dynasty)|Abu Sa'id Mirza]], the ruler of [[Timurid Empire]], who took possession of Badakhshan, which after his death fell to his son, [[Sultan Mahmud Mirza]], who had three sons, Baysinghar Mirza, Ali Mirza, and Khan Mirza. When Mahmud died, [[Amir Khusroe Khan]], one of his nobles, blinded Baysinghar Mirza, killed the second prince, and ruled as a usurper. He submitted to the Mughal Emperor [[Babur]] in 1504 CE. When Babur took [[Kandahar]] in 1506 CE from [[Shah Beg Arghun]], he sent Khan Mirza as governor to Badakhshan. A son was born to Khan Mirza by the name of [[Mirza Sulaiman]] in 1514 CE.

After the death of Khan Mirza, Badakhshan was governed for Babur by Prince [[Humayun]], [[Sultan Wais Khan]] (Mirza Sulaiman's father-in-law), Prince [[Hindal Mirza]], and Mirza Sulaiman, who held Badakhshan till October 8, 1541, when he had to surrender himself and his son, Mirza Ibrahim, to Prince [[Kamran Mirza]]. They were released by Humayun in 1545, and again took possession of Badakhshan. When Humayun had taken [[Kabul]], he made war upon and defeated Mirza Sulaiman who once in possession of his country, had refused to submit; but when the return of Prince Kamran Mirza from [[Sindh]] obliged Emperor Humayun to go to Kabul, he reinstated Mirza Sulaiman, who held Badakhshan till 1575. Bent on making conquests, he invaded [[Balkh]] in 1560, but had to return. His son, Mirza Ibrahim, was killed in battle.

When [[Akbar]] became Mughal Emperor, his stepbrother [[Mirza Muhammad Hakim]]'s mother had been killed by Shah Abul Ma'ali. Mirza Sulaiman went to Kabul, and had Abul Ma'ali hanged; he then had his own daughter married to Mirza Muhammad Hakim, and appointed Umed Ali, a Badakhshan noble, as Mirza Muhammad Hakim's agent in 1563. But Mirza Muhammad Hakim did not go on well with Mirza Sulaiman, who returned next year to Kabul with hostile intentions; but Mirza Muhammad Hakim fled Fayzabad and asked Akbar for assistance, so that Mirza Sulaiman, though he had taken [[Jalalabad]], had to return to Badakhshan. He returned to Kabul in 1566, when Akbar's troops had left that country, but retreated on being promised tribute.

[[File:Mirza Shah Rukh (d. 1607-8) ruler of Badakhshan. Emperor Akbar's distantly related Timurid cousin, married Akbar's daughter, Shakr al-Nisa Begum. Was forced to flee to the Mughal Empire, and was made governor of Malwa.jpg|thumb|Mirza Shah Rukh (d. 1607–08), grandson of Sulaiman Mirza, and  ruler of Badakhshan. Married [[Akbar]]'s daughter, [[Shakr-un-Nissa Begum|Shakr al-Nisa Begum]], and became ruler of [[Malwa]] after fleeing to the [[Mughal Empire]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Portrait of Mirza Shah Rukh |url=https://www.rct.uk/collection/1005038-p/portrait-of-mirza-shah-rukh |website=www.rct.uk |language=en}}</ref>]]
Mirza Sulaiman's wife was [[Khurram Begum]], of the [[Kipchak people|Kipchak]] tribe. She was clever, and had her husband so much in her power that he did nothing without her advice. Her enemy was [[Muhtarim Khanum]], the widow of Prince Kamran Mirza. Mirza Sulaiman wanted to marry her; but Khurram Begum got her married, against her will, to Mirza Ibrahim, by whom she had a son, [[Mirza Shahrukh]]. When Mirza Ibrahim fell in the war with Balkh, Khurram Begum wanted to send the Khanum to her father, Shah Muhammad of [[Kashgar]]; but she refused to go. As soon as Shahrukh had grown up, his mother and some Badakhshi nobles excited him to rebel against his grandfather Mirza Sulaiman. This he did, alternately rebelling and again making peace. Khurram Begum then died. Shahrukh took away those parts of Badakhshan which his father had held, and found so many adherents, that Mirza Sulaiman, pretending to go on a pilgrimage to [[Makkah]], left Badakhshan for Kabul, and crossing the [[Indus]] went to India in 1575 CE. [[Khan Jahan I|Khan Jahan]], governor of the [[Punjab region|Punjab]], received orders from Emperor Akbar to invade Badakhshan, but was suddenly ordered to go to [[Bengal]] instead, as Mun'im Khan had died and Mirza Sulaiman did not care for the governorship of Bengal, which Akbar had offered him.

