Editing Avro Vulcan

{{Short description|British jet-powered delta wing strategic bomber}}
{{Use British English|date=September 2022}} 
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{{Infobox aircraft
| name = Avro Vulcan
| image = File:XH558 (G-VLCN) Avro Vulcan - Last Flight over Farnborough (cropped).jpg
| image_caption = Avro Vulcan [[XH558]] over [[Farnborough Airport|Farnborough]], 2015
| aircraft_type = [[Strategic bomber]]
| national_origin = United Kingdom
| manufacturer = [[Avro]]<br />[[Hawker Siddeley]] Aviation
| engine = [[Rolls-Royce Olympus]]
| designer = 
| first_flight = 30 August 1952
| introduction = September 1956
| retired = March 1984 (Royal Air Force) <br/> October 2015 (XH558)
| status = Retired
| primary_user = [[Royal Air Force]]
| more_users = 
| produced = 1956–1965
| number_built = 136 (including prototypes)|variants
| developed_into = [[Avro Atlantic]] (proposed)
}}
[[File:Vulcan Bomber MOD 45133331.jpg|thumb|Vulcans in [[anti-flash white]] in 1957]]

The '''Avro Vulcan''' (later '''Hawker Siddeley Vulcan'''<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.nationalcoldwarexhibition.org/explore/aircraft.cfm?aircraft=Hawker%20Siddeley%20Vulcan%20B2 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806191650/http://www.nationalcoldwarexhibition.org/explore/aircraft.cfm?aircraft=Hawker%20Siddeley%20Vulcan%20B2 |url-status=dead |archive-date=6 August 2020 |title=Hawker Siddeley Vulcan B2 |website=National Cold War Exhibition |access-date=24 July 2013 |publisher=Trustees of the Royal Air Force Museum }}</ref> from July 1963)<ref>[http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1963/1963%20-%201528.html "Hawker Siddeley Aviation Ltd."] ''Flight'', 29 August 1963, p. 342.</ref> was a [[Jet aircraft|jet-powered]], [[Tailless aircraft|tailless]], [[delta wing|delta-wing]], high-altitude, [[strategic bomber]], which was operated by the [[Royal Air Force]] (RAF) from 1956 until 1984. Aircraft manufacturer A.V. Roe and Company ([[Avro]]) designed the Vulcan in response to [[List of Air Ministry specifications|Specification B.35/46]]. Of the three [[V bomber]]s produced, the Vulcan was considered the most technically advanced, and therefore the riskiest option. Several reduced-scale aircraft, designated [[Avro 707]]s, were produced to test and refine the delta-wing design principles.

The Vulcan B.1 was first delivered to the RAF in 1956; deliveries of the improved Vulcan B.2 started in 1960. The B.2 featured more powerful engines, a larger wing, an improved electrical system, and [[electronic countermeasure]]s, and many were modified to accept the [[Blue Steel (missile)|Blue Steel]] missile. As a part of the [[V bomber|V-force]], the Vulcan was the backbone of the United Kingdom's airborne nuclear deterrent during much of the [[Cold War]]. Although the Vulcan was typically armed with [[nuclear weapon]]s, it could also carry out conventional bombing missions, which it did in [[Operation Black Buck]] during the [[Falklands War]] between the United Kingdom and Argentina in 1982.

The Vulcan had no defensive weaponry, initially relying upon high-speed, high-altitude flight to evade interception. Electronic countermeasures were employed by the B.1 (designated B.1A) and B.2 from around 1960. A change to low-level tactics was made in the mid-1960s. In the mid-1970s, nine Vulcans were adapted for maritime radar reconnaissance operations, [[British military aircraft designation systems|redesignated]] as B.2 (MRR). In the final years of service, six Vulcans were converted to the K.2 tanker configuration for [[aerial refueling|aerial refuelling]].

After retirement by the RAF, one example, B.2 [[XH558]], named ''The Spirit of Great Britain'', was restored for use in display flights and air shows, whilst two other B.2s, [[XL426]] and [[XM655]], have been kept in taxiable condition for ground runs and demonstrations. B.2 [[Avro Vulcan XH558|XH558]] flew for the last time in October 2015 and is also being kept in taxiable condition.
XM612 is on display at [[City of Norwich Aviation Museum|Norwich Aviation Museum]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnam.org.uk/|title=City of Norwich Aviation Museum - Norfolk|website=City of Norwich Aviation Museum}}</ref>

==Development==

===Origins===
{{further|V bombers}}
[[File:Avro 698 and Avro 710 top-view silhouettes.png|thumb|Silhouettes of an early Avro 698 concept and the cancelled [[#Avro_707_and_Avro_710|Avro 710]]]]
The origin of the Vulcan and the other V bombers is linked with early [[Blue Danube (nuclear weapon)|British atomic weapon programme]] and [[Deterrence theory#Nuclear weapons and deterrence|nuclear deterrent]] policies. Britain's atom bomb programme began with Air Staff Operational Requirement OR.1001 issued in August 1946. This anticipated a government decision in January 1947 to authorise research and development work on atomic weapons, the U.S. [[Atomic Energy Act of 1946]] (McMahon Act) having prohibited exporting atomic knowledge, even to countries that had collaborated on the [[Manhattan Project]].<ref>Wynn 1997, pp. 7, 16.</ref> OR.1001 envisaged a weapon not to exceed {{convert|24|ft|2|in|m|abbr=on}} in length, {{convert|5|ft|m|abbr=on}} in diameter and {{convert|10000|lb|kg|abbr=on}} in weight. The weapon had to be suitable for release from {{convert|20000|to|50000|ft|m|abbr=on}}.<ref>Wynn 1997, p. 18.</ref>

In January 1947, the [[Ministry of Supply]] distributed [[List of Air Ministry specifications|Specification B.35/46]] to UK aviation companies to satisfy Air Staff Operational Requirement OR.229 for "a medium range bomber landplane capable of carrying one {{convert|10000|lb|kg|abbr=on}} bomb to a target {{convert|1500|nmi|mi km}} from a base which may be anywhere in the world." A cruising speed of {{convert|500|kn|mph km/h}} at altitudes between {{convert|35000|and|50000|ft|m|abbr=on}} was specified. The maximum weight when fully loaded should not exceed {{convert|100000|lb|kg|abbr=on}}. Alternatively, the aircraft was to be capable of carrying a conventional bomb load of {{convert|20000|lb|kg|abbr=on}}. The similar OR.230 required a "long-range bomber" with a {{convert|2000|nmi|mi km}} radius of action with a maximum weight of {{convert|200000|lb|kg|abbr=on}} when fully loaded; this requirement was considered too exacting.<ref>Wynn 1997, pp. 44–46.</ref> Six companies submitted technical brochures to this specification, including Avro.<ref>Wynn 1997, p. 47.</ref>

Required to tender by the end of April 1947, work began on receipt of Specification B.35/46 at Avro, led by technical director [[Roy Chadwick]] and chief designer [[Stuart Davies (engineer)|Stuart Davies]]; the type designation was ''Avro 698''. As was obvious to the design team, conventional aircraft could not satisfy the specification. No worthwhile information about high-speed flight was available from the [[Royal Aircraft Establishment]] (RAE) or the US.<ref>The Vulcan Story by the Technical Editor, Flight, 31 January 1958, p.143</ref> Avro were aware that [[Alexander Lippisch]] had designed a delta-wing fighter and considered the same delta configuration would be suitable for their bomber.<ref>The Avro Type 698 Vulcan The Secrets Behind Its Design And Development, David W. Fildes 2012, {{ISBN|978 1 84884 284 7}}, Bob Lindley recollections p.18</ref> The team estimated that an otherwise conventional aircraft, with a swept wing of 45°, would have doubled the weight requirement. Realising that swept wings increase longitudinal stability, the team deleted the tail ([[empennage]]) and the supporting [[fuselage]], it thus became a swept-back [[flying wing]] with only a rudimentary forward fuselage and a fin ([[vertical stabilizer]]) at each wingtip. The estimated weight was now only 50% over the requirement; a delta shape resulted from reducing the [[wingspan]] and maintaining the wing area by filling in the space between the wingtips, which enabled the specification to be met.<ref name='gunst143'>Gunston, W.T. [http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1958/1958%20-%200139.html?tracked=1 "The Vulcan Story."] ''Flight'', 31 January 1958, p. 143.</ref> Although Alexander Lippisch is generally credited as the pioneer of the delta wing, Chadwick's team had followed its own logical design process.<ref name='laming23-24'>Laming 2002, pp. 23, 24.</ref> The initial design submission had four large turbojets stacked in pairs buried in the wings on either side of the centreline. Outboard of the engines were two [[bomb bay]]s.<ref name='gunst143'/>

In August 1947, Chadwick was killed in the crash of the [[Avro Tudor|Avro Tudor 2 prototype]], and was succeeded by Sir William Farren.<ref name='laming26'>Laming 2002, p. 26.</ref> Reductions in wing thickness made incorporating the split bomb bays and stacked engines impossible, thus the engines were placed side by side in pairs on either side of a single bomb bay, with the fuselage growing somewhat. The wingtip fins gave way to a single fin on the aircraft's centreline.<ref name='gunst143'/> Rival manufacturer Handley Page received a prototype contract for its crescent-winged [[Handley-Page Victor|HP.80]] B.35/46 tender in November 1947.<ref name='laming26'/> Although considered the best option, the contract award for Avro's design was delayed while its technical strength was established.<ref name ='but 31'>Buttler 2003, p. 31.</ref> Instructions to proceed with the construction of two Avro 698 prototypes were received in January 1948.<ref name='laming26'/> As an insurance measure against both radical designs failing, [[Short Brothers]] received a contract for the prototype [[Short Sperrin|SA.4]] to the less-stringent Specification B.14/46. The SA.4, later named Sperrin, was not required. In April 1948, [[Vickers-Armstrongs|Vickers]] also received authority to proceed with their [[Vickers Valiant|Type 660]], which, although falling short of the B.35/46 Specification, but being of a more conventional design, would be available sooner. This plane entered service as the Valiant.<ref>Wynn 1997, pp. 52–54.</ref>

===Avro 707 and Avro 710===
[[File:Avro Vulcan VX770 VX777 FAR 13.09.53 edited-2.jpg|thumb|right|The prototype Vulcans (VX777 front, VX770 rear) with four [[Avro 707]]s at the [[Farnborough Air Show]] in September 1953: The large [[delta wing]]s of the Vulcan quickly gave it the affectionate nickname of "Tin Triangle".<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Jerram |first=Mike |date=June 1993 |title=Can Vulcan be Saved? |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RMXnUv3iIjoC&pg=PA38 |magazine=Flying Magazine |publisher=[[Hachette Filipacchi Media U.S.|Hachette Filipacchi]] |access-date= 24 March 2020 }}</ref>]]
{{main|Avro 707}}

