Editing Babylonian captivity

{{Short description|Period in Jewish history during the 6th century BCE}}
{{about|the period in Jewish history|other uses|Babylonian captivity (disambiguation)}}
[[File:Tissot The Flight of the Prisoners.jpg|thumb|''The Flight of the Prisoners'' (1896) by [[James Tissot]]; the exile of the [[Jews]] from [[Canaan]] to [[Babylon]]]]
[[File:Zerubbabel and Cyrus from Jacob van Loo (cropped).jpg|thumb|''Zerubbabel and Cyrus'' (1650s) by [[Jacob van Loo]]; the Jewish governor [[Zerubbabel]] shows the Persian king [[Cyrus the Great]] the plan for a rebuilt [[Jerusalem]]]]

The '''Babylonian captivity''' or '''Babylonian exile''' was the period in [[Jewish history]] during which a large number of [[Judeans]] from the ancient [[Kingdom of Judah]] were forcibly relocated to [[Babylonia]] by the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]].<ref name=":02" /> The deportations occurred in multiple waves: After the [[Siege of Jerusalem (597 BC)|siege of Jerusalem]] in 597 BCE, around 7,000 individuals were deported to [[Mesopotamia]]. Further deportations followed the destruction of Jerusalem and [[Solomon's Temple]] in 587 BCE.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book |last=Lemche |first=Niels Peter |title=Historical dictionary of ancient Israel |date=2004 |publisher=Scarecrow Press |isbn=978-0-8108-4848-1 |series=Historical dictionaries of ancient civilizations and historical eras |location=Lanham, Md. |pages=73 |quote=}}</ref>

Although the dates, numbers of deportations, and numbers of deportees vary in the several biblical accounts,<ref>{{cite book |last1=Moore |first1=Megan Bishop |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qjkz_8EMoaUC&pg=PA357 |title=Biblical History and Israel S Past: The Changing Study of the Bible and History |last2=Kelle |first2=Brad E. |date=2011 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |isbn=978-0802862600 |pages=357–58 |quote=Overall, the difficulty in calculation arises because the biblical texts provide varying numbers for the different deportations. The HB/OT’s conflicting figures for the dates, number and victims of the Babylonian deportations become even more of a problem for historical reconstruction because, other than the brief reference to the first capture of Jerusalem (597) in the [[Babylonian Chronicle]], historians have only the biblical sources with which to work. |access-date=11 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Dunn |first1=James G. |title=Eerdmans Commentary on the Bible |last2=Rogerston |first2=John William |date=2003 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |isbn=978-0-8028-3711-0 |page=545}}<!--|access-date=11 June 2015--></ref> the following is a general outline of what occurred. After the [[Battle of Carchemish]] in 605 BCE, the Babylonian king [[Nebuchadnezzar II]] besieged Jerusalem, which resulted in tribute being paid by the Judean king [[Jehoiakim]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Coogan |first=Michael |title=A Brief Introduction to the Old Testament |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 }}</ref> In 602 BCE, Jehoiakim refused to pay further tribute, which led in 598/597 BCE to [[Siege of Jerusalem (597 BC)|another siege of the city]] by Nebuchadnezzar II and culminated in the death of Jehoiakim and the exile to [[Babylonia]] of his successor [[Jeconiah]], Jeconiah's court, and many others. In 587 BCE, Nebuchadnezzar II [[Siege of Jerusalem (587 BC)|destroyed Jerusalem]] and exiled Jeconiah's successor [[Zedekiah]] and others. In 582 BCE, Nebuchadnezzar II exiled another group. 

The [[Bible]] recounts how after [[Fall of Babylon|the fall of the Neo-Babylonian Empire]] to the [[Achaemenid Empire]] at the [[Battle of Opis]] in 539 BCE, exiled Judeans were [[Edict of Cyrus|permitted by the Persians]] to [[Return to Zion|return to Judah]].<ref>{{cite book|title=Exile and Return: The Babylonian Context|author=Jonathan Stökl, Caroline Waerzegger|publisher=Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co|date = 2015|pages=7–11, 30, 226}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopaedia Judaica|edition=2nd|volume=3|page=27}}</ref> According to the biblical [[Book of Ezra]], construction of the [[Second Temple]] in Jerusalem began {{Circa|537 BCE}} in the new Persian province of [[Yehud Medinata]]. All of these events are considered significant to the developed history and culture of the [[Jews|Jewish people]], and ultimately had a far-reaching impact on the development of [[Judaism]].<ref name=":02" />