Mirza Sulaiman then went to [[Ismail II]] of [[Safavid]] [[Iran]]. When the death of that monarch deprived him of the assistance which he had just received, he went to Muzaffar Husain Mirza at Kandahar, and then to Mirza Muhammad Hakim at Kabul. Not succeeding in raising disturbances in Kabul, he made for the frontier of Badakhshan, and luckily finding some adherents, he managed to get from his grandson the territory between Taiqan and the [[Hindu Kush]]. Soon after Muhtarim Khanum died.{{what|date=December 2022}} Being again pressed by Shahrukh, Mirza Sulaiman applied for help to [[Abdullah Khan II]], king of [[Turan]], who had long wished to annex Badakhshan. He invaded and took the country in 1584; Shahrukh fled to the Mughal Empire, and Mirza Sulaiman to Kabul. As he could not recover Badakhshan for himself, and was rendered destitute by the death of Mirza Muhammad Hakim, he followed the example of his grandson, and repaired to the court of Akbar who made him a commander of six thousand. He lived out his life at Akbar's court in [[Lahore]] where he died in 1589 CE.

Like neighboring [[Balkh Subah]], Badakshan was shortly conquered in 1641 by Mughal [[padshah]] (emperor) [[Shah Jahan]], who turned it also into a short-lived [[subah]] (imperial top-level province), only to be lost again in 1647.

=== Later emirates and khanates ===
The old capital of Badakhshan was located in [[Kishim District]].<ref name=noelle62>Christine Noelle. ''State and Tribe in Nineteenth-Century Afghanistan: The Reign of Amir Dost Muhammad Khan (1826–1863)''. Surrey: Curzon Press, 1997. p. 62</ref> In the 18th century the capital of Badakhshan was the town of [[Khamchan]], located three miles west of Fayzabad and situated on both sides of the [[Kokcha River]].<ref name=adamecp99>[[Ludwig W. Adamec]]. ''Historical and political gazetteer of Afghanistan Vol. 1. Badakhshan Province and northeastern Afghanistan''. [[Graz]]: Akad. Druck- und Verl.-Anst., 1972. p. 99.</ref> After the conquest of Badakhshan by [[Ahmad Shah Durrani]] in the later half of the 18th century, the capital was relocated to Fayzabad, then known as Jauzun. In the 19th century the capital was moved to [[Jurm District|Jurm]],<ref name=noelle62/> until if finally was relocated back to Fayzabad.

[[File:The Khan of Badakhsan Asks to Surrender.jpg|thumb| In 1756 Badakhshan emir made the Chinese [[Qing]] dynasty recognize the Elder of Badakhshan (the "gray bearded") at [[Alti]] as sovereign in [[Kashgar]] and levied taxes on the city and parts of the province of [[Xinjiang]].]]
[[File:Huang Qing Zhigong Tu, 1769, Muslim commoners from Badakhshan.jpg|thumb|Muslim commoners from Badakhshan. [[Huang Qing Zhigong Tu]], 1769.<ref>拔達克山回民</ref>]]
In 1750, [[Mir Sultan Shah]], ruler of Badakhshan, rebelled against [[Khizri Beg]], governor of [[Balkh]]. After consulting Ahmad Shah Durrani, Khizri Beg marched against Sultan Shah and the ''Wazir'' [[Shah Wali (Badakhshan)|Shah Wali]] aided the invading column. The pickets of Badakhshan, chief of [[Taloqan]], fled from their postal approach{{what| likely translation 
problem|date=March 2023}} of enemy. Men of Badakhshan, disgusted with their chief because of his partiality to [[Kalmak]] and [[Kashghar]] foreigners, waited on ''Wazir'' Shah Wali and hailed him as deliverer. Sultan Shah, finding resistance hopeless, fled to [[Ailu Basit]] in the hills between [[Chiab]] and [[Pasakoh]]. The ''Wazir'' Shah Wali returned with force to [[Kabul]] leaving his country in charge of an Afghan governor. Sultan Shah returned, slew the governor and regained his country. He was attacked by another rival, [[Turrah Baz Khan]], who, supported by Khizri Beg, advanced on Faizabad and besieged it. Sultan Shah was taken prisoner. The Kunduz chief, unwilling to lose an opportunity, seized Turrah Baz Khan and sent both captives to [[Kunduz]] and annexed Badakhshan.<ref name=review10badak>{{cite web|title=Rough Chronological History Of Badakhshan, Etc|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UhMoAAAAYAAJ|work=The Asiatic quarterly review|volume =10|year = 1895|access-date=17 March 2011}}</ref>