As Avro had no flight experience of the delta wing, the company planned two smaller experimental aircraft based on the 698, the one-third scale model 707 for low-speed handling and the one-half scale model 710 for high-speed handling. Two of each were ordered. The 710 was cancelled when it was considered too time-consuming to develop; a high-speed variant of the 707 was designed in its place, the 707A.<ref>Laming 2002, p. 27.</ref> The first 707, [[United Kingdom military aircraft serial numbers|VX784]], flew in September 1949, but crashed later that month, killing the [[Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment]]'s chief test pilot Squadron Leader Samuel Eric Esler, DFC, AE.<ref>Hewitt 2003, Ireland's Aviator Heroes of World War II, p. 168.</ref> The second low-speed 707, VX790, built with the still uncompleted 707A's nose section (containing an [[ejection seat]])<ref>Laming 2002, p. 29.</ref> and redesignated 707B, flew in September 1950 piloted by Avro test pilot Wg Cdr [[Roland Falk|Roland "Roly" Falk]]. The high-speed 707A, WD280, followed in July 1951.<ref name="blackman21">Blackman 2007, p. 21.</ref>

Due to the delay of the 707 programme, the contribution of the 707B and 707A towards the basic design of the 698 was not considered significant,<ref>Laming 2002, p. 32.</ref> though it did highlight a need to increase the length of the nosewheel to give a ground incidence of 3.5°, the optimum take-off attitude.<ref>Blackman 2007, p. 33.</ref> The 707B and 707A proved the design's validity and gave confidence in the delta [[planform (aeronautics)|planform]]. A second 707A, WZ736, and a two-seat 707C, WZ744, were also constructed, but they played no part in the 698's development.<ref name="blackman21"/>

===Prototypes and type certification{{anchor|Vulcan B.1}}{{anchor|Vulcan B.1A}}{{anchor|Vulcan B.2}}===

====First prototype VX770 and name====
[[File:Comparison of Vulcan Planforms.jpg|thumb|upright|Comparison of Vulcan wing designs]]
More influential than the Avro 707 in the 698's design was the wind-tunnel testing performed at RAE [[Farnborough Airport|Farnborough]]. This necessitated a wing redesign incorporating a cranked and drooped leading edge and [[vortex generators]] to avoid the onset of [[Compressibility#Aeronautical dynamics|compressibility]] drag, which would have restricted the maximum speed.<ref>Laming 2002, p. 43.</ref> This wing modification resulted in the "phase 2" wing which was first investigated on Avro 707A WD480. This modification was too late to be incorporated on the two prototype 698s and the first three B.1 aircraft before their first flights. (The B.1s were quickly retrofitted).

Painted gloss white, the 698 prototype VX770, with its pure delta wing, flew for the first time on 30 August 1952 piloted by [[Roland Falk|Roly Falk]] flying solo.<ref>Darling 2007, p. 13</ref> VX770, fitted with only the first pilot's ejection seat and a conventional control wheel, was powered by four [[Rolls-Royce Avon|Rolls-Royce RA.3 Avon]] engines of {{convert|6500|lbf|kN|abbr=on}} thrust, its intended [[Bristol Olympus]] engines not being available. The prototype had fuselage fuel tanks but no wing tanks, so temporary additional tankage was carried in the bomb bay.<ref>Blackman 2007, pp. 38, 40.</ref> VX770 made an appearance at the 1952 [[Society of British Aerospace Companies|Society of British Aircraft Constructors']] (SBAC) Farnborough Air Show the next month when Falk demonstrated an almost vertical bank.<ref name="Empire">Hamilton-Paterson 2010, pp. 18–19.</ref>

After its Farnborough appearance, the future name of the Avro 698 was a subject of speculation. Avro had strongly recommended the name ''Ottawa'',{{refn|RAF bombers had been traditionally named after inland towns in the British Commonwealth or towns associated with industry.<ref name='white44'>Wansbrough-White 1995, p. 44.</ref>|group=N}} in honour of the company's connection with [[Avro Canada]].<ref name = 'but 31'/><ref name='white44'/> The weekly magazine ''[[Flight International|Flight]]'' suggested ''Albion'' after rejecting ''Avenger'', ''Apollo'', and ''Assegai''. The chief of the air staff preferred a V-class of bombers, and the Air Council announced the following month that the 698 would be called ''Vulcan'' after the [[Vulcan (mythology)|Roman god of fire and destruction]].<ref name='brookes8'>Brookes and Davey 2009, p. 8.</ref>

In January 1953, VX770 was grounded for the installation of wing fuel tanks, [[Armstrong Siddeley Sapphire|Armstrong Siddeley ASSa.6 Sapphire]] engines of {{convert|7500|lbf|kN|abbr=on}} thrust and other systems; it flew again in July 1953.<ref>Blackman 2007, p. 41.</ref>

From 1957, VX770 was used as the flying testbed for the [[Rolls-Royce Conway]] [[turbofan|by-pass]] engine. It crashed at [[1958 Syerston Avro Vulcan crash|a flying display]] at [[RAF Syerston]] in September 1958.<ref name="auto">Darling 2007, p. 15.</ref>

====Second prototype VX777====
The second prototype, VX777, first flew on 3 September 1953. More representative of production aircraft, it was lengthened to accommodate a longer nose undercarriage leg to increase the angle of attack of the wing, shortening the take-off run. It featured a visual bomb-aiming blister under the cabin and was fitted with Bristol Olympus 100 engines of {{convert|9750|lbf|kN|abbr=on}} thrust. At Falk's suggestion, a fighter-style control stick had replaced the control wheel. Like VX770, VX777 had the original wing with straight leading edges.<ref name="auto"/> VX777 was joined in formation by the first prototype VX770 and four Avro 707s at the 1953 Farnborough Air Show. During trials in July 1954, VX777 was substantially damaged in a heavy landing at Farnborough. It was repaired, fitted with Olympus 101 engines of {{convert|11000|lbf|kN|abbr=on}} thrust before resuming trials with Avro and the [[Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment]] (A&AEE) at [[MOD Boscombe Down|Boscombe Down]].{{citation needed|date=November 2024}}

====Testing and type certification====
While exploring VX777's high-speed and high-altitude [[flight envelope]] at the A&AEE, mild [[buffeting]] and other undesirable flight characteristics were experienced while approaching the limiting Mach number, including an alarming tendency to enter an [[Mach tuck|uncontrollable dive]]. This was judged unacceptable for an unarmed bomber. Fitting the phase 2 wing removed the buffeting and an auto-mach trimmer countered the high-speed dive. The latter applied up-elevator as the speed critically increased. This up-elevator force was greater than the force required to counter the dive. Consequently, as speed increased, the control column had to be pushed rather than pulled to maintain level flight. This artificial pitch-up made the Vulcan handle more like other aircraft as its speed increased.<ref>Blackman 2007, pp. 82/83</ref>

The first production B.1{{refn|A contract for 25 production models had been made in July 1952. The same number of the rival Handley Page design, later named Victor, were also ordered.<ref name='wynn62'>Wynn 1997, p. 62.</ref>|group=N}} XA889 first flew in February 1955 with the original wing<ref>Blackman 2007, p. 48.</ref> and joined the trials in June. In September 1955, Falk, flying the second production B.1 XA890 (which had remained at Woodford as part of the MoS's Air Fleet on radio trials), amazed crowds at the Farnborough Air Show by executing a [[barrel roll]]<ref name="Blackman, 2007, 128" >Blackman 2007, pp. 128–129.</ref> on his second flypast in front of the SBAC president's tent. After two days of flying, he was called in front of service and civil aviation authorities and ordered to refrain from carrying out this "dangerous" manoeuvre.<ref name="Blackman, 2007, 128" /> Now fitted with a phase 2 wing, XA889 was delivered in March 1956 to the A&AEE for trials for the type's initial [[Certificate of Airworthiness]] which it received the following month.<ref>Laming 2002, p. 48.</ref>

(In 1956, VX777 was modified with the even larger phase 2(C) wing. Fitted with Olympus 104 engines, it became the aerodynamic prototype of the Vulcan B.2.){{citation needed|date=November 2024}}

===Into service===

====Vulcan B.1 and B1A====
The first 15 production B.1s were powered by the Olympus 101. Many of these early examples in a metallic finish remained the property of the Ministry of Supply, being retained for trials and development purposes. Those entering RAF service were delivered to [[No. 230 Operational Conversion Unit RAF|No 230 Operational Conversion Unit]] (OCU), the first in July 1956.<ref>Laming 2002, pp. 217–219.</ref> Later aircraft, painted in [[anti-flash white]] and powered by the Olympus 102 with {{convert|12000|lbf|kN|abbr=on}} thrust, began to enter squadron service in July 1957.<ref>Wynn 1997, p. 145.</ref> The Olympus 102s were modified during overhaul to the Olympus 104 standard, ultimately rated at {{convert|13500|lbf|kN|abbr=on}} thrust.<ref>Baxter 1990, p. 46.</ref>

Rebuilding B.1s as B.2s was considered but rejected over cost. Nevertheless, to extend the B.1's service life, 28 (the surviving B1 aircraft fitted with Olympus 102/104 engines) were upgraded by [[Armstrong Whitworth]] between 1959 and 1963 to the B.1A standard, including features of the B.2 such as ECM equipment,<ref>Brookes and Davey, 2009, p. 12.</ref> in-flight refuelling receiving equipment,<ref>''Pilot's Notes'' intro. Para. 1.</ref> and UHF radio.<ref name="PilotNotes">''Pilot's Notes'' pt. 1, ch. 16, para. 5.</ref>  However, the B.1As were not strengthened for low-level operations and all were withdrawn by 1968.<ref>Laming 2002, pp. 217–220.</ref>

====Vulcan B.2====
As far back as 1952, Bristol Aero Engines had begun development of the BOl.6 (Olympus 6) rated at {{convert|16000|lbf|kN|abbr=on}} thrust<ref>[http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1957/1957%20-%200198.html?tracked=1 16,000 lb Thrust] ''Flight'' 15 February 1957 p 200</ref> but if fitted to the B.1, this would have reintroduced the buffet requiring further redesign of the wing.<ref name="laming p62">Laming 2002, p. 62.</ref>

The decision to proceed with the B.2 versions of the Vulcan was made in May 1956, being developed by Avro's chief designer [[Roy Ewans]]. The first B.2 was anticipated to be around the 45th aircraft of the 99 then on order.<ref>Wynn 1997, pp. 315, 316.</ref> As well as being able to achieve greater heights over targets, operational flexibility was believed to be extended by the provision of in-flight refuelling equipment and tanker aircraft.<ref>Wynn 1997, p. 154.</ref> The increasing sophistication of Soviet air defences required the fitting of electronic countermeasure (ECM) equipment, and vulnerability could be reduced by the introduction of the Avro [[Blue Steel (missile)|Blue Steel]] [[stand-off missile]], then in development.<ref>Wynn 1997, p. 314.</ref> To develop these proposals, the second Vulcan prototype VX777 was rebuilt with the larger and thinner phase-2C wing, improved flying control surfaces, and Olympus 102 engines, first flying in this configuration in August 1957.<ref>Laming 2002, p. 82.</ref> Several Vulcan B.1s were used for the development of the B.2: development of the BOl.6 (later Olympus 200), XA891; a new AC electrical system, XA893; ECM including jammers within a bulged tail cone and a [[tail warning radar]], XA895: and for Blue Steel development work, XA903.<ref>Laming 2002, pp. 218, 219</ref>