Archaeological studies have revealed that, although the city of Jerusalem was utterly destroyed, other parts of Judah continued to be inhabited during the period of the exile. Historical records from Mesopotamia and Jewish sources indicate that a significant portion of the Jewish population chose to remain in Mesopotamia. This decision led to the establishment of a sizable Jewish community in Mesopotamia known as the ''[[golah]]'' (dispersal), which persisted until modern times.<ref name=":02" /> The [[History of the Jews in Iraq|Iraqi Jewish]], [[Persian Jews|Persian Jewish]], [[Georgian Jews|Georgian Jewish]], [[Bukharan Jews|Bukharian Jewish]], and [[Mountain Jewish]] communities are believed to derive their ancestry in large part from these exiles; these communities have now largely [[Jewish exodus from the Muslim world|emigrated to Israel]].<ref>The Wellspring of Georgian Historiography: The Early Medieval Historical Chronicle The Conversion of Katli and The Life of St. Nino, Constantine B. Lerner, England: Bennett and Bloom, London, 2004, p. 60</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2019/10/19/when-iran-welcomed-jewish-refugees/|title=When Iran Welcomed Jewish Refugees|first=Mikhal|last=Dekel|date=19 October 2019|website=Foreign Policy}}</ref>

==Biblical accounts of the exile==
{{Jews and Judaism sidebar|expanded=history}}
[[File:Clay tablet. The Akkadian cuneiform inscription lists certain rations and mentions the name of Jeconiah (Jehoiachin), King of Judah and the Babylonian captivity. From Babylon, Iraq. C. 580 BCE. Vorderasiatisches Museum, Berlin.jpg|thumb|Clay tablet. The Akkadian cuneiform inscription lists certain rations and mentions the name of Jeconiah (Jehoiachin), King of Judah, and the Babylonian captivity. From Babylon, Iraq. Reign of Nebuchadnezzar II, {{circa|580 BCE}}. Vorderasiatisches Museum, Berlin]]

In the late 7th century BCE, the [[Kingdom of Judah]] was a [[client state]] of the [[Assyria]]n empire. In the last decades of the century, Assyria was overthrown by Babylon, an Assyrian province. [[Late Period of ancient Egypt|Egypt]], fearing the sudden rise of the [[Neo-Babylonian empire]], seized control of Assyrian territory up to the [[Euphrates river]] in Syria, but Babylon counter-attacked. In the process [[Josiah]], the king of Judah, was killed in a battle with the Egyptians at the [[Battle of Megiddo (609 BC)|Battle of Megiddo (609 BCE)]].

After the defeat of [[Pharaoh]] [[Necho II|Necho's]] army by the Babylonians at [[Carchemish]] in 605 BCE, Jehoiakim began paying tribute to [[Nebuchadnezzar II]] of Babylon. Some of the young nobility of Judah were taken to Babylon.

In the following years, the court of Jerusalem was divided into two parties, one supporting Egypt, the other Babylon. After Nebuchadnezzar was defeated in battle in 601 BCE by Egypt, Judah revolted against Babylon, culminating in a [[Siege of Jerusalem (597 BC)|three-month siege of Jerusalem]] beginning in late 598 BCE.<ref>Geoffrey Wigoder, ''The Illustrated Dictionary & Concordance of the Bible'' Pub. by Sterling Publishing Company, Inc. (2006)</ref> Jehoiakim, the king of Judah, died during the siege<ref>Dan Cohn-Sherbok, ''The Hebrew Bible'', Continuum International, 1996, p. x. {{ISBN|0-304-33703-X}}</ref> and was succeeded by his son Jehoiachin (also called [[Jeconiah]]) at the age of eighteen.<ref>{{bibleref2|2Kings|24:6–8|9|2Kings 24:6–8}}</ref> The city fell on 2 [[Adar]] (March 16) 597 BCE,<ref>Philip J. King, ''Jeremiah: An Archaeological Companion'' (Westminster John Knox Press, 1993), p. 23.</ref> and Nebuchadnezzar pillaged Jerusalem and its [[Solomon's Temple|Temple]] and took Jeconiah, his court and other prominent citizens (including the prophet [[Ezekiel]]) back to Babylon.<ref name="Biblical World 1999. pg 350">The Oxford History of the Biblical World, ed. by Michael D Coogan. Pub. by Oxford University Press, 1999. p. 350</ref> Jehoiakim's uncle Zedekiah was appointed king in his place, but the exiles in Babylon continued to consider Jeconiah as their [[Exilarch]], or rightful ruler.