In 1751 Sultan Shah was restored to liberty and his country. He punished marauders of the [[Saki]] tribe who had ransacked Chiab, [[Takhta Band]], [[Khalpan]] in Badakhshan. He slew a large portion and 700 horses were taken. Place was marked by 200 heads of raiders on [[Kotal]] of [[Khoja Jarghatu]] and Saki gave no more trouble during Sultan Shah's lifetime. This Chief built a fortress at [[Mashad]] in which he settled 600 families. He had a rest house built for travelers at [[Daryun]].<ref name="review10badak" /> In 1756 he made the Chinese recognize ''Akskal'' of Badakhshan at [[Alti]] in [[Xinjiang]] and levied taxes from Badakhshan families in city.<ref name="review10badak" />

In 1759 another enemy appeared led by Kabad Khan. The Kataghans attacked Fayzabad, and took and put to death Sultan Shah and Turrah Baz Khan. [[Mir Muhammad Shah]], son of Sultan Shah, escaped and retired to Tang i Nau from whence later he attacked Faizabad, put to death his youngest brother Nasarullah Khan Chief of that place under the government of Kabul, and took the Kingdom. His father's old enemy [[Kabad Khan]], whom the patronage of Timur Shah Durrani (successor of Ahmad Shah Durrani) had elevated to the Chiefship of Kunduz, sent a force against Muhammad Shah under [[Kubadcha]]. They wintered at [[Sang i Mohr]] and were joined by Kabad Khan in person. Muhammad Shah submitted and was detained at Kunduz for two years. After that fortune turned against Kabad Khan. Throwing off his allegiance to Kabul when Timur Shah Durrani was marching against [[Sindh]] and Kashmir, Mizrab Bi, grandson of Muhammad Bi (the old Chief of Kunduz) united with the Chief of Kubab to attack Kabad Khan, seized him and gave him to Mir Muhammad Shah, who put him to death to avenge his father Mir Muhammad Shah. He returned to Badakhshan to find throne occupied by Bahadur Shah, son of a former Chief who had taken Faizabad during the captivity of Mir Muhammad Shah in Kunduz. Bahadur Shah was deposed and the rightful owner recovered the throne. Fortune frowned again on Mir Muhammad Shah. Bahadur Shah obtained aid of the [[List of mirs of Shighnan|Mir of Shighnan]] and took Fayzabad. Mir Muhammad Shah fled to Chiab. In two years, Bahadur Shah was put to death by an agent of the Shighnan Chief named Bahadur, who took the throne. Muhammad Shah repeatedly attempted to expel him. But aid was refused him by the Shighnan Chief and [[Khatlon Region|Kurghan Tappa]]. He regained the throne on the assassination of Bahadur by his servant. The late usurper's ministers were all killed.

Immediately Mir Muhammad Shah was engaged in hostilities with Jalal ud din Chief of Shighnan, who rebelled and held out in the fort till Mir Muhammad Shah invested{{what|probably the wrong word|date=December 2022}} it and he submitted. By clemency of the victor he was reinstated as Chief of Fayzabad. In same year Shah Abul Faiz, son of Shah Shuja of [[Ragh]], rebelled against Mir Muhammad Shah and was vanquished. The territory of Mir Muhammad Shah was divided as follows: [[Iskashim]] was given to [[Mir Khan]]; [[Rushon District|Rushan]] to Shah Wali and [[Warduj]] to Mahmud Khan, brother of [[Mir Ahmad Beg Kataghan]]. Mir Muhammad Shah also built a new fort named ''Sarai Bahadur''.<ref name="review10badak" />