[[File:SBAC58 Vulcan.jpg|thumb|left|Avro Vulcan B.2 XH533, the first B.2 Vulcan, flying at Farnborough in 1958]]
The 46th production aircraft and first B.2, XH533, first flew in September 1958 using Olympus 200 engines, six months before the last B.1 XH532 was delivered in March 1959.<ref>Laming 2002, p. 230.</ref> The second B.2, XH534, flew in January 1959. Powered by production Olympus 201s with {{convert|17000|lbf|kN|abbr=on}} thrust, it was more representative of a production aircraft, being fitted with an in-flight refuelling probe and a bulged ECM tail cone. Some subsequent B.2s were initially lacking probes and ECM tail cones, but these were retrofitted. The first 10 B.2s outwardly showed their B.1 ancestry, retaining narrow engine air intakes. Anticipating even more powerful engines, the air intakes were deepened on the 11th (XH557) and subsequent aircraft. Many of the early aircraft were retained for trials, and the 12th B.2, XH558, was the first to be delivered to the RAF in July 1960. Coincidentally, XH558 was also the last Vulcan in service with the RAF, before being retired in 1992.<ref>Laming 2002, pp. 63, 64.</ref>

The 26th B.2, XL317, the first of a production batch ordered in February 1956, was the first Vulcan, apart from development aircraft, capable of carrying the Blue Steel missile; 33 aircraft were delivered to the RAF with these modifications.<ref>Bulman 2001, p. 152.</ref> When the Mk.2 version of Blue Steel was cancelled in favour of the [[Douglas Aircraft Company|Douglas]] [[GAM-87 Skybolt]] [[air-launched ballistic missile]] in December 1959,<ref>Wynn 1997, p. 401.</ref> fittings were changed in anticipation of the new missile, one under each wing. Though Skybolt was cancelled in November 1962, many aircraft were delivered or retrofitted with "Skybolt" blisters.<ref>Bulman 2001, pp. 155–161.</ref> Later aircraft were delivered with Olympus 301 engines with {{convert|20000|lbf|kN|abbr=on}} thrust. Two earlier aircraft were re-engined (XH557 and XJ784) for trials and development work; another seven aircraft were converted around 1963.<ref>Bulman 2001, pp. 149, 150.</ref>

The last B.2 XM657 was delivered in 1965 and the type served until 1984. Whilst in service, the B.2 was continuously updated with modifications, including rapid engine starting, bomb-bay fuel tanks, wing strengthening to give the fatigue life to enable the aircraft to fly at low level (a tactic introduced in the mid-1960s), upgraded navigation equipment, [[terrain-following radar]], standardisation on a common weapon ([[WE.177]]) and improved ECM equipment.<ref>Brookes and Davey 2009, pp. 21–23.</ref> Nine B.2s were modified for a maritime radar reconnaissance  role<ref name="Brookes83">Brookes and Davey 2009, p. 83.</ref> and six for an airborne tanker role.<ref>Darling 2007, p. 122.</ref> An updated bomb rack assembly allowing the carriage of 30 1,000&nbsp;lb bombs, up from 21 was demonstrated by Avro but was not introduced.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eOmPJOT-wUg| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211115/eOmPJOT-wUg| archive-date=2021-11-15 | url-status=live|title=Vulcan Bomb loading procedure.| date=2 April 2015|via=www.youtube.com}}{{cbignore}}</ref> The updated wing profile increased range to 4,000&nbsp;nm (7,400&nbsp;km).<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.militaryfactory.com/aircraft/detail.asp?aircraft_id=239 |title = Avro Vulcan High-Altitude Long-Range Heavy Bomber - United Kingdom}}</ref>

===Proposed developments and cancelled projects===
;Avro Type 718:
The Avro 718 was a 1951 proposal for a delta-winged military transport based on the Type 698 to carry 80 troops or 110 passengers. It would have been powered by four Bristol Olympus [[Rolls-Royce Olympus#Variants|BOl.3]] engines.<ref name='avrotypelist'>[http://www.avroheritage.com/page10a.html "Avro Type List."] ''Avro Heritage.'' Retrieved: 4 August 2013.</ref>
;Avro Atlantic:
{{main|Avro Atlantic}}
The Avro Type 722 Atlantic was a 1952 proposal (announced in June 1953) for a 120-passenger delta-winged airliner based on the Type 698.<ref name='avrotypelist'/>
;Avro Type 732:
The Avro 732 was a 1956 proposal for a supersonic development of the Vulcan and would have been powered by 8 [[de Havilland Gyron Junior]] engines. Unlike the proposed Avro 721 low-level bomber of 1952 or the [[Avro 730]] supersonic [[stainless steel]] [[Canard (aeronautics)|canard]] bomber dating from 1954 (cancelled in 1957 before completion of the prototype), the Type 732 showed its Vulcan heritage.<ref name='avrotypelist'/>
;Vulcan Phase 6 (Vulcan B.3)
[[File:Avro Vulcan B.3 top-view silhouette.png|thumb|Silhouette of the original study for the Vulcan B.3 patrol missile carrier]]
In 1960, the Air Staff approached Avro with a request into a study for a patrol missile carrier armed with up to six Skybolt missiles capable of a mission length of 12 hours. Avro's submission in May 1960 was the Phase 6 Vulcan, which would have been the Vulcan B.3. The aircraft was fitted with an enlarged wing of {{convert|121|ft|m|abbr=on}} span with increased fuel capacity; additional fuel tanks in a dorsal spine; a new main undercarriage to carry an all-up-weight of {{convert|339000|lb|kg|abbr=on}}; and reheated Olympus 301s of {{convert|30000|lbf|kN|abbr=on}} thrust. An amended proposal of October 1960 inserted a {{convert|10|ft|9|in|m|abbr=on}} plug into the forward fuselage with capacity for six crew members including a relief pilot, all facing forwards on ejection seats, and [[Turbofan#Aft-fan turbofan|aft-fan]] versions of the Olympus 301.<ref name="Gibson">Gibson 2011, pp. 117–118.</ref>
;Fighter-support Vulcan
{{main|Airborne aircraft carrier}}
To counter improving Soviet defences after the cancellation of [[Skybolt]], Avro proposed a Vulcan with three [[Folland Gnat|Gnat]] fighters slung underneath.<ref>Force V: The history of Britain's airborne deterrent, by Andrew Brookes. Jane's Publishing Co Ltd; First Edition 1 Jan. 1982, {{ISBN|0710602383}}, p.131.</ref> The Gnats were to have been released in enemy airspace to provide fighter cover, and they were expected to land "in friendly territory" or return to the Vulcan to replenish their tanks by means of a specially installed flight-refuelling drogue.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thunder-and-lightnings.co.uk/vulcan/history.php|title=Thunder & Lightnings - Avro Vulcan - History|website=www.thunder-and-lightnings.co.uk}}</ref>

===Export proposals===
Other countries expressed interest in purchasing Vulcans, but as with the other V-bombers, no foreign sales materialised.<ref>"Labour Research, Volume 51." 1962, p. 20.</ref>

;Australia:
As early as 1954, the [[Royal Australian Air Force]] (RAAF) recognised that the [[English Electric Canberra]] might soon become outdated. Potential replacements, such as the [[Boeing B-47]]E, [[Handley-Page Victor]] and Vulcan were considered.<ref name = 'stephens 142'>Stephens 1992, p. 142.</ref>

Political pressure for a Canberra replacement came to a head in 1962, by which time agile, supersonic bombers/strategic [[attack aircraft|strike aircraft]], such as the [[North American A-5 Vigilante]], [[BAC TSR-2]], [[General Dynamics F-111C|General Dynamics F-111]], had become available. Had the Australian government pre-ordered the TSR-2, several V-bombers, including Vulcans, would have been made available, for interim use by the RAAF; however, the F-111C was ordered.<ref>[https://archive.today/20120629134547/http://naa12.naa.gov.au/scripts/Imagine.asp?B=1345810&I=1&SE=1 "Correspondence between the Australian and British Governments concerning the selection of the F-111 over the TSR-2."] ''National Archives of Australia''. Retrieved: 11 November 2010.</ref><ref name = 'Weisbrod'>{{citation|jstor=20634276|title=Australia's Decision to Buy the F-111|journal=The Australian Quarterly|volume=41|issue=2|pages=7–27|last1=Weisbrod|first1=Hanno|year=1969|doi=10.2307/20634276}}</ref><ref name="Wilson p.146">Wilson 1989, p.&nbsp;146.</ref> (The UK government almost followed that decision – after the cancellation of the TSR-2 – it was offered the similar [[F-111K]].)

;Argentina:
In the early 1980s, Argentina approached the UK with a proposal to buy a number of Vulcans. An application, made in September 1981, requested the 'early availability' of a 'suitable aircraft'. With some reluctance, British ministers approved the export of a single aircraft but emphasised that clearance had not been given for the sale of a larger number. A letter from the British [[Foreign and Commonwealth Office]] to the [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Defence]] in January 1982 stated that little prospect was seen of this happening without ascertaining the Argentine interest and whether such interest was genuine: 'On the face of it, a strike aircraft would be entirely suitable for an attack on the Falklands.'<ref>[http://www.margaretthatcher.org/document/118426 "Falklands: FCO to MOD (sale of Vulcans to Argentina – no clearance given for sales – declassified 2012)"] ''Margaret Thatcher Foundation''. Retrieved: 4 August 2013.</ref> [[Falklands War|Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands]] less than three months later, after which a British [[embargo]] on the sale of any military equipment was quickly imposed.

==Design==
[[File:Avro Vulcan XH558 Duxford Airshow 2012 (7977149648).jpg|thumb|Avro Vulcan XH558 at [[Imperial War Museum Duxford#Air shows and flying|Duxford Airshow]] 2012 ]]
[[File:Bomb bay of a Vulcan bomber (34010875545).jpg|thumb|Bomb bay]]

===Overview===
Despite its radical and unusual shape, the airframe was built along traditional lines. Except for the most highly stressed parts, the whole structure was manufactured from standard grades of light alloy. The airframe was broken down into a number of major assemblies: The centre section, a rectangular box containing the bomb bay and engine bays bounded by the front and rear [[Spar (aviation)|spars]] and the wing transport joints; the intakes and centre [[fuselage]]; the front fuselage, incorporating the [[Cabin pressurization|pressure cabin]]; the nose; the outer wings; the leading edges; the wing trailing edge and rear end of the fuselage; and a single swept tail fin with a single rudder was on the trailing edge.<ref>Gunston, W. T. [http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1957/1957%20-%201836.html "Building the Vulcan."] ''Flight'', 13 December 1957, p. 926.</ref>

A five-man crew was accommodated within the pressure cabin on two levels; the first pilot and co-pilot sitting on [[Martin-Baker]] 3K (3KS on the B.2) [[ejection seat]]s whilst on the lower level the [[Bombardier (aircrew)|navigator radar]], [[Navigator|navigator plotter]], and air electronics officer (AEO) sat facing rearwards and would abandon the aircraft via the entrance door.<ref name="ReferenceA">''Pilot's Notes'' pt. 1, leading particulars.</ref><ref>''Aircrew Manual'' pt. 1, ch. 2, para. 2.</ref> The original B35/46 specification sought a [[Escape crew capsule|jettisonable crew compartment]], but this requirement was removed in a subsequent amendment; the rear crew's escape system was often an issue of controversy, such as when a practical refit scheme was rejected.<ref name='wynn97'>Wynn 1997, p. 50.</ref><ref name='laming64'>Laming 2002, p. 64.</ref> A rudimentary sixth seat forward of the navigator radar was provided for an additional crew member;<ref>''Pilot's Notes'' pt. 1, introduction, para 2.</ref> the B.2 had an additional seventh seat opposite the sixth seat and forward of the AEO. The visual [[Bombardier (air force)|bomb-aimer's]] compartment could be fitted with a [[Mark XIV bomb sight|T4 (Blue Devil)]] [[bombsight]],<ref name='PB&E102'>Price, Blackman and Edmonson 2010, p. 102.</ref> in many B.2s, this space housed a vertically mounted [[Vinten]] F95 Mk.10 camera for assessing simulated low-level bombing runs.<ref name='brookes65'>Brookes and Davey 2009, p. 65.</ref>