Despite warnings by [[Jeremiah]] and others of the pro-Babylonian party, Zedekiah revolted against Babylon and entered into an alliance with Pharaoh [[Apries|Hophra]]. Nebuchadnezzar returned, defeated the Egyptians, and again [[Siege of Jerusalem (587 BC)|besieged Jerusalem]], resulting in the city's destruction in 587 BCE. Nebuchadnezzar destroyed the city wall and the Temple, together with the houses of the most important citizens. Zedekiah and his sons were captured and the sons were executed in front of Zedekiah, who was then blinded and taken to Babylon with many others (Jer 52:10–11). Judah became a Babylonian province, called [[Yehud (Babylonian province)|Yehud]], putting an end to the independent Kingdom of Judah. Because of the [[missing years (Jewish calendar)|missing years in the Jewish calendar]], rabbinic sources place the date of the destruction of the First Temple at 3338 [[Anno mundi|AM]] (423 BCE)<ref>[[Rashi]] to [[Talmud Bavli]], avodah zara p. 9a. [[Josephus]], [[Seder HaDoroth]] year 3338</ref> or 3358 AM (403 BCE).<ref>[[malbim]] to Ezekiel 24:1, [[abarbanel]] et al.</ref>

[[File:Nuremberg chronicles f 63v 1.png|thumb|Illustration from the ''[[Nuremberg Chronicle]]'' of the destruction of Jerusalem under the Babylonian rule]]

The first governor appointed by Babylon was [[Gedaliah]], a native Judahite; he encouraged the many Jews who had fled to surrounding countries such as [[Moab]], [[Ammon]] and [[Edom]] to return, and he took steps to return the country to prosperity. Some time later, a surviving member of the royal family assassinated Gedaliah and his Babylonian advisors, prompting many refugees to seek safety in Egypt. By the end of the second decade of the 6th century BCE, in addition to those who remained in Judah, there were significant Jewish communities in Babylon and in Egypt; this was the beginning of the later numerous Jewish communities living permanently outside Judah in the [[Jewish Diaspora]].

According to the [[book of Ezra]], the Persian [[Cyrus the Great]] ended the exile in 538 BCE,<ref name="rennert">{{cite web|url=http://www.biu.ac.il/js/rennert/history_4.html |title=Second Temple Period (538 BCE. to 70 CE) Persian Rule |publisher=Biu.ac.il |access-date=2014-03-15}}</ref> the year after he captured Babylon.<ref>''Harper's Bible Dictionary'', ed. by Achtemeier, etc., Harper & Row, San Francisco, 1985, p. 103</ref> The exile ended with the return under [[Zerubbabel]] the Prince (so-called because he was a descendant of the royal line of [[David]]) and Joshua the Priest (a descendant of the line of the former High Priests of the Temple) and their construction of the Second Temple in the period from 521 to 516 BCE.<ref name="rennert"/>

==Archaeological and other extra-biblical evidence==
{{anchor|Non-Biblical evidence}}

===First campaign (597 BCE)===
Nebuchadnezzar's siege of Jerusalem, his capture of its king, his appointment of another in his place, and the plundering of the city in 597 BCE are corroborated by a passage in the [[Babylonian Chronicles]]:<ref name=Finkelstein>{{Cite book |last1=Finkelstein |first1=Israel |author-link1=Israel Finkelstein |last2=Silberman |first2=Neil Asher |author-link2=Neil Asher Silberman |title=The Bible Unearthed: Archaeology's New Vision of Ancient Israel and the Origin of Its Sacred Texts |publisher=Simon and Schuster |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-684-86912-4}}</ref>{{rp|293}}<blockquote>In the seventh year, in the month of Kislev, the king of Akkad mustered his troops, marched to the Hatti-land, and encamped against the City of Judah and on the ninth day of the month of Adar he seized the city and captured the king. He appointed there a king of his own choice and taking heavy tribute brought it back to Babylon.</blockquote>

[[Jehoiachin's Rations Tablets]], describing ration orders for a captive King of Judah, identified with King Jeconiah, have been discovered during excavations in Babylon, in the royal archives of Nebuchadnezzar.<ref>{{cite book |last=Thomas |first=David Winton |author-link=David Winton Thomas |title=Documents from Old Testament Times |publisher=Thomas Nelson |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4cRBAQAAIAAJ&q=tablets&pg=PA84 |location=Edinburgh and London |year=1958 |edition=1961 |page=84|isbn=9780061300851 }}</ref><ref>Cf. {{Bibleverse||2Kings|24:12|kjv|}}, {{Bibleverse-nb||2Kings|24:15–24:16|kjv|}}, {{Bibleverse-nb||2Kings|25:27–25:30|kjv|}}; {{Bibleverse||2Chronicles|36:9–36:10|kjv|}}; {{Bibleverse||Jeremiah|22:24–22:6|kjv|}}, {{Bibleverse-nb||Jeremiah|29:2|kjv|}}, {{Bibleverse-nb||Jeremiah|52:31–52:34|kjv|}}; {{Bibleverse||Ezekiel|17:12|kjv|}}.</ref> One of the tablets refers to food rations for "Ya’u-kīnu, king of the land of Yahudu" and five royal princes, his sons.<ref>{{cite web|author=COJS staff |url=http://cojs.org/cojswiki/Babylonian_Ration_List:_King_Jehoiakhin_in_Exile,_592/1_BCE |title=Babylonian Ration List: King Jehoiakhin in Exile, 592/1 BCE |website=COJS.org |publisher=The Center for Online Judaic Studies |access-date=23 August 2013 |quote=Ya’u-kīnu, king of the land of Yahudu |url-status = dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130616092557/http://cojs.org/cojswiki/Babylonian_Ration_List%3A_King_Jehoiakhin_in_Exile%2C_592/1_BCE |archive-date=16 June 2013}}</ref>