[[Khodai Nazar Beg Kataghan]], brother of [[Darab Bi]], expelled his five nephews from Kunduz and [[Aliwardi Beg]], Chief of [[Khatlon Region|Kurghan Tappa]] on pretence of avenging their wrongs attacked Khodai Nazar Beg and drove him from Kunduz. His avarice caused him to occupy the country himself. Darab Bi's sons wandered to Badakhshan and Balkh Aliwardi Beg did not long enjoy fruits of treachery.<ref name="review10badak" /> In 1795, [[Haydar bin Shahmurad|Emir Haidar]] of [[Emirate of Bukhara]] invaded Balkh and Kunduz annexed them and took Aliwardi Beg to [[Bukhara]] as prisoner.<ref name="review10badak" />

[[File:万国来朝图 Badakhshan delegates (拔達克山) in Peking in 1761.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Badakhshan delegates (拔達克山) in Peking in 1761. ''[[万国来朝图]]'']]
In 1812, [[Mir Sultan Shah II]] succeeded as mir of Badakhshan after his father Mir Muhammad Shah's death in 1810. He remained friendly with his neighbors and the country prospered. He recovered arrears of taxes from Chinese settlers and levied payment in advance. In 1814 he invaded [[Chitral]] and took thousands of prisoners, whom he sold in Balkh, Bukhara, [[Farghana]] and [[Khiva]]. He died in 1815, leaving five sons of whom [[Mir Yar Beg]] succeeded him as ruler.<ref name="review10badak" />

Meanwhile, Kunduz was still under Emirate of Bukhara and the wandering sons of Darab Bi Kataghan decided to attack and retake the city, which they did in 1810. The Amir of Kunduz was now [[Mir Muhammad Murad Beg]], one of the brothers. Mir Yar Beg was now worried about the rising popularity and power of Mir Muhammad Murad Beg in the region. Eventually, in 1820, the two would face off at [[Darah Aim]] in which Mir Muhammad Murad Beg would be the victor. In 1822 four brothers under the service of Mir Muhammad Murad Beg rebelled, led by [[Kokan Beg]]. Mir Muhammad Murad Beg and Kokan Beg often fought with each other over territory inconclusively while battling against rebels in their own respective territories for years. Kokan Beg would be assassinated by his ally in [[Kashkar]] (lower Chitral) by being pushed down a precipice. Mir Muhammad Murad Beg, taking advantage of this situation, took Badakhshan by occupying Fayzabad.  But despite invading Badakhshan Mir Muhammad Murad Beg had little to no control over it. In fact Badakhshan was now contested by again by Mir Yar Beg, Sikandar Shah, Shahzada Mahmud, Abdul Ghazi Khan and Shah Suliman Beg, who were in exile at [[Kholm, Afghanistan|Tashqurghan]] (Kholm) under the protection of [[Mir Wali]]. Fayzabad had a small population under spiritual preceptor [[Mian Fazal Azim]], ''Sahibzada'' of [[Sirhind]]. [[Jirm]], [[Zardeo]], Mashad, [[Daraaim]] and Fayzabad were successively occupied by these chiefs. Fayzabad fell to Mir Yar Beg, who rebuilt his fort and lived in the city. The old dynasty thus was restored.<ref name="review10badak" />

=== Between Afghanistan, Britain and Russia ===
In 1839 the occupation of Afghanistan by the British drove Amir [[Dost Muhammad Khan]] into exile. He visited [[Khulam]] and Kunduz and was well received. They could not aid him against British and Dost Muhammad proceeded to the Emirate of Bukhara, then governed by [[Amir Nasrullah Khan]] who was addicted to the [[Bacha bazi|society of boys]]. [[Sher Ali Khan]] The son Dost {{what|something lost in translation here|date=March 2023}} Muhammad Khan was then a beardless youth and Nasrullah Khan coveted him. The Afghan pride of Sher Ali was however inflamed and he informed his father and brothers of the insulting desire of Nasrullah Khan. Dost Muhammad Khan then decided to leave the Emirate of Bukhara but found himself a prisoner, and with difficulty escaped with his sons to Balkh. 