Fuel was carried in 14 bag tanks, four in the centre fuselage above and to the rear of the nosewheel bay, and five in each outer wing. The tanks were split into four groups of almost equal capacity, each normally feeding its respective engine, though cross-feeding was possible. The [[Center of mass|centre of gravity]] was automatically maintained by electric timers, which sequenced the booster pumps on the tanks.<ref name="ReferenceA"/><ref>''Aircrew Manual'' pt. 1, ch. 8, paras. 1, 2, 48.</ref> B.2 aircraft could be fitted with one or two additional fuel tanks in the bomb bay.<ref>''Aircrew Manual'' pt. 1, ch. 8, paras. 3, 12.</ref>

Despite being designed before a low [[radar cross-section]]  and other [[Stealth technology|stealth]] factors were ever a consideration,<ref name="newscientist82">{{cite magazine|magazine=New Scientist|last=Sweetman|first=Bill|title=The Bomber that radar cannot see|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HVJyHCXAOtsC&pg=PA566|date=4 March 1982|publisher=Reed Business Information|page=566}}{{Dead link|date=November 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> an RAE technical note of 1957 stated that of all the aircraft so far studied, the Vulcan appeared by far the simplest radar-echoing object, due to its shape; only one or two components contributed significantly to the echo at any aspect, compared with three or more on most other types.<ref>Dawson 1957, p. 3.</ref>{{refn|Writing for the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, J. Seddon and E. L. Goldsmith noted that "Due to its all-wing shape, small vertical fin, and buried engines, at some angles [the Avro Vulcan] was nearly invisible to radar".<ref>Seddon and Goldsmith 1999, p. 343.</ref> While writing about radar systems, authors Simon Kingsley and Shaun Quegan singled out the Vulcan's shape as reducing the echo.<ref>Kingsley and Quegan 1999, p. 293.</ref> While aviation author Doug Richardson has credited the Vulcan as having been difficult to acquire on radar, he went on to state that this was unlikely to have conferred a great military advantage.<ref>Richardson 2001, p. 56.</ref> In contrast, [[electronic warfare]] author and ex-Vulcan AEO Dr Alfred Price maintains "the Vulcan [...] possessed a large radar signature."<ref name='PB&E113'>Price, Blackman and Edmonson 2010, p. 113.</ref>|group=N}}

===Colour schemes===
[[File:Aerial Vulcan.JPEG|thumb|Aerial view of a Vulcan B.2 in late RAF markings on static display at [[RAF Mildenhall]], 1984]]
The two prototype Vulcans were finished in gloss white. Early Vulcan B.1s left the factory in a natural metal finish; the front half of the nose [[radome]] was painted black, the rear half painted silver. Front-line Vulcan B.1s had a finish of [[anti-flash white]] and [[Royal Air Force roundels|RAF "type D" roundels]]. Front-line Vulcan B.1As and B.2s were similar, but with pale roundels.<ref name="brookes33-35">Brookes and Davey 2009, pp. 33–35.</ref>

With the adoption of low-level attack profiles in the mid-1960s, B.1As and B.2s were given a glossy sea grey medium and dark green disruptive pattern camouflage on the upper surfaces, white undersurfaces, and "type D" roundels. (The last 13 Vulcan B.2s, XM645 onwards, were delivered thus from the factory<ref name="bulman43">Bulman 2001, p. 43.</ref>). In the mid-1970s, Vulcan B.2s received a similar scheme with matte camouflage, light aircraft grey undersides, and "low-visibility" roundels. B.2(MRR)s received a similar scheme in gloss; and the front halves of the radomes were no longer painted black. Beginning in 1979, 10 Vulcans received a wrap-around camouflage of dark sea grey and dark green<ref name="brookes36-41">Brookes and Davey 2009, pp. 36–41.</ref><ref name="bulman170">Bulman 2001, p. 170.</ref> because, during [[Red Flag (United States Air Force)|Red Flag]] exercises in the US, defending [[Surface-to-air missile|SAM]] forces had found that the grey-painted undersides of the Vulcan became much more visible against the ground at high angles of bank.<ref name="Buttler p. 72" />
[[File:Avro_Vulcan_Flight_Deck.jpg|thumb|Avro Vulcan rear crew positions]]

===Avionics===
The original Vulcan B.1 radio fit was: two 10-channel [[Very high frequency|VHF]] transmitter/receivers (TR-1985/TR-1986) and an STR-18, 24-channel [[High frequency|HF]] transmitter-receiver (R4187/T4188).<ref name='Wynn137'>Wynn 1997, p. 137.</ref> The Vulcan B.1A also featured a [[Ultra high frequency|UHF]] transmitter-receiver (ARC-52).<ref name="PilotNotes" /> The initial B.2 radio fit was similar to the B.1A<ref name='PB&E112'>Price, Blackman and Edmonson 2010, p. 112.</ref> though it was ultimately fitted with the ARC-52, a V/UHF transmitter/receiver (PTR-175), and a [[single-sideband modulation]] [[High frequency|HF]] transmitter-receiver ([[Rockwell Collins|Collins]] 618T).<ref>''Aircrew Manual'' pt. 1, ch. 14, paras. 1–12.</ref>

The navigation and bombing system  comprised an [[H2S radar|H2S Mk9 radar]] and a navigation bombing computer Mk1.<ref name='Wynn137'/> Other navigation aids included a [[Marconi Company|Marconi]] radio compass ([[Radio direction finder#Automatic direction finder (ADF)|ADF]]), [[GEE (navigation)|GEE Mk3]], [[Green Satin radar|Green Satin]] [[Doppler radar]] to determine the [[groundspeed]] and [[Wind triangle|drift angle]], [[Radio altimeter|radio and radar altimeters]], and an [[instrument landing system]].<ref name='Wynn137'/> [[TACAN]] replaced GEE in the B.1A<ref>''Pilot's Notes'' pt. 1, ch. 16, para. 11.</ref> and B.2 in 1964. [[Decca Radar|Decca]] Doppler 72 replaced Green Satin in the B.2 around 1969<ref name='PB&E102/3'>Price, Blackman and Edmonson 2010, pp. 102, 103.</ref> A continuous display of the aircraft's position was maintained by a ground position indicator.<ref name='PB&E102/3'/>

Vulcan B.2s were eventually fitted with the free-running [[Gyroscopes|dual-gyroscopic]] heading reference system (HRS) Mk.2, based upon the [[Inertial navigation system|inertial platform]] of the Blue Steel missile, which had been integrated into the system when the missile had been carried.<ref name='PB&E102/3'/> With the HRS a navigator's heading unit was provided, which enabled the navigator plotter to adjust the aircraft heading, through the autopilot, by as little as 0.1 degrees. The B.2 (MRR) was additionally fitted with the [[LORAN]] C navigation system.<ref name="Brookes83"/>

The original ECM fit of the B.1A and B.2 was one Green Palm voice communications jammer; two Blue Diver metric jammers; three [[Red Shrimp]] S-band jammers; a Blue Saga [[Radar warning receiver|passive warning receiver]] with four aerials; a [[Red Steer]] [[tail warning radar]]; and [[Chaff (countermeasure)|chaff]] dispensers.<ref name='Wynn321'>Wynn 1997, p. 321.</ref> The bulk of the equipment was carried in a large, extended tail cone, and a flat ECM aerial counterpoise plate was mounted between the starboard tailpipes.<ref name='Wynn151'>Wynn 1997, p. 151.</ref>{{refn|Some B.2 aircraft armed with Blue Steel had an additional aerial plate fitted between the port tailpipes as the Blue Steel fin, in the lowered position, blanked signals from the starboard side.<ref name='bulman153'>Bulman 2001, p. 153.</ref>|group=N}} Later equipment on the B.2 included: an [[L band]] jammer (replacing a Red Shrimp); the ARI 18146 X-band jammer;<ref name='PB&E106'>Price, Blackman and Edmonson 2010, p. 106.</ref> replacing the Green Palm; the improved Red Steer Mk.2; [[Flare (countermeasure)|infra-red decoys]] (flares); and the ARI 18228 PWR with its aerials that gave a squared top to the fin.<ref name='PB&E112'/><ref name='brookes57'>Brookes and Davey 2009, p. 57.</ref>

===Controls===
[[File:Vulcan B1 XA890 1955.jpg|thumb|Vulcan B.1 XA890 in early silver scheme landing at Farnborough in September 1955 after [[Roly Falk]]'s "aerobatic" display: Note the lower starboard airbrakes, inner and outer. The lower outer airbrakes were later deleted.]]

The aircraft was controlled by a fighter-type control stick and rudder bar, which operated the powered flying controls, which each had a single electrohydraulic-powered flying control unit, except the rudder, which had two, one running as a back-up. Artificial feel and auto stabilisation in the form of pitch and yaw dampers were provided, as well as an auto Mach trimmer.<ref>''Aircrew Manual'' pt. 1, ch. 7, paras. 1, 7, 10, 24, 48.</ref>

The flight instruments in the B.1 were traditional and included ''G4B'' compasses;<ref>''Pilot's Notes'' pt.1, ch. 16, para. 1</ref> Mk.4 artificial horizons;<ref>''Pilot's Notes'' pt.1, ch. 20, para. 3b</ref> and zero reader flight display instruments.<ref>''Pilot's Notes'' pt.1, ch. 16, para. 3b</ref> The B.1 had a [[GE Aviation Systems|Smiths]] Mk10 autopilot.<ref>''Pilot's Notes'' pt. 1, ch. 10.</ref> In the B.2, these features were incorporated into the Smiths Military Flight System (MFS), the pilots' components being: two beam compasses; two director-horizons; and an Mk.10A or Mk.10B [[autopilot]].<ref>''Aircrew Manual'' pt.1, ch. 12, para. 1.</ref> From 1966, B.2s were fitted with the ''ARI 5959''  TFR, built by [[General Dynamics]],<ref>[http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/catalogue/search.asp "National Archive file AVIA 2347."] ''National Archives.'' Retrieved: 11 September 2012.</ref> its commands being fed into the director-horizons.<ref>''Aircrew Manual'' pt. 1, ch. 15, p. 5.</ref>

The B.1 had four [[Elevator (aircraft)|elevators]] (inboard) and four [[aileron]]s (outboard).<ref>''Pilot's Notes'' pt. 1, ch. 10, para. 1(a).</ref> In the B.2, these were replaced by eight [[elevon]]s.<ref>''Aircrew Manual'' pt. 1, ch. 7, para. 7.</ref> The Vulcan was also fitted with six electrically operated three-position (retracted, medium drag, high drag) [[Air brake (aircraft)|airbrakes]], four in the upper centre section and two in the lower.<ref>''Aircrew Manual'' pt. 1, ch. 7, para 70.</ref> Originally, four lower airbrakes were used, but the outboard two were deleted before the aircraft entered service.<ref name='darling1999'>Darling 1999, p. 19.</ref> A brake parachute was installed inside the tail cone.<ref>''Aircrew Manual'' pt. 1, ch. 7, para. 77.</ref>