===Second campaign (589–587 BCE)===
Nebuchadnezzar and the Babylonian forces returned in 589 BCE and rampaged through Judah, leaving clear archaeological evidence of destruction in many towns and settlements there.<ref name=Finkelstein/>{{rp|294}} Clay [[ostraca]] from this period, referred to as the [[Lachish letters]], were discovered during excavations; one, which was probably written to the commander at [[Lachish]] from an outlying base, describes how the signal fires from nearby towns were disappearing: "And may (my lord) be apprised that we are watching for the fire signals of Lachish according to all the signs which my lord has given, because we cannot see Azeqah."<ref>Translation from Aḥituv, Shmuel. ''Echoes from the Past.'' Jerusalem: CARTA Jerusalem, 2008, p. 70.</ref> Archaeological finds from Jerusalem testify that virtually the whole city within the walls was burnt to rubble in 587 BCE and utterly destroyed.<ref name=Finkelstein/>{{rp|295}}

===Aftermath in Judah===
Archaeological excavations and surveys have enabled the population of Judah before the Babylonian destruction to be estimated to have been approximately 75,000. Taking the different biblical numbers of exiles at their highest, 20,000, this would mean that perhaps 25% of the population had been deported to Babylon, with the remaining majority staying in Judah.<ref name=Finkelstein/>{{rp|306}} Although Jerusalem was destroyed, with large parts of the city remaining in ruins for 150 years, numerous other settlements in Judah continued to be inhabited, with no signs of disruption visible in archaeological studies.<ref name=Finkelstein/>{{rp|307}}

Archaeologist [[Avraham Faust]] suggests that between the deportations and executions caused by the Babylonians, plus the famines and epidemics that occurred during the war, the population of Judah may have been reduced to as little as 10% of what it had been in the time before deportations.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Judah in the Neo-Babylonian Period: The Archaeology of Desolation |last=Faust |first=Avraham |publisher=Society of Biblical Lit. |year=2012 |isbn=978-1-58983-641-9 |pages=140–143 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NcnPAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA119}}</ref>

===Conditions in exile===
In Mesopotamia, the exiled Judeans were relocated to agricultural settlements, with one notable settlement being [[Tel Abib|Tel-Abib]] near the city of [[Nippur]]. Biblical scholar [[Niels Peter Lemche]] suggests that the exiled Judeans experienced a lifestyle scarcely less prosperous than what they were accustomed to in their homeland.<ref name=":02" /><!-- Overall, Jews were not enslaved in Babylon. Instead, they were comparable to [[serfs]] on agarian lands since Babylonian economy was not slave-based. In addition, they were not perceived as prisoners-of-war. Babylonian Jews were allowed to form their communities, contact with their co-ethnics in Judah and work in trade and banking, which were lucrative careers. Some worked in high-ranking political positions, which is attested by post-biblical exilic literature.{{Citation needed|date=April 2024}} --->

However, there is evidence for hardship. For example, exiled Jewish leaders were suspected of national disloyalty and were reduced to peasantry, where they worked in agriculture and building projects and performed simple tasks such as farming, shepherding and fishing. This ended when the Persians conquered Babylon. Exiled Jewish commoners were nostalgic about Judah and, due to circumstance, were forced to abandon temple-based worship. They mostly worshipped in private homes and kept some religious traditions such as circumcision, Sabbath observance, reading of the [[Psalms]] and [[Mosaic Law|Law]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |last=Farisani |first=Elelwani |date=2004 |title=A sociological analysis of Israelites in Babylonian exile |url=https://journals.co.za/doi/pdf/10.10520/EJC85644 |journal=Old Testament Essays |pages=380–388 |via=Sabinet African Journals}}</ref>

===Persian restoration===
The [[Cyrus Cylinder]], an ancient tablet on which is written a declaration in the name of Cyrus referring to restoration of temples and repatriation of exiled peoples, has often been taken as corroboration of the authenticity of the biblical decrees attributed to Cyrus,<ref name=Becking>{{cite book |last=Becking |first=Bob |editor1-last=Lipschitz |editor1-first=Oded |editor2-last=Oeming |editor2-first=Manfred |chapter="We All Returned as One!": Critical Notes on the Myth of the Mass Return |title=Judah and the Judeans in the Persian Period |chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=1zi2i_C1aNkC&pg=PA8 |year=2006 |publisher=Eisenbrauns |location=Winona Lake, IN |page=8 |isbn=978-1-57506-104-7}}</ref> but other scholars point out that the cylinder's text is specific to Babylon and Mesopotamia and makes no mention of Judah or Jerusalem.<ref name=Becking /> [[Lester L. Grabbe|Professor Lester L. Grabbe]] asserted that the "alleged decree of Cyrus" regarding Judah, "cannot be considered authentic", but that there was a "general policy of allowing deportees to return and to re-establish cult sites". He also stated that archaeology suggests that the return was a "trickle" taking place over decades, rather than a single event.<ref name=Grabbe355>{{cite book |last=Grabbe |first=Lester L. |title=A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period: Yehud – A History of the Persian Province of Judah v. 1 |year=2004 |publisher=T & T Clark |isbn=978-0567089984 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-MnE5T_0RbMC&pg=PA355 |page=355}}</ref>