Also in 1839, Mir Muhammad Murad Beg again attacked [[Rustak]] in Badakhshan and appointed an officer of his own in [[Farkhar]]. Two months later he also attacked Mashad. But he failed to obtain a footing in Badakhshan, which remained in possession of its hereditary Mirs.<ref name="review10badak" />

In 1844, Mir Yar Beg was poisoned by [[Mir Ahmad Shah]] at the instigation of [[Sulaiman Beg]] and died on his return to [[Fayzabad, Badakhshan|Fayzabad]]. The instigator of the murder had been fascinated by the extraordinary beauty of the wife of Mir Yar Beg, and was impelled by his passion for the lady to accomplish the death of her husband. On his death Sulaiman Beg took possession of Fayzabad and married his widow. Mir Ahmad Shah discovered that the murder of Yar Beg was instigated by Sulaiman Beg with the object of possessing his wife, and advancing against him, expelled him from Faizabad,A of which he took possession himself. He then wrote to [[Mir Atalik Beg]], Chief of Kunduz, requesting his aid against [[Yusuf Ali Khan]] and [[Mir Shah]] to drive them out of Rustak. The letter did not reach its destination but fell by some means into hands of Mir Shah who forwarded it to Sulaiman Shah and invited him to a consultation at Rustak. The chiefs then united and marched against Mir Ahmad Shah, who was expelled to Kunduz. A new distribution was made of country. [[Mir Shah]] occupied Fayzabad as supreme ruler of Badakhshan. Shah Sulaiman Beg received [[Dara Aim]]; Nasrullah Khan got Kashmir and Mashad. Rustak and Chiab were allotted to Yusuf Ali Khan. Jirm to Sikandar Shah, and Zardeo Sarghalan was given to ''Shahzada'' [[Mahmud]].<ref name="review10badak" />

From 1840 to 1859 CE, Afghanistan and the Emirate of Bukhara  struggled for Balkh and Badakhshan, with Afghanistan prevailing. [[Mir Shah]], chief of Badakhshan and his feudatory of Rustak went to wait on [[Mohammad Azam Khan]] (son of Dost Muhammad Khan) with presents and an offer of submission. Mir Shah betrothed his niece (daughter of his brother Nizam-ud-din Khan) to Muhammad Azam Khan. A treaty was made with the Muhammad Azam Khan as follows:

<blockquote>Ruler of Badakhshan, children and successors, agree to remain firm in allegiance to Amir of Kabul and officers in Balkh not to join foreign enemy against Amir of Kabul. Ruler of Badakhshan to furnish suitable contingent in difficulty and to aid Amir of Kabul and to give annual presents.</blockquote>

But Mir Shah had trouble governing his region. Family quarrels over territory kept him busy till his death in 1862. He was succeeded by his son [[Mir Jahandar Shah]]. He too would get involved in various intrigues in the region as well as issues of succession in his neighborhood, taking one side or the other. In 1865,  Mir Jahandar Shah sent his ambassador Syed Muhammad to the British Commissioner in [[Peshawar]] to establish friendly relations. However, peace did not last long, as Dost Muhammad Khan died and his sons began to fight for the throne. Eventually Mir Jahandar Shah was forced to take the side of Sher Ali Khan and Muhammad Azam Khan (who was now married to Mir Jahandar Shah's daughter as well). But [[Mohammad Afzal Khan]] secured Kabul, forcing Sher Ali Khan to retreat to [[Herat]]. Mir Jahandar Shah handed over his allies to Mohammad Afzal Khan. This angered Sher Ali Khan and his deputy in [[Akhcha]], Faiz Muhammad Khan, who went into battle at [[Gulaugan]] against Mir Jahandar Shah and defeated him. After the flight of Mir Jahandar Shah the country was divided. Mir Jahandar Shah sought refuge in Kabul, where he was restored a year afterwards to his ancestral throne by the influence of Abdur Rahman Khan, son of the Mohammad Afzal Khan, and by his popularity. His rival Mahmud Shah left without a struggle in October 1868. Mir Jahandar Shah of Badakhshan never asked forgiveness for the hostilities to Amir Sher Ali Khan with Azam Khan and failed to wait on Governor of Balkh at [[Takhtapul]]. 