===Electrical and hydraulic systems===
The main electrical system on the B.1/B.1A was 112 V [[Direct current|DC]] supplied by four 22.5[[Watt#Kilowatt|kW]] engine-driven [[starter-generators]]. Backup power was provided by four 24 V 40 [[Ampere hour|Ah]] batteries connected in series providing 96 V. Secondary electrical systems were 28 V DC, [[Single-phase electric power|single-phase]] 115 V [[Alternating current|AC]] at 1600&nbsp;Hz, and [[Three-phase electric power|three-phase]] 115 V AC at 400&nbsp;Hz, driven by [[transformer]]s and [[Inverter (electrical)|inverters]] from the main system. The 28 V DC system was backed up by a single 24 V battery.<ref>''Pilot's Notes'', ch. 7.</ref>

For greater efficiency and higher reliability,<ref name='blackman100101'>Blackman 2007, pp. 100, 101.</ref> the main system on the B.2 was changed to three-phase 200 V AC at 400&nbsp;Hz supplied by four 40 [[Volt-ampere|kVA]] engine-driven [[Constant Speed Drive|constant-speed]] [[alternator]]s. Engine starting was then by air-starters supplied from a [[Turbomeca Palouste|Palouste]] compressor on the ground. Standby supplies in the event of a main AC failure were provided by two primary systems: A [[ram air turbine]]  driving a 17 kVA alternator was stowed in the underside of the port wing and could operate from high altitudes down to {{convert|20000|ft|m|abbr=on}}. In addition an [[Auxiliary power unit|airborne auxiliary power plant]],<ref name='ACMch4'/> a [[Rover Company|Rover]]<ref name="laming p62"/> gas turbine driving a 40kVA alternator was fitted within the starboard wing, and could be started once the aircraft was below an altitude of {{convert|30000|ft|m|abbr=on}}. Secondary electrical supplies were by transformer-rectifier units for 28 V DC and rotary frequency converters for the 115 V 1600&nbsp;Hz single-phase supplies.<ref name='ACMch4'>''Aircrew Manual'', ch. 4.</ref>

The change to an AC system was a significant improvement. Each PFCU had a hydraulic pump that was driven by an electric motor, in modern terminology, this is an [[electro-hydraulic actuator]].<ref>''Aircrew Manual'', ch. 7.</ref> Because no manual reversion existed, a total electrical failure would result in a loss of control. The standby batteries on the B.1 were designed to give enough power for 20 minutes of flying time, but this proved to be optimistic and two aircraft, XA891 and XA908, crashed as a result.<ref name="lamingp60"/>

The main hydraulic system provided pressure for undercarriage raising and lowering and bogie trim; nosewheel centring and steering; wheel brakes (fitted with [[Maxaret]]s); bomb doors opening and closing; and (B.2 only) AAPP air scoop lowering. Hydraulic pressure was provided by three hydraulic pumps fitted to Nos. 1, 2 and 3 engines. An electrically operated [[Pump|hydraulic power pack]] (EHPP) could be used to operate the bomb doors and recharge the [[Hydraulic accumulator#Compressed gas (or gas-charged) closed accumulator|brake accumulators]]. A compressed air (later nitrogen) system was provided for emergency undercarriage lowering.<ref>''Aircrew Manual'' pt. 1, ch. 10, paras. 1–3, 48.</ref>

===Engine===
{{main|Rolls-Royce Olympus}}
[[File:Royal Air Force Museum Hendon (14195378374).jpg|thumb|Air intake integrated in the wing, for the Olympus jet engines]]

The [[Rolls-Royce Olympus]], originally known as the "Bristol BE.10 Olympus",<ref>Baxter 1990, p. 18.</ref>{{refn|Bristol Aero Engines merged with [[Armstrong Siddeley]] in 1959 to form [[Bristol Siddeley]], which in turn was taken over by [[Rolls-Royce Limited|Rolls-Royce]] in 1966.<ref>Baxter 1990, p. 11.</ref>|group=N}} is a two-spool, [[axial-flow]] [[turbojet]] that powered the Vulcan. Each Vulcan had four engines buried in the wings, positioned in pairs close to the fuselage. The engine's design began in 1947, intended to power the [[Bristol Aeroplane Company]]'s own rival design to the Vulcan.<ref>Baxter 1990, p. 13.</ref>

[[File:Bristol Olympus 101 gas flow diagram.jpg|thumb|Gas-flow diagram of an Olympus Mk 101 engine]]

As the prototype Vulcan VX770 was ready for flight prior to the Olympus being available, it first flew using [[Rolls-Royce Avon]] RA.3 engines of {{convert|6500|lbf|kN|abbr=on}} thrust. These were quickly replaced by [[Armstrong Siddeley Sapphire]] ASSa.6 engines of {{convert|7500|lbf|kN|abbr=on}} thrust.<ref>Laming 2002, pp. 45, 46.</ref> VX770 later became a flying test bed for the [[Rolls-Royce Conway]].<ref>Laming 2002, p. 108.</ref> The second prototype VX777 first flew with Olympus 100s of {{convert|10000|lbf|kN|abbr=on}} thrust. It was subsequently re-engined with Olympus 101 engines.<ref>Laming 2002, p. 47.</ref> When VX777 flew with a Phase 2C (B.2) wing in 1957, it was fitted with Olympus 102 engines of {{convert|12000|lbf|kN|abbr=on}} thrust.<ref>Laming 2002, p. 63.</ref>

Early B.1s were equipped with the Olympus 101. Later aircraft were delivered with Olympus 102s. All Olympus 102s became the Olympus 104 on overhaul and ultimately {{convert|13500|lbf|kN|abbr=on}} thrust on uprating.<ref>Baxter 1990, pp. 44–46.</ref> The first B.2 flew with the second-generation Olympus 200,<ref>Baxter 1990, p. 50.</ref> design of which began in 1952.<ref>[http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1957/1957%20-%200198.html?tracked=1 "16,000 lb Thrust."] ''Flight,'' 15 February 1957, p. 200.</ref> Subsequent B.2s were engined with either the uprated Olympus 201 or the Olympus 301. The Olympus 201 was designated 202 on being fitted with a rapid air starter.<ref>Baxter 1990, pp. 50–64.</ref> The engine would later be developed into a [[reheat]]ed (afterburning) powerplant for the cancelled TSR-2 strike/reconnaissance aircraft and the [[supersonic transport|supersonic passenger transport]] [[Concorde]].<ref name="Buttler p. 72">Buttler 2007, p. 72.</ref>

Around 90% power, the engines in the Vulcan would emit a distinctive "howl"-like noise<ref>[http://www.vulcantothesky.org/news/526/82/We-all-love-the-howl.html "We all love the howl"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140111044750/http://www.vulcantothesky.org/news/526/82/We-all-love-the-howl.html |date=11 January 2014 }} ''Vulcan To The Sky Trust'', 13 December 2013.</ref>  due to the air intake arrangement, which became an attraction at public airshows.<ref>[http://www.bournemouthecho.co.uk/news/4823500.Will__howl__of_the_Vulcan_bomber_be_heard_over_Bournemouth_again_/ "Will 'howl' of the Vulcan bomber be heard over Bournemouth again?"] The Daily Echo, 30 December 2009.</ref><ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H_ARSE8jEHQ "Vulcan XH558 Awesome Howl Sounds"] ''YouTube'', 28 October 2012.</ref>

==Operational history==
===Introduction===
In September 1956, the RAF received its first Vulcan B.1, XA897, which immediately embarked upon a round-the-world tour. The tour was to be an important demonstration of the range and capabilities of the aircraft, but it also had other benefits in the form of conducting goodwill visits in various countries; during their service, Vulcans routinely visited various nations and distant parts of the [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] as a show of support and military protection.<ref>Lambert, C. M. [http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1958/1958-1-%20-%200064.html?tracked=1 "Bomex By Vulcan."]  ''Flight International'', January 1958, p. 66.</ref> This first tour, however, was struck by misfortune; on 1 October 1956, while landing in bad weather at [[London Heathrow Airport]] at the completion of the world tour, [[1956 London Heathrow Avro Vulcan crash|XA897 was destroyed]] in a fatal accident.<ref name="blackman142"/>

[[File:VulcanB2atFilton1960s.jpg|thumb|left|A Vulcan B1A of the Waddington Wing at Filton during a public air display in the 1960s]]

The first two aircraft were delivered to 230 OCU in January 1957 and the training of crews started on 21 February 1957.<ref name="lamingp60">Laming 2002, p. 60.</ref> The first OCU course to qualify was No. 1 Course, on 21 May 1957, and they went on to form the first flight of [[No. 83 Squadron RAF|No. 83 Squadron]].<ref name="lamingp60"/> No. 83 Squadron was the first operational squadron to use the bomber, at first using borrowed Vulcans from the OCU, and on 11 July 1956 it received the first aircraft of its own.<ref name="lamingp60"/> By September 1957, several Vulcans had been handed over to No. 83 Squadron.<ref>[http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1957/1957%20-%201412.html "Vulcans In Service: A visit to the V-force Delta of No.1 Group in Lincolnshire."] ''Flight International'', 27 September 1957, pp. 502–503.</ref> The second OCU course also formed a Flight of 83 Squadron, but subsequent trained crews were also used to form the second bomber squadron, [[No. 101 Squadron RAF|101 Squadron]].<ref name="lamingp60"/> The last aircraft from the first batch of 25 aircraft had been delivered by the end of 1957 to 101 Squadron.<ref name="lamingp60"/>

To increase the mission range and flight time for Vulcan operations, in-flight refuelling capabilities were added from 1959 onwards; several Valiant bombers were refurbished as tankers to refuel the Vulcans.<ref name = 'brookes49'>Brookes and Davey 2009, p. 49.</ref> Continuous airborne patrols proved untenable, however, and the refuelling mechanisms across the Vulcan fleet fell into disuse in the 1960s.<ref name = 'brookes49'/> Both Vulcans and the other V-force aircraft routinely visited the Far East, in particular [[Singapore]], where a fully equipped nuclear-weapons storage facility had been constructed in 1959.<ref name = 'kev 55'>Darling 2007, p. 55.</ref> These deployments were part of the UK's contribution to [[SEATO]] operations, often to test the defences of friendly nations in joint exercises.<ref name="kev 55" /> During the [[Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation]], Britain planned to deploy three squadrons of V-bomber aircraft and 48 Red Beard tactical nuclear weapons to the region, although this was ultimately decided against. Vulcans trained in the region for both conventional and nuclear missions.<ref name = 'kev 55'/> In the early 1970s, the RAF decided to permanently deploy two squadrons of Vulcans overseas in the Near East Air Force Bomber Wing, based at [[RAF Akrotiri]] in [[Cyprus]]. The Vulcans were withdrawn in the mid-1970s, however, as [[Cypriot intercommunal violence]] intensified.<ref>Darling 2007, pp. 65, 108.</ref>