As part of the [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian Empire]], the former Kingdom of Judah became the province of Judah (''[[Yehud Medinata]]''<ref>Yehud being the Aramaic equivalent of the Hebrew Yehuda, or "Judah", and "medinata" the word for province</ref>) with different borders, covering a smaller territory.<ref name="Grabbe355"/> The population of the province was greatly reduced from that of the kingdom; archaeological surveys suggesting a population of around 30,000 people in the 5th to 4th centuries BCE.<ref name=Finkelstein/>{{rp|308}}

A 2017 exhibition in Jerusalem displayed over 100 cuneiform tablets detailing trade in fruits and other commodities, taxes, debts, and credits accumulated between Jews forced or persuaded to move from Jerusalem by King Nebuchadnezzar around 600 BCE. The tablets included details on one exiled Judean family over four generations, all with Hebrew names.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4622505,00.html|title=Ancient tablets on display in Jerusalem reveal Jewish life during Babylon exile|newspaper=Ynetnews|date=3 February 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-israel-archaeology-babylon-idUSKBN0L71EK20150203|title=Ancient tablets reveal life of Jews in Nebuchadnezzar's Babylon|date=3 February 2017|newspaper=Reuters|last1=Baker|first1=Luke}}</ref>

Most Jews who returned were poor Jews and either saw the exile as "spiritual regeneration" or "divine punishment for sins". One reason why wealthy Jews stayed in Mesopotamia includes economic opportunities, which were relatively uncommon in Judah.<ref name=":0" />

==Exilic literature==
The exilic period was a rich source for Hebrew literature. Biblical depictions of the exile include [[Book of Jeremiah]] 39–43 (which saw the exile as a lost opportunity); the final section of [[2 Kings]] (which portrays it as the temporary end of history); [[2 Chronicles]] (in which the exile is the "Sabbath of the land"); and the opening chapters of Ezra, which records its end. Other works from or about the exile include the stories in [[Book of Daniel|Daniel]] 1–6, [[Susanna (Book of Daniel)|Susanna]], [[Bel and the Dragon]], the "Story of the Three Youths" ([[1 Esdras]] 3:1–5:6), and the books of [[Book of Tobit|Tobit]] and [[Book of Judith|Judith]].<ref>Rainer Albertz, [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xx9YzJq2B9wC&pg=PA15 ''Israel in exile: the history and literature of the sixth century BCE'' (page 15 link)] Society for Biblical Literature, 2003, pp. 4–38</ref> The [[Book of Lamentations]] arose from the Babylonian captivity. The final redaction of the [[Pentateuch]] took place in the Persian period following the exile,<ref name="Finkelstein" />{{rp|310}}and the [[Priestly source]], one of its main sources, is primarily a product of the [[post-exilic period]] when the former Kingdom of Judah had become the Persian province of Yehud.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Blum |first=Erhard |chapter=Issues and Problems in the Contemporary Debate Regarding the Priestly Writings |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=10E4LpK732sC&pg=PA31 |editor=Sarah Shectman, Joel S. Baden |title=The strata of the priestly writings: contemporary debate and future directions |publisher=Theologischer Verlag |year=1998 |pages=32–33|isbn=9783290175368 }}</ref>

==Significance for Jewish culture==
[[File:Gebhard Fugel An den Wassern Babylons.jpg|thumb|''Waters of Babylon'' (1920) by [[Gebhard Fugel]]; Jews sit on the banks of the [[Tigris]], which flows through Babylon, and remembering [[Jerusalem]]. [[Psalm 137]] tells us about this event:<ref>{{tanakhverse|Psalms|137:1, 5|multi=yes}}</ref> "By the rivers of Babylon, there we sat down, yea, we wept, when we remembered [[Zion]].<sup>137:1</sup> If I forget thee, O Jerusalem, let my right hand forget her cunning."<sup>137:5</sup>]]