Sher Ali in October 1869 invited Mizrad Shah, Muhammad Shah and Ibrahim, deposed chiefs of Badakhshan and restored them. Mir Jahandar Shah fled to Kulab. In December 1869,  Mir Jahandar Shah left the camp of Emir of Bukhara in [[Kulab]] and attacked Badakhshan and burned fort Zang Kila.<ref name="review10badak" />

After being annexed by Afghanistan, Badakhshan was joined with [[Qataghan]] to create the [[Badakhshan-Qataghan district]]  in [[Afghan Turkestan Province]].

Eventually the [[Great Game]] began, with the Russians instigating the Emirate of Bukhara to claim certain territories of Afghanistan and the British recognizing Afghanistan's claim to the disputed territories. Badakhshan's boundaries were decided by the Anglo-Russian agreement of 1873, which expressly acknowledged "Badakhshan with its dependent district [[Wakhan]]" as "fully belonging to the Amir of Kabul", and limited it to the left or southern bank of the [[Amu Darya]] (also called the Oxus).<ref name="encycbadak">{{EB1911|inline=1|wstitle=Badakshan|volume=3|last= Holdich |first= Thomas  |author-link= Thomas Holdich|pages=182–183}}</ref> On the west, Badakhshan was bounded by a line which crosses the [[Turkestan]] plains southwards from the junction of the [[Kunduz River|Kunduz]] and Amu Darya rivers until it touches the eastern water-divide of the [[Khulm River]] (Tashqurghan River), and then runs southeast, crossing [[Kunduz]], until it strikes the [[Hindu Kush]]. The southern boundary was carried along the crest of the Hindu Kush as far as the [[Khawak Pass]], leading from Badakhshan into the [[Panjshir Valley|Panjshir valley]]. Beyond this it was indefinite.

It was known that the [[Kafir]]s occupied the crest of the Hindu Kush eastwards of the Khawak, but how far they extended north of the main watershed was not ascertainable. The southern limits of Badakhshan became definite again at the [[Dorah Pass]]. The Dorah connects [[Zebak, Afghanistan|Zebak]] and [[Ishkashim, Afghanistan|Ishkashim]] at the elbow, or bend, of the Oxus with the Lutku valley leading to Chitral. From the Dorah eastwards the crest of the Hindu Kush again became the boundary until it effects a junction with the [[Karakoram|Muztagh]] and [[Sarikol Range|Sarikol]] ranges, which shut off China from Russia and India. Skirting round the head of the [[Tagdumbash Pamir]], it finally merged into the [[Pamir Mountains]] boundary, and turned westwards, following the course of the Oxus, to the junction of that river and the [[Khanabad River|Khanabad]] (Kunduz).<ref name="encycbadak" />

So far as the northern boundary followed the Oxus stream, under the northern slopes of the Hindu Kush, it was only separated by the length of these slopes (some 8 or 10 miles) from the southern boundary along the crest. Thus Badakhshan reached out an arm into the Pamirs eastwards - bottle-shaped - narrow at the neck (represented by the northern slopes of the Hindu Kush), and swelling out eastwards so as to include a part of the great and little Pamirs.<ref name="encycbadak" />

Before the boundary settlement of 1873 the small states of Rushan and [[Shugnan]] extended to the left bank of the Oxus, and the province of [[Darvaz (region)|Darwaz]], on the other hand, extended to the right bank. Then, however, the Darwaz extension northwards was exchanged for the [[Russian Pamir]] extension westwards, and the river throughout became the boundary between Russian and Afghan territory; the political boundaries of those provinces and those of Wakhan were no longer coincident with their geographical limits.<ref name="encycbadak" />

Chitral, Yarkand and Ferghana became shelters for refugees in 1887 and 1883 from Badakhshan who fled from the campaigns of [[Abdur Rahman Khan|Abdul Rahman]].<ref name="Bergne2007">{{cite book|author=Paul Bergne|title=The Birth of Tajikistan: National Identity and the Origins of the Republic|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3coojMwTKU8C&pg=PA90|year= 2007|publisher=I.B. Tauris|isbn=978-1-84511-283-7|pages=90–}}</ref>

The following were the chief provincial subdivisions of Badakhshan, omitting Rushan and Shugnan: on the west Rustak, Kataghan, Ghori, Narin and Anderab; on the north Darwaz, Ragh and Shiwa; on the east Charan, Ishkashim, Zebak and Wakhan; and in the center, Faizabad, Farkhar, Minjan and Kishm. There were others, but nothing certain is known about these minor subdivisions.<ref name="encycbadak"/> Consequently, most western part of modern [[Gorno-Badakhshan]] became part of [[Emirate of Bukhara]], while most of it became part of Fergana Province of [[Russian Turkestan]]. This arrangement was lasted till 1920.