[[File:RAF Vulcan B.JPEG|thumb|Royal Air Force Vulcan B.2 being prepared for flight on 25 May 1985]]

Vulcans flew some very long-range missions. In June 1961, one flew 18,507&nbsp;km from RAF Scampton to Sydney in just over 20 hours, facilitated by three air refuellings. Vulcans frequently visited the United States during the 1960s and 1970s to participate in air shows and static displays, as well as to participate in the [[Strategic Air Command]]'s (SAC) Annual Bombing and Navigation Competition at such locations as [[Barksdale AFB]], Louisiana, and the former [[McCoy AFB]], Florida. Vulcans also took part in the large scale [[Operation Skyshield]] exercise in 1961, in which [[NORAD]] defences were tested against possible Soviet air attack, the B-47s, B-52s, and relatively small amount of Vulcans simulating Soviet fighter/bomber attacks against New York, Chicago, and [[Washington, DC]]. The results of the tests were classified until 1997.<ref name="Skyshield">Mola, Roger A. [http://www.airspacemag.com/history-of-flight/the-day-nobody-flew-10082383/ "The Day Nobody Flew."] ''airspacemag.com'', November 2006. Retrieved: 5 November 2009.</ref> The Vulcan proved quite successful during the 1974 "Giant Voice" exercise, in which it managed to avoid USAF interceptors.<ref>Sgarlato, Nico. "Avro Vulcan." Aerei magazine, Delta Editions, Parma, November 1996, p. 56.</ref>

===Nuclear deterrent===
As part of Britain's independent nuclear deterrent, the Vulcan initially carried Britain's first nuclear weapon, the ''[[Blue Danube (nuclear weapon)|Blue Danube]]'' [[Unguided bomb|gravity bomb]].<ref>Darling 2007, p. 6.</ref> ''Blue Danube'' was a low-kiloton yield fission bomb designed before the United States detonated the first [[hydrogen bomb]]. These were supplemented by U.S.-owned ''[[Mark 5 nuclear bomb|Mk 5]]'' bombs (made available under the [[Project E]] programme) and later by the British [[Red Beard (nuclear weapon)|''Red Beard'']] tactical nuclear weapon.<ref name="Leitch p55,8" >Leitch ''Air Enthusiast'' September/October 2003, pp. 55, 58.</ref> The UK had already embarked on its own hydrogen bomb programme, and to bridge the gap until these were ready the V-bombers were equipped with an Interim Megaton Weapon based on the ''Blue Danube'' casing containing ''[[Green Grass (nuclear warhead)|Green Grass]]'', a large pure-fission warhead of {{convert|400|ktonTNT|PJ|lk=on|adj=on}} yield.<ref name = 'kev32' >Darling 2007, p. 32.</ref>{{refn|According to UK parlance of the time, "megaton range" was understood to correspond to 500&nbsp;kt or greater.<ref name="WoF p48" >Jackson ''Wings of Fame'' 1996, p. 48.</ref> The ''Green Grass'' warhead had a predicted yield of 500&nbsp;kt.<ref name="Leitch p57">Leitch ''Air Enthusiast'' September/October 2003, p. 57.</ref>|group=N}} This bomb was known as ''[[Violet Club]]''.<ref name = 'kev32'/> Only five were deployed before the ''Green Grass'' warhead was incorporated into a developed weapon as ''[[Yellow Sun (nuclear weapon)|Yellow Sun Mk.1.]]''<ref name = 'kev32'/>

The later ''Yellow Sun Mk 2'', was fitted with ''[[Red Snow]]'',<ref name = 'kev32'/> a British-built variant of the U.S. [[B28 nuclear bomb|W28 warhead]]. ''Yellow Sun Mk 2'' was the first British thermonuclear weapon to be deployed, and was carried on both the Vulcan and [[Handley Page Victor]]. The Valiant retained U.S. nuclear weapons assigned to [[SACEUR]] under the dual-key arrangements. ''Red Beard'' was positioned in [[Singapore]] for use by Vulcan and Victor bombers.<ref>Darling 2007, p. 19.</ref> From 1963, three squadrons of Vulcan B.2s and two squadrons of Victor B.2s were armed with the [[Blue Steel (missile)|''Blue Steel'']] missile, a rocket-powered stand-off bomb, which was also fitted with the {{convert|1.1|MtonTNT|abbr=on}} yield ''Red Snow'' warhead.<ref>Darling 2007, p. 76.</ref>

Operationally, RAF Bomber Command and the SAC cooperated in the [[Single Integrated Operational Plan]]  to ensure coverage of all major Soviet targets from 1958; 108 of the RAF's V-bombers were assigned targets under the plan by the end of 1959.<ref name ='brookes14'>Brookes and Davey 2009, p. 14.</ref> From 1962 onwards, two jets in every RAF bomber base were armed with nuclear weapons and on standby permanently under the principle of [[Quick Reaction Alert]] (QRA).<ref name ='brookes14'/> Vulcans on QRA were to be airborne within four minutes of receiving an alert, as this was identified as the amount of time between warning of a USSR nuclear strike being launched and it arriving in Britain.<ref name = 'brookes43'>Brookes and Davey 2009, p. 43.</ref> The closest the Vulcan came to taking part in potential nuclear conflict was during the [[Cuban Missile Crisis]] in October 1962, where Bomber Command was moved to Alert Condition 3, an increased state of preparedness from normal operations; however, it stood down in early November.<ref name ='brookes14-15'>Brookes and Davey 2009, pp. 14–15.</ref>

[[File:AvroVulcan2008.JPG|thumb| [[XH558]] taking off, 2008 [[Farnborough Airshow]]]]

The Vulcans were intended to be equipped with the Skybolt missile to replace the Blue Steel, with Vulcan B.2s carrying two Skybolts under the wings. The last 28 B.2s were modified on the production line to fit pylons to carry the Skybolt.<ref>Laming 2002, p. 88.</ref><ref>Darling 2007, p. 116.</ref> A [[#Proposals_and_cancelled_projects|B.3 variant]] with increased wingspan to carry up to six Skybolts was proposed in 1960.<ref>Laming 2002, p. 89.</ref> When the Skybolt missile system was cancelled by U.S. President [[John F. Kennedy]] on the recommendation of his Secretary of Defense, [[Robert McNamara]] in 1962, precipitating the [[Nassau Agreement|Skybolt Crisis]], ''Blue Steel'' was retained. To supplement it until the [[Royal Navy]] took on the deterrent role with [[UGM-27 Polaris|Polaris]] SLBM-equipped submarines, the Vulcan bombers adopted a new mission profile of flying high during clear transit, dropping down low to avoid enemy defences on approach, and deploying a parachute-retarded bomb, the [[WE.177]]B.<ref name = 'kev65'/> However, since the aircraft had been designed for high-altitude flight, at low altitudes it could not exceed 350 knots. RAF Air Vice Marshal Ron Dick, a former Vulcan pilot, said "it is [thus] questionable whether it could have been effective flying at low level in a war against ... the Soviet Union."<ref name="mellow200401">{{cite news | url=http://www.airspacemag.com/history-of-flight/vulcan.html?c=y&story=fullstory | archive-url=https://archive.today/20130910054135/http://www.airspacemag.com/history-of-flight/vulcan.html?c=y&story=fullstory | url-status=dead | archive-date=2013-09-10 | title=God Save the Vulcan! | work=Air & Space | date=January 2004 | access-date=9 September 2013 | author=Mellow, Craig }}</ref>

After the British Polaris submarines became operational and Blue Steel was taken out of service in 1970, the Vulcan continued to carry WE.177B in a [[tactical nuclear weapons|tactical nuclear]] strike role as part of the British contribution to Europe's standing NATO forces, although they no longer held aircraft at 15 minutes' readiness in peacetime.<ref name = 'kev65'>Darling 2007, p. 65.</ref> Two squadrons were also stationed in Cyprus as part of the Near East Air Force and assigned to [[Central Treaty Organization]] in a strategic strike role. With the eventual demise of the WE.177B and the Vulcan bombers, the [[Blackburn Buccaneer]], [[SEPECAT Jaguar]], and [[Panavia Tornado]] continued with the WE.177C until its retirement in 1998.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20121104032020/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1-19787557.html "Royal Air Force loses nuclear arsenal."] ''AP Online'', 31 March 1998.</ref> While not a like-for-like replacement, the multi-role Tornado interdictor/strike bomber is the successor for the roles previously filled by the Vulcan.<ref>Segell 1997, p. 124.</ref>

===Conventional role===
[[File:VulcanblackbuckefJM.jpg|thumb|Vulcan XM597 at the [[National Museum of Flight]], Scotland; note the [[Operation Black Buck]] markings and the small Brazilian flag indicating the aircraft's internment in [[Brazil]].]]
[[File:The Vulcan at RAF_Waddington, 1982.jpeg|thumb|right|Engineers and flight crew with the Vulcan prior to deployment to Ascension Island]]
{{See also|Operation Black Buck}}

Although in operational use the Vulcan typically carried various nuclear armaments, the type also had a secondary conventional role. While performing conventional combat missions, the Vulcan could carry up to 21&nbsp;{{convert|1000|lb|kg|0|abbr=on}} bombs inside its bomb bay.<ref name ='stbull84'>Bull 2004, p. 84.</ref> From the 1960s, the various Vulcan squadrons routinely conducted conventional training missions; the aircrews were expected to be able to perform conventional bombing missions, in addition to the critical nuclear strike mission.<ref>Darling 2007, p. 63.</ref>

The Vulcan's only combat missions took place towards the end of the type's service in 1982. During the [[Falklands War]], the Vulcan was deployed against [[Argentina|Argentinian]] forces which had occupied the [[Falkland Islands]]. The missions performed by the Vulcan became known as the ''[[Operation Black Buck|Black Buck]]'' raids, each aircraft had to fly {{convert|3889|mi|km|abbr=on}} from [[Ascension Island]] to reach [[Stanley, Falkland Islands|Stanley]] on the Falklands. [[Handley Page Victor|Victor tankers]] conducted the necessary air-to-air refuelling for the Vulcan to cover the distance involved; approximately {{convert|1100000|impgal|L|sigfig=2|abbr=on}} of fuel was used in each mission.<ref name="Falklands">[http://www.raf.mod.uk/falklands/bb.html "The Falkland Islands: A history of the 1982 conflict."] ''Royal Air Force'', 29 April 2010. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070318044222/http://www.raf.mod.uk/falklands/bb.html |date=18 March 2007 }}</ref>

Engineering work to prepare the five Vulcans that would conduct the missions began on 9 April.<ref>Darling 2007, pp. 116–117.</ref><ref name="braybrook 17">Braybook 1982, p. 17.</ref> Each aircraft required modifications to the bomb bay, the reinstatement of the long-out-of-use in-flight refuelling system, the installation of a new navigational system derived from the [[Vickers VC10]], and the updating of several onboard electronics. Underneath the wings, new pylons were fitted to carry an ECM pod and [[Shrike missile|Shrike]] antiradar missiles at wing [[hardpoint]] locations.