In the Hebrew Bible, the captivity in Babylon is presented as a punishment for idolatry and disobedience to [[Yahweh]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=2 Kings 24 / Hebrew - English Bible / Mechon-Mamre |url=https://mechon-mamre.org/p/pt/pt09b24.htm# |access-date=2025-02-07 |website=mechon-mamre.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Collins |first=John J. |url=https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/19353799-introduction-to-the-hebrew-bible |title=Introduction To The Hebrew Bible And Deutero Canonical Books |date=July 1, 2014 |pages=303 |language=en}}</ref> The Babylonian captivity had a number of serious effects on Judaism and Jewish culture. For example, the [[Aramaic alphabet|Imperial Aramaic alphabet]], which eventually evolved into the [[Hebrew alphabet]], was adopted during this period. Eventually the Aramaic-based Hebrew alphabet replaced the [[Paleo-Hebrew alphabet]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Saénz-Badillos |first=Angel |date=1993 |title=A History of the Hebrew Language |journal=[[Cambridge University Press]]}}</ref>

This period saw the last high point of [[Hebrew Bible|biblical]] [[prophecy]] in the person of [[Ezekiel]], followed by the emergence of the central role of the [[Torah]] in Jewish life. According to many [[Higher criticism|historical-critical]] scholars, the Torah was redacted during this time, and began to be [[Biblical canon|regarded as the authoritative text]] for Jews. This period saw their transformation into an ethno-religious group who could survive without a central Temple.<ref>''A Concise History of the Jewish People''. Naomi E. Pasachoff, Robert J. Littma. Rowman & Littlefield, 2005. p. 43</ref> Israeli philosopher and Biblical scholar [[Yehezkel Kaufmann]] said "The exile is the watershed. With the exile, the religion of Israel comes to an end and Judaism begins."<ref name="Nova">{{cite web |title=Secrets of Noah's Ark – Transcript |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/video/secrets-of-noahs-ark |website=Nova |publisher=PBS |access-date=27 May 2019 |date=7 October 2015}}</ref>

Notably, the period also saw the theological transition of the ancient Israelite religion among the captives from a [[monolatrous]] to a [[monotheistic]] faith system.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mesopotamian and Achaemenid Influence on Jewish Monotheism: Political and Social Contexts in Evolutionary History| author=Vollmar, Justin D and Vo, Eileen |series=World Civilization 101 |url=https://www.academia.edu/44892186/Mesopotamian_and_Achaemenid_Influence_on_Jewish_Monotheism_Political_and_Social_Contexts_in_Evolutionary_History |quote="we can still conclude that the Israelites went into Babylonian captivity as monolatrous and emerged from the Persian era as strict monotheists"}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Nikiprowetzky, V. |title=Ethical Monotheism |journal=Daedalus |volume=104 |issue=2 |date=1975 |pages=69–89 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/20024331}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author= Soler, Jean, and Janet Lloyd |title=Why Monotheism |journal=Arion: A Journal of Humanities and the Classics |volume=14 |issue=3 |date=2007 |pages=41–60 |url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/29737314}}</ref>

This process coincided with the emergence of scribes and sages as Jewish leaders (see [[Ezra]]). Prior to exile, the people of Israel had been organized according to tribe. Afterwards, they were organized by smaller family groups. Only the [[Tribe of Levi]] continued in its temple role after the return. After this time, there were always sizable numbers of Jews living outside the [[Land of Israel]]; thus, it also marks the beginning of the "[[Jewish diaspora]]", unless this is considered to have begun with the [[Assyrian captivity]].{{Citation needed|date=October 2018}}

In [[Rabbinic literature]], Babylon was one of a number of metaphors for the Jewish diaspora. Most frequently the term "Babylon" meant the diaspora prior to the destruction of the Second Temple. The post-destruction term for the Jewish Diaspora was "[[Roman Empire|Rome]]", or "[[Edom#Identification with Rome|Edom]]".{{Citation needed|date=October 2018}}

==Chronology==
The following table is based on Rainer Albertz's work on ''Israel in exile'', itself based mainly on biblical texts.<ref>Rainer Albertz, [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xx9YzJq2B9wC&pg=PR21 ''Israel in exile: the history and literature of the sixth century BCE''], p.xxi.
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=Xx9YzJq2B9wC&pg=PA77 page 77 with another list of dates]</ref> (Alternative dates are possible.)