In 1890 Qataghan-Badakhshan District was separated from Afghan Turkestan and [[Qataghan-Badakhshan Province]] was created. Administration of the province was assigned to the [[Northern Bureau]] in [[Kabul]].<ref name=mcchesiraj>Fayz Muḥammad Katib. Siraj al-tawarıkh. V. III. Afghanistan Digital Library. <{{cite web |url=http://afghanistandl.nyu.edu/books/adl0009/index.html |title=1 book |access-date=2011-10-15 |url-status=live |archive-url=http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20110927215417/http://afghanistandl.nyu.edu/books/adl0009/index.html |archive-date=2011-09-27 }}></ref> In 1895, the [[Panj (river)|Panj River]] was defined as part of the border between Afghan and Russian Badakhshan. This border persisted despite changes in governments.

=== 20th century ===
[[File:Khwahan&shurobod.jpg|thumb|Friendship Bridge between Tajikistan, and Afghanistan, over the [[Panj river]] in [[Khwahan District|Khwahan]] and [[Shuro-obod District|Shuro-obod]].]]

In 1902, the [[Bukhara]]n (Western) Pamir came under the Russian military administration. In November 1918 the last Czarist Russian troops recognized Bolshevik rule, but in December 1919 the anti-Bolshevik Russian [[Peasant Army of Fergana]] took over. From April 1920, the vacuum of power was filled by an attempt to establish Bukharan rule until June 1920, when the Bukharans were expelled by local forces, Bolshevik rule was restored: the Stalinist [[Soviet Union]] seized the Bukharan part of [[Gorno-Badakshan]].{{citation needed|date=February 2019}}
 
It was merged with the Russian (since 1895) part in 1924 to become the Gorno-Badakhshan autonomous ''oblast'' (province) within the [[Tajik SSR]] in 1929. Between April 1992–1993, a Pamiri-Badakshoni [[Autonomous Republic]] was declared within independent post-Soviet [[Tajikistan]], on 6 November 1994, becoming the [[Kohistan-Badakhshan Autonomous Province]], alias Gorno-Badakhshan [[Autonomous Province]] or Mountainous Badakhshon Autonomous Veloyat.{{citation needed|date=July 2020}}

In 1963, Badakhshan included the districts of [[Baghlan]], [[Pul-i-Khumri]], [[Dushi District|Dushi]], [[Dahan-i-Ghori]], [[Kanabad]], [[Andarab]], [[Kunduz]], [[Hazrat-i-Imam]], and [[Taloqan]]. In 1963 Qataghan-Badakhshan Province was abolished and its territory was divided into four separate provinces: Badakhshan, [[Baghlan]], [[Kunduz]] and [[Takhar]].<ref name=adamecp26>[[Ludwig W. Adamec]]. ''Historical and political gazetteer of Afghanistan Vol. 1. Badakhshan Province and northeastern Afghanistan''. [[Graz]] : Akad. Druck- und Verl.-Anst., 1972. p. 26.</ref>

Tajik Badakhshan witnessed fierce fighting during the [[Tajikistani Civil War]] in the 1990s.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.rferl.org/a/tajikistan-unconquerable-gorno-badakhshan-region/29534057.html|title = Tajikistan's Unconquerable Gorno-Badakhshan Region| newspaper=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty | date=9 October 2018 | last1=Pannier | first1=Bruce }}</ref> At the height of [[Taliban]] strength during the [[Civil war in Afghanistan (1996–2001)|Afghan Civil War]] circa 2000, [[Badakhshan Province|Afghan Badakhashan]] was a stronghold for the [[Northern Alliance]].