[[File:Vulcan bomber 18 May 1982.JPG|thumb|left|A Vulcan flying over Ascension Island on 18 May 1982]]

On 1 May, the first mission was conducted by a single Vulcan (XM607) that flew over [[Port Stanley]] and dropped its bombs on the airfield, concentrating on the single runway, with one direct hit, making it unsuitable for fighter aircraft. The Vulcan's mission was quickly followed up by strikes against anti-air installations, flown by [[British Aerospace Sea Harrier]]s from Royal Navy aircraft carriers.<ref>Hearn 2007, p. 268.</ref> A further two missions saw missiles launched against radar installations and two additional missions were cancelled.<ref name="Falklands"/> At the time, these missions held the record for the world's longest-distance raids.<ref name ='stbull84'/><ref>White 2006</ref> The Vulcans' ECM systems proved to be effective at jamming Argentine radars; while a Vulcan was within the theatre, other British aircraft in the vicinity had a reduced chance of coming under effective fire.<ref>Darling 2007, p. 118.</ref>

On 3 June 1982, Vulcan B.2 XM597 of No. 50 Squadron took part in the "Black Buck 6" mission against Argentinian radar sites at Stanley airfield on the Falkland Islands. While attempting to refuel for its return journey to Ascension Island, the probe broke, leaving the Vulcan with insufficient fuel, forcing a diversion to [[Galeão Air Force Base]], [[Rio de Janeiro]], in neutral [[Brazil]]. En route, secret papers were dumped along with the two remaining AGM-45 Shrike missiles, although one failed to launch. After a [[mayday]] call, the Vulcan, escorted by [[Brazilian Air Force]] [[Northrop F-5]] fighters, was permitted an emergency landing at Rio with very little fuel left on board.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=wdM5wJlVhpcC&pg=PA119 Kev Darling, ''RAR Illustrated: Avro Vulcan Part 1''], Big Bird Publications 2007, {{ISBN|978-1-84799-237-6}} (p.119)</ref> The Vulcan and her crew were detained until the end of hostilities nine days later.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=6gcWXswKueAC&pg=PA92 Chris Chant, ''Air War in the Falklands 1982''], Osprey Publishing Limited 2001, {{ISBN|1841762938}} (p.92)</ref>

===Reconnaissance===
In November 1973, as a result of the planned closure of the Victor SR.2 equipped [[No. 543 Squadron RAF|No. 543 Squadron]], No. 27 Squadron reformed at RAF Scampton equipped with the Vulcan as a replacement in the maritime radar reconnaissance role.<ref name="Jones V p158-9">Jones ''V-Bombers'' 2007, pp. 158–159.</ref>{{refn|The other two squadrons of the Scampton Wing, No. 35 and 617 Squadron, also had a secondary maritime reconnaissance role.<ref name="WoF p67">Jackson ''Wings of Fame'' 1996, p. 67.</ref>|group=N}} The squadron carried out patrols of the seas around the British Isles, including the strategically important [[GIUK gap]] between Iceland and the United Kingdom, flying at high level and using the Vulcan's H2S radar to monitor shipping. In peacetime, this could be followed up by visual identification and photography of targets of interest at low level. In the event of war, a Vulcan would leave visual identification of potential targets to [[Blackburn Buccaneer|Buccaneers]] or Canberras and could coordinate attacks by Buccaneers against hostile shipping.<ref name="WoF p67,78">Jackson ''Wings of Fame'' 1996, pp. 67, 78.</ref> Though initially equipped with a number of B.2 aircraft,<ref name='Bulman87'>Bulman 2001, p. 87.</ref> the Squadron eventually operated nine B.2 (MRR) aircraft (also known by the unofficial designation SR.2).<ref name="Brookes83"/><ref name="jones V p159"/> The aircraft were modified for the role by removing the TFR (and its thimble radome) and adding the [[LORAN]] C radio navigation aid. The main external visual difference was the presence of a gloss paint finish, with a light grey undersurface, to protect against sea spray.<ref name='Brookes83'/>

The squadron also inherited its secondary role of [[National technical means of verification#Materials intelligence and Air Sampling|air sampling]] from No. 543 Squadron.<ref name='Brookes83'/> This involved flying through plumes of airborne contamination and using onboard equipment to collect [[fallout]] released from both above ground and underground nuclear tests for later analysis at the [[Atomic Weapons Establishment|Atomic Weapons Research Establishment]] at Aldermaston.<ref name="brookes vic p70">Brookes 2011, p. 70.</ref> Five aircraft had small pylons fitted to the redundant Skybolt hardpoints, which could be used to carry sampling pods modified from [[drop tank]]s.{{refn|Some sources state that the pods were modified from [[de Havilland Sea Vixen]] drop tanks.<ref name='Brookes83'/> while others claim that they were based on [[Hawker Hunter]] tanks.<ref name="jones V p159"/>|group=N}} These pods would collect the needed samples on a filter, while an additional smaller "localiser" pod was fitted to the port wing, inboard of the main pylons.<ref name="WoF p67"/><ref name="jones V p159"/><ref name='Bulman90'>Bulman 2001, p. 90.</ref>

The squadron disbanded at Scampton in March 1982, passing on its radar reconnaissance duties to the RAF's [[Hawker Siddeley Nimrod|Nimrod]]s.<ref name="jones V p159">Jones ''V-Bombers'' 2007, p. 159.</ref>

===Aerial refuelling role{{anchor|Vulcan K.2}}===
After the end of the Falklands War in 1982, the Vulcan B.2 was due to be withdrawn from RAF service that year.<ref name="polmar261">Polmar and Bell 2004, p. 261.</ref> The Falklands campaign, however, had consumed much of the airframe fatigue life of the RAF's Victor tankers. While [[Vickers VC10]] tanker conversions had been ordered in 1979<ref>[http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1979/1979%20-%201186.html?tracked=1 "Defence."] ''Flight International'', 14 April 1979, p. 1136.</ref> and [[Lockheed TriStar (RAF)|Lockheed TriStar]] tankers would be ordered after the conflict,<ref name="Frawley Military">Frawley 2002, p. 44.</ref> as a stopgap measure six Vulcans were converted into single-point tankers. The Vulcan tanker conversion was accomplished by removing the jammers from the ECM bay in the tail of the aircraft and replacing them with a single hose drum unit.<ref name="braybrook 17" /> An additional cylindrical bomb-bay tank was fitted, giving a fuel capacity of almost {{convert|100000|lb|abbr=on}}.<ref name="braybrook 17" /><ref name="VulcanAdventure244">Halpenny 2006, p. 244.</ref>

The go-ahead for converting the six aircraft was given on 4 May 1982.<ref name=VulcanAdventure243 >Halpenny 2006, p. 243.</ref> Just 50 days after being ordered, the first Vulcan tanker, ''XH561'', was delivered to [[RAF Waddington]].<ref name = 'braybrook 17'/><ref name="VulcanAdventure243"/> The Vulcan K.2s were operated by No. 50 Squadron, along with three Vulcan B.2s, in support of UK air defence activities until it was disbanded in March 1984.<ref>Darling 2007, p. 124.</ref>

===Vulcan Display Flight===
[[File:Red Arrows Farewell to Vulcan MOD 45159089.jpg|thumb|Vulcan B.2 in formation with the [[Red Arrows]], 2015]]
{{Main|Vulcan Display Flight}}
After the disbandment of No. 50 Squadron, two Vulcans continued flying with the RAF in air displays as part of the [[Vulcan Display Flight]], based at Waddington but administered through No. 55 Squadron, based at [[RAF Marham]]. Initially displaying using [[XL426]], in 1986 that aircraft was sold, having been replaced by [[XH558]], which began displays in 1985. The VDF continued with XH558 until 1992, finishing operations after the Ministry of Defence determined it was too costly to run in light of budget cuts. Both aircraft subsequently entered preservation and survived, although a third, XH560, kept in reserve in the first years, was later scrapped.

===Engine test beds===
* The first prototype VX770 had its Sapphire engines replaced with four {{convert|15000|lbf|kN|abbr=on}} Rolls-Royce Conway RCo.7 turbofans in 1957. It was transferred to Rolls-Royce as the Conway test bed.<ref name="Vul" >Jackson 1990, pp. 409–411.</ref> It flew with the Conways, the first [[turbofan]]s in the world, until its [[#Accidents_and_incidents|fatal crash]] in September 1958.<ref name="Vul2" >Jackson 1990, p. 411.</ref>
* The first Vulcan B.1 XA889 was used for the flight clearances of the Olympus 102 and 104.<ref>Baxter 1989, p. 44.</ref>
* Vulcan B.1 XA891 was fitted with four Olympus 200 engines in the spring of 1958 for intensive flying trials. The aircraft [[#Accidents_and_incidents|crashed]] in July 1958 during a routine test flight.<ref>Baxter 1989, p. 50.</ref>
* Vulcan B.1 XA894 flew with five Olympus engines, the standard four Mk.101s, plus a reheated Olympus 320 destined for the BAC TSR-2 in an underslung nacelle. This aircraft was destroyed in a ground fire at Filton on 3 December 1962.<ref name="Vul2"/>
* Vulcan B.1 XA896 was withdrawn from RAF service in June 1964 and transferred to be converted to the test bed for the [[Bristol Siddeley BS100]] vectored thrust turbofan for the [[Hawker Siddeley P.1154]]. The P.1154 was cancelled in February 1965 and XA896 was scrapped before being converted.<ref name="brookes15">Brookes and Davey 2009, p. 15.</ref>
* Vulcan B.1 XA902 was withdrawn from RAF service after a landing accident in 1958. After rebuilding, it replaced VX770 as the Conway test bed, fitted with four RCo.11s. The two inner Conways were replaced with [[Rolls-Royce Spey]]s, flying for the first time in this configuration on 12 October 1961.<ref name="Vul2" />
* Vulcan B.1 XA903, surplus to Blue Steel trials, was converted to a similar layout to XA894 to flight test the Olympus 593 Concorde installation. The first flight was on 1 October 1966 and testing continued through to June 1971.<ref>Austin 2009, pp. 111–113.</ref> In April 1973, XA903 started flying with an underslung [[Rolls-Royce RB.199]] turbofan destined for the Panavia Tornado. XA903 was the last B.1 to fly, being retired in February 1979.<ref>Austin 2009, p. 113.</ref>
* Vulcan B.2 XH557 was used by BSEL for developing the Olympus 301 and first flew with the larger engine in May 1961. It was returned to [[Woodford Aerodrome|Woodford]] in 1964 to be refurbished for the RAF.<ref>Baxter 1989, pp. 60, 64.</ref>

==Variants==
;B.1
:The initial production aircraft. The first few had straight leading edges, later retrofitted with phase 2 (kinked) wings. Early examples were finished in silver, later changed to "[[Anti-flash white|anti-flash" white]]. Many were converted to B.1A standard 1959–1963. The last few unmodified B.1s in RAF service with No. 230 OCU retired by 1966.<ref>Darling 2007, p. 60.</ref> Last flight by any B.1, an engine testbed XA903, March 1979.<ref>Laming 2002, p. 99.</ref>

;B.1A
:The B.1 with an ECM system in a new larger tail cone (as in B.2).<ref name ='brookes16-17'>Brookes and Davey 2009, pp. 16–17.</ref> Unlike the B.2, the B.1As did not undergo extensive wing strengthening for low-level flying<ref name ='brookes14'/><ref>Brookes and Davey 2009, pp. 14, 92.</ref> and were withdrawn from service 1966–67.<ref>Darling 2007, pp. 62–63.</ref>