{| class="wikitable" style="align: center;"
|-
! style="width:10%;"|Year
! style="width:90%;"|Event
|- style="text-align:right; background:#ffffec; vertical-align:top;"
| style="text-align:center;"|609 BCE
|align="left"|Death of [[Josiah]]. [[Jehoahaz of Judah|Jehoahaz]] reigns three months. <br>Jehoahaz is deposed and taken captive to Egypt by the Egyptian [[Pharaoh]] [[Necho II]]. <br>[[Jehoiakim]] is made king of Judah by Necho and reigns 11 years.
|- style="text-align:left; background:#ffffec; vertical-align:top;"
| style="text-align:center;"|605 BCE
|align="left"|Babylonians defeat the Egyptians and besiege Jerusalem. Jehoiakim surrenders and begins giving tribute to [[Nebuchadrezzar II|Nebuchadnezzar II]] of Babylon in 605 BCE. <br>First deportation, purportedly including [[Daniel (biblical figure)|Daniel]], [[Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah]].
|- style="text-align:left; background:#ffffec; vertical-align:top;"
| style="text-align:center;"|601 BCE
|align="left"|Babylonians fail to invade Egypt. Jehoiakim switches his allegiance back to the Egyptians.
|- style="text-align:left; background:#ffffec; vertical-align:top;"
| style="text-align:center;"|598/7 BCE
|align="left"|Nebuchadnezzar invades Judea and again lays siege to Jerusalem. <br>End of Jehoiakim's reign. [[Jehoiachin]] reigns three months.
|- style="text-align:left; background:#ffffec; vertical-align:top;"
| style="text-align:center;"|597 BCE
|align="left"|[[Siege of Jerusalem (597 BC)|First fall of Jerusalem]]. Second deportation, 16 March 597 including Jehoiachin and [[Ezekiel]]. <br>[[Zedekiah]] is made king of Judah by Nebuchadnezzar and reigns 11 years.
|- style="text-align:left; background:#ffffec; vertical-align:top;"
| style="text-align:center;"|594 BCE
|align="left"|Anti-Babylonian conspiracy. Zedekiah arranges a meeting of the kings of [[Ammon]], [[Edom]], [[Moab]], [[Sidon]] and [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]] in Jerusalem to deal with the possibility of throwing off Babylonian control.
|- style="text-align:left; background:#ffffec; vertical-align:top;"
| style="text-align:center;"|587 BCE
|align="left"|[[Siege of Jerusalem (587 BC)|Second fall of Jerusalem]]. [[Solomon's Temple]] destroyed. <br>Third deportation July/August 587. Zedekiah is taken captive to Babylon and his sons are killed.
|- style="text-align:left; background:#ffffec; vertical-align:top;"
| style="text-align:center;"|583 BCE
|align="left"|[[Gedaliah]], the Babylonian-appointed governor of [[Yehud (Babylonian province)|Yehud Province]], is assassinated. <br>Many Jews flee to Egypt and a possible fourth deportation to Babylon.
|- style="text-align:left; background:#ffffec; vertical-align:top;"
| style="text-align:center;"|562 BCE
|align="left"|Release of Jehoiachin after 37 years in a Babylonian prison following the ascension of [[Amel-Marduk]]. Jehoiachin remains in Babylon.
|- style="text-align:left; background:#ffffec; vertical-align:top;"
| style="text-align:center;"|539 BCE
|align="left"|Persians conquer Babylon (October).
|- style="text-align:left; background:#ffffec; vertical-align:top;"
| style="text-align:center;"|538 BCE
|align="left"|[[Cyrus's edict|Decree of Cyrus]] allows Jews to return to Jerusalem. Sheshbazzar leads a wave of Jews back to Yehud.
|- style="text-align:left; background:#ffffec; vertical-align:top;"
| style="text-align:center;"|520–515 BCE
|align="left"|Return by many Jews to Yehud under [[Zerubbabel]] and Joshua the High Priest.<br> Foundations of Second Temple laid.
|- style="text-align:left; background:#ffffec; vertical-align:top;"
| style="text-align:center;"|457 BCE
|align="left"|Third return migration under Ezra who reintroduces the Torah in Jerusalem.
|- style="text-align:left; background:#ffffec; vertical-align:top;"
| style="text-align:center;"|444 BCE
|align="left"|Fourth return migration under Nehemiah who rebuilds Jerusalem and its walls.
|}

==See also==
{{Portal|Judaism}}
* [[Assyrian captivity]]
* [[Avignon Papacy]], sometimes called the "Babylonian Captivity of the Papacy"
* [[Al-Yahudu Tablets]], 200 cuneiform tablets from the sixth and fifth centuries BCE on the exiled Judean community near [[Nippur]]
* [[Biblical Egypt]]
* [[Return to Zion]], biblical account of the return to Judah by some of the exiled Judahites
* [[Psalm 137]], expressing lamentation of the exiles in Babylon for the loss of Jerusalem