== Geography ==
The mountain districts comprise all of the southern districts of Badakhshan and the northern hills and valleys of [[Nuristan]] (former [[Kafiristan]]).  Its terrain is analogous to that of the rest of the [[Hindu Kush]] to the west. The Hindu Kush represents the southern edge of a great central upheaval or plateau. It breaks up into long spurs southwards, among which are hidden the valleys of Nuristan, almost isolated from each other by the rugged and snow-capped altitudes which divide them. To the north the plateau gradually slopes away towards the [[Oxus River|Oxus]], falling from an average altitude of 15,000 feet to 4,000 feet about [[Fayzabad]], in  central Badakhshan, and trailing off to ~100 feet at [[Kunduz]], in Kataghan, where it merges into the flat plains bordering the Oxus river.<ref name="encycbadak" />

The [[Kokcha River]] traverses Badakhshan from southeast to northwest, and, with the [[Kunduz River]], drains all the northern slopes of the Hindu Kush west of the [[Dorah Pass]]. Some of its sources are near [[Zebak]], close to the great bend of the Oxus northwards, so that it cuts off all the mountainous area included within that bend from the rest of Badakhshan. Its chief affluent is the Minjan, which [[Sir George Robertson]] found to be a considerable stream where it approaches the Hindu Kush close under the Dorab. Like the Kunduz, it probably drains the northern slopes of the Hindu Kush by deep lateral valleys, more or less parallel to the crest, reaching westwards towards the [[Khawak Pass]]. From the Oxus (1,000 feet) to Faizabad (4,000 feet) and Zebak (8,500 feet) the course of the Kokcha offers a high road across Badakhshan; between Zebak and [[Ishkashim, Afghanistan|Ishkashim]], at the Oxus bend, there is but an insignificant pass of 9,500 feet; and from Ishkashim by the [[Panj River]], through the [[Pamirs]], is the continuation of what must once have been a much-traversed [[trade route]] connecting Afghan [[Turkestan]] with [[Kashgar]] of China. It is undoubtedly one of the great continental high-roads of Asia. North of the Kokcha, within the Oxus bend, is the mountainous district of [[Darvaz (region)|Darwaz]], of which the physiography belongs rather to the Pamir type than to that of the Hindu Kush.<ref name="encycbadak" />

A very remarkable meridional range extends for 100 miles northwards from the Hindu Kush (it is across this range that the route from Zebak to Ishkashim lies), which determines the great bend of the Oxus river northwards from Ishkashim, and narrows the valley of that river into the formation of a trough as far as the next bend westwards at Kala Wamar. The western slopes of this range drain to the Oxus either northwestwards, by the Kokcha and the Ragh, or else they twist their streams into the Shiwa, which runs due north across Darwaz. Here again the main routes which traverse the country follow the rivers closely. The valleys are narrow, but fertile and populous. The mountains are rugged and difficult; but there is much world-famous beauty of scenery, and almost phenomenal agricultural wealth in the valleys of [[Bukhara]] and [[Ferghana]] to be found in the recesses of Badakhshan.<ref name="encycbadak" />

==See also==
* [[Badakhshan Province]]
* [[Gorno-Badakhshan Autonomous Region]]
* [[Lapis lazuli]]
* [[Mount Imeon]]
* [[Nazif Shahrani]]
* [[Silk Road]]
* [[Taxkorgan Tajik Autonomous County]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20171010110341/http://www.thespektator.co.uk/issue10.html Travel article:The Rubies of Badakhshan]
* [https://www.angelfire.com/sd/tajikistanupdate/revelations.html Revelations Regarding Badakhshan]

{{Geographic location
|Centre    = Badakhshan 
|North     = [[Osh Region|Osh Province]], {{Flag|Kyrgyzstan}}
|Northeast = [[Xinjiang]], {{Flag|China}}
|East      = [[Gilgit-Baltistan]], {{Flag|Pakistan}}<br />[[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]], {{Flag|Pakistan}}
|Southeast = [[Nuristan Province]], {{Flag|Afghanistan}}
|South     = [[Panjshir Province]], {{Flag|Afghanistan}}
|Southwest = [[Takhar Province]], {{Flag|Afghanistan}}
|West      = [[Khatlon Province]], {{Flag|Tajikistan}}
|Northwest = [[Districts under Central Government Jurisdiction|RRP]], {{Flag|Tajikistan}}
}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Geography of Tajikistan]]
[[Category:Historical regions]]
[[Category:Regions of Afghanistan]]