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* [http://lib.cet.ac.il/pages/item.asp?item=17449&str1=%D7%A4%D7%97%D7%95%D7%95%D7%AA+%D7%99%D7%94%D7%95%D7%93%D7%94&str3=&find=1&ex=0&docs=1&pic=1&sites=1&title=&all=1&x=0&y=0 Yehud Medinata] map, [http://www3.cet.ac.il/aboutEng.aspx CET – Center For Educational technology]
* [http://lib.cet.ac.il/pages/item.asp?item=9677&str1=%D7%A4%D7%97%D7%95%D7%95%D7%AA+%D7%99%D7%94%D7%95%D7%93%D7%94&str3=&find=1&ex=0&docs=1&pic=1&sites=1&title=&all=1&x=0&y=0 Yehud Medinata] Border map, CET – Center For Educational technology
* [https://brill.com/display/title/35981?language=en Alstola, Tero, "Judeans in Babylonia: A Study of Deportees in the Sixth and Fifth Centuries BCE" (Brill, 2019)]
* [[Peter R. Ackroyd]], [https://books.google.com/books?id=fNiTMhIJDb0C&q=Exile+and+Restoration:+A+Study+of+Hebrew+Thought+of+the+Sixth+Century+B.C. "Exile and Restoration: A Study of Hebrew Thought of the Sixth Century B.C." (SCM Press, 1968)]
*[https://helda.helsinki.fi/bitstream/handle/10138/345080/2022_Alstola_ANE_Today_published.pdf?sequence=1 Alstola, "Everyday Life in Exile: Judean Deportees in Babylonian Texts", The Ancient Near East Today : Current News about the Ancient Past, vol. 10, no. 6, 2022]
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=hwExATCqwvwC&q=Yahwism+after+the+exile Rainer Albertz, Bob Becking, "Yahwism after the Exile" (Van Gorcum, 2003)]
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=m1V1DeBS6P0C&q=Judaism,+the+first+phase:+the+place+of+Ezra+and+Nehemiah Blenkinsopp, Joseph, "Judaism, the first phase: the place of Ezra and Nehemiah in the origins of Judaism" (Eerdmans, 2009)]
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=rE49wYHz5YUC&q=A+search+for+the+origins+of+Judaism:+from+Joshua+to+the+Mishnah Nodet, Étienne, "A search for the origins of Judaism: from Joshua to the Mishnah" (Sheffield Academic Press, 1999, original edition Editions du Cerf, 1997)]
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=lak_YWjCjDMC&q=The+crisis+of+Israelite+religion:+transformation+of+religious+tradition Becking, Bob, and Korpel, Marjo Christina Annette (eds), "The Crisis of Israelite Religion: Transformation of Religious Tradition in Exilic & Post-Exilic Times" (Brill, 1999)]
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=MOd320e710IC Bedford, Peter Ross, "Temple restoration in early Achaemenid Judah" (Brill, 2001)]
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=VK2fEzruIn0C&pg=PA85 Grabbe, Lester L., "A history of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period", vol.1 (T&T Clark International, 2004)]
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=78nRWgb-rp8C&q=Lipschitz,+Oded+fall+and+rise Lipschitz, Oded, "The Fall and Rise of Jerusalem" (Eisenbrauns, 2005)]
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=1zi2i_C1aNkC&q=Judah+and+the+Judeans+in+the+Persian+period Lipschitz, Oded, and Oeming, Manfred (eds), "Judah and the Judeans in the Persian period" (Eisenbrauns, 2006)]
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=Jrpx-op_-XkC Middlemas, Jill Anne, "The troubles of templeless Judah" (Oxford University Press, 2005)]
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=7y4DEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA130 Pearce, Laurie, "New Perspectives on the Exile in Light of Cuneiform Texts". In Kelle, Brad E.; Strawn, Brent A. (eds.). ''The Oxford Handbook of the Historical Books of the Hebrew Bible''. (Oxford University Press, 2020)]
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=XAsgfNCjWWwC&q=Rewriting+the+Torah+Jeffrey+Stackert Stackert, Jeffrey, "Rewriting the Torah: literary revision in Deuteronomy and the holiness code" (Mohr Siebeck, 2007)]
* [https://books.google.com/books?id=1cuAEAAAQBAJ Vanderkam, James, "An introduction to early Judaism (2nd edition)" (Eerdmans, 2022)]

==External links==
* {{Commons category-inline|Babylonian captivity}}
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Babylonian Captivity |short=x |noicon=x}}
* {{Cite NIE|wstitle=Babylonish Captivity|year=1905 |short=x |noicon=x}}
* {{cite book|chapter=[[s:A Practical Commentary on Holy Scripture/LXXV. Fall of the Kingdom of Juda. — The Babylonian Captivity|LXXV. Fall of the Kingdom of Juda. — The Babylonian Captivity]]|title=A Practical Commentary on Holy Scripture|year=1910|publisher=B. Herder|author=Friedrich Justus Knecht}}

{{Jewish history}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Babylonian captivity}}
[[Category:Babylonian captivity| ]]
[[Category:Ancient Jewish Persian history]]
[[Category:Babylonia]]
[[Category:Books of Chronicles]]
[[Category:Books of Kings]]
[[Category:Book of Jeremiah]]
[[Category:Expulsions of Jews]]
[[Category:Jewish Babylonian history]]
[[Category:Jewish Iraqi history]]
[[Category:Kingdom of Judah]]
[[Category:Second Temple]]
[[Category:Mesopotamian Hebrews]]
[[Category:Forced migration in Asia]]