;B.2
:Developed version of the B.1. Larger, thinner wing than the B.1 (Phase 2C wing) and fitted with Olympus 201-202 engines, or Olympus 301 engines. Uprated electrics with AAPP and [[Ram Air Turbine]] (RAT).<ref name = 'brookes10'>Brookes and Davey 2009, p. 10.</ref> ECM similar to B.1A. TFR in nose thimble radome fitted to most aircraft in the mid-60s. New [[Radar warning receiver]] aerials on tail fin giving it a square top from the mid-1970s.{{refn|Some sources have attested to the existence of a Vulcan ''B.2A''. This designation supposedly referred either to Vulcan B.2s fitted with Olympus Mk 301 engines or those modified to carry the Blue Steel missile.<ref name ='brookes92-93'>Brookes and Davey 2009, pp. 92–93.</ref><ref name = 'polmar262'>Polmar and Bell 2004, p. 262.</ref> However, irrespective of the role or engine fit, the B.2 was the only official designation except for the MRR and tanker variants.<ref name="laming64"/><ref>Bulman 2001, p. 154.</ref>|group=N}}

;B.2 (MRR)
:Nine B.2s converted to maritime radar reconnaissance (MRR). TFR deleted. Five aircraft were further modified for the air sampling role. Distinctive gloss finish with light grey underside.<ref name="Brookes83"/>

;K.2
:Six B.2s converted for air-to-air refuelling with Mark 17 hose drum unit (HDU) mounted semi-recessed in the tail cone. TFR deleted. Fitted with three bomb-bay drum tanks, it was the only mark of Vulcan that could jettison fuel in an emergency.<ref>Darling 2007, pp. 122–124.</ref>

;B.3
:Proposed version, intended as a long-endurance missile carrier capable of carrying up to six Skybolt missiles on flights of up to 12 hours duration. Never built.<ref name="Gibson" />

===Production===
A total of 134 production Vulcans were assembled at Woodford Aerodrome, 45 to the B.1 design and 89 were B.2 models, the last being delivered to the RAF in January 1965.<ref name = 'brookes10'/>

{|class="wikitable"
|-
!Contract date
!Quantity
!Variant
!Notes
|-
|6 Jul 1948
|{{right|2}}
|Prototypes
|Two prototypes were delivered in Aug 1952 and Sep 1953<ref name="laming217-227">Laming 2002, pp. 217–227.</ref>
|-
|14 Aug 1952
|{{right|25}}
|Vulcan B.1
|First flight of production aircraft 4 Feb 1955, delivered between Jun 1955 and Dec 1957<ref name="laming217-227" /><ref name="XA898">Halley 2003, p. 8.</ref>
|-
|30 Sep 1954
|{{right|20}}
|Vulcan B.1
|Delivered between Jan 1958 and Apr 1959<ref name="laming217-227" /><ref name="XH475">Halley 2003, p. 41.</ref>
|-
|30 Sep 1954
|{{right|17}}
|Vulcan B.2
|Delivered between Sep 1959 and Dec 1960<ref name="laming217-227" /><ref name="XH475" />
|-
|31 Mar 1955
|{{right|8}}
|Vulcan B.2
|Delivered between Jan and May 1961<ref name="laming217-227" /><ref name="XJ780">Halley 2003, p. 50.</ref>
|-
|25 Feb 1956
|{{right|24}}
|Vulcan B.2
|Delivered between Jul 1961 and Nov 1962<ref name="laming217-227" /><ref name="XL317">Halley 2003, p. 54.</ref>
|-
|22 Jan 1958
|{{right|40}}
|Vulcan B.2
|Delivered between Feb 1963 and Jan 1965, one aircraft not flown and used as a static test airframe<ref name="laming217-227" /><ref name="XM569">Halley 2003, p. 63.</ref>
|-
!Total
|'''{{right|136}}'''
|
|
|}

==Operators==
[[File:XH558 Planform.JPG|thumb|The ''Vulcan to the Sky Trust's'' [[Avro Vulcan XH558]]]]
;{{UK}}
* [[Aeroplane and Armament Experimental Establishment]] aircraft used for trials and evaluation
* [[Royal Air Force]]
** [[No. 9 Squadron RAF|9 squadron]] (B.2 from 1962 to 1982)<ref name="Jefford27">Jefford 1998, p. 27.</ref>
** [[No. 12 Squadron RAF|12 squadron]] (B.2 from 1962 to 1967)<ref name="Jefford28">Jefford 1998, p. 28.</ref>
** [[No. 27 Squadron RAF|27 squadron]] (B.2 from 1961 to 1972 and the B.2 (MRR) from 1973 to 1982)<ref name="Jefford34">Jefford 1998, p. 34.</ref>
** [[No. 35 Squadron RAF|35 squadron]] (B.2 from 1962 to 1982)<ref name="Jefford37">Jefford 1998, p. 37.</ref>
** [[No. 44 Squadron RAF|44 squadron]] (B.1/B.1A from 1960 to 1967 and the B.2 from 1966 to 1982)<ref name="Jefford39">Jefford 1998, p. 39.</ref>
** [[No. 50 Squadron RAF|50 squadron]] (B.1/B.1A from 1961 to 1966, the B.2 from 1966 to 1984 and the K.2 from 1982 to 1984)<ref name="Jefford41">Jefford 1998, p. 41.</ref>
** [[No. 83 Squadron RAF|83 squadron]] (the first Vulcan squadron operated the B.1/B.1A from 1957 to 1960 and the B.2 from 1960 to 1969)<ref name="Jefford50">Jefford 1998, p. 50.</ref>
** [[No. 101 Squadron RAF|101 squadron]] (B.1/B1A from 1957 to 1967 and the B.2 from 1967 to 1982)<ref name="Jefford54">Jefford 1998, p. 54.</ref>
** [[No. 617 Squadron RAF|617 squadron]] (OB.1/B1A from 1958 to 1961 and the B.2 from 1961 to 1981)<ref name="Jefford101">Jefford 1998, p. 101.</ref>
** [[No. 230 Operational Conversion Unit RAF|230 OCU]]<ref>Lake 1999</ref> from 1956 to 1981. The first unit to operate the Vulcan, it provided conversion and operational training for Vulcan aircrew
** Bomber Command Development Unit
* [[Vulcan To The Sky Trust]] (G-VLCN, formerly XH558, flying until 2015) based at [[Doncaster Sheffield Airport]]) until June 2023<ref name ='VulcRet'>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/leicestershire/7049694.stm "The Vulcan Bomber returns to the sky."] ''BBC News'', 18 October 2007.</ref>
* Aircraft were also operated at various times under the direction of the Ministry of Supply/Aviation for trials and evaluation by Avro, Bristol Siddeley Engines, Rolls-Royce and the [[Autoland#BLEU and the origins of Autoland|Blind Landing Experimental Unit]] (BLEU)

===Bases===
* [[RAF Akrotiri]] in Cyprus: two B.2 squadrons from 1969 to 1975
** 9 Squadron 1969–1975, moved from Cottesmore in 1969 it returned to the UK in 1975 to Waddington.<ref name="Jefford271">Jefford 2001, p. 27.</ref>
** 35 Squadron 1969–1975, moved from Cottesmore in 1969 it returned to the UK in 1975 to Scampton.<ref name="Jefford37" />
* [[RAF Coningsby]]: three squadrons from 1962 to 1964
** 9 Squadron 1962–1964, formed in 1962 to operate the B.2 it moved to Cottesmore in 1964.<ref name="Jefford27" />
** 12 Squadron 1962–1964, formed in 1962 to operate the B.2 it moved to Cottesmore in 1964.<ref name="Jefford28" />
** 35 Squadron 1962–1964, formed in 1962 to operate the B.2 it moved to Cottesmore in 1964.<ref name="Jefford37" />
[[File:Avro Vulcans at RAF Cottesmore 1975.jpg|thumb|Avro Vulcans of No 617 Squadron at RAF Cottesmore circa 1975]]
* [[RAF Cottesmore]]: three squadrons from 1964 to 1969
** 9 Squadron 1964–1969, moved in from Coningsby in 1964, it moved to Akrotiri in 1969.<ref name="Jefford27" />
** 12 Squadron 1964–1967, moved in from Coningsby in 1964 until it disbanded in 1967.<ref name="Jefford27" />
** 35 Squadron 1964–1969, moved in from Coningsby in 1964, it moved to Akrotiri 1969.<ref name="Jefford37" />
* [[RAF Finningley]]
** 101 Squadron 1957–1961, formed in 1957 to be the second operational B.1 squadron, moved to Waddington in 1961.<ref name="Jefford54" />
** 230 OCU 1961–1969, moved from Waddington in 1961, moved to Scampton in 1969.
* [[RAF Scampton]]: four squadrons at different times between 1961 and 1982
** 27 Squadron 1961–1972, formed in 1961 to operate the B.2 until it disbanded in 1972. Reformed in 1973 to operate the B.2 (MRR) variant until 1982.<ref name="Jefford34" />
** 35 Squadron 1975–1982, moved from Akrotiri in 1975 and operated the B.2 until it disbanded in March 1982.
** 83 Squadron 1960–1969, a former B.1/B.1A squadron at Waddington, reformed in 1960 to operate the B.2 until disbanded in 1969.<ref name="Jefford50" />
** 617 Squadron 1958–1981, formed in 1958 to operate the B.1, reformed to operate the B.2 in 1961 until disbanded in 1981.<ref name="Jefford101" />
** 230 OCU 1969–1981, moved from Finningley in 1969 until disbanded in 1981.
* [[RAF Waddington]]: a number of squadrons at different times between 1957 and 1984, it was the first and last operational Vulcan base
** 9 Squadron 1975–1982, moved in from Akrotiri in 1975 until it was disbanded in 1982.<ref name="Jefford27" />
** 44 Squadron 1960–1982, formed in 1960 to operate the B.1/B.1A, it converted to the B.2 in 1966 and disbanded in 1982.<ref name="Jefford39" />
** 50 Squadron 1961–1984, formed in 1961 to operate the B.1/B.1A, it converted to the B.2 in 1966, from 1982 it also flew the tanker version until disbanding in 1984.<ref name="Jefford41" />
** 83 Squadron 1957–1960, formed in 1957 to be the first operational squadron to operate the B.1 until 1960, it reformed at Scampton later in the year as a B.2 unit.<ref name="Jefford50" />
** 101 Squadron 1961–1982, moved from Finningley in 1961 with the B.1/B.1A, converted to B.2 in 1967 and disbanded in 1982.<ref name="Jefford54" />
** 230 OCU 1956–1961, formed in 1956 to train Vulcan crews it moved to Finningley in 1961. A final move to RAF Scampton was made in 1970.

===V-Bomber dispersal airfields===
{{Further|List of V Bomber dispersal bases}}

In the event of [[transition to war]], the V Bomber squadrons were to deploy four aircraft at short notice to each of 26 pre-prepared dispersal airfields around the United Kingdom. In the early 1960s the RAF ordered 20 [[Beagle Basset]] communication aircraft to move the crews to dispersal airfields; the importance of these aircraft was only brief, diminishing when the primary nuclear deterrent switched to the Royal Navy's [[Polaris (UK nuclear programme)]].<ref>[http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1968/1968%20-%202635.html "Treasury and the Basset".] ''Flight International'', 14 November 1968, p. 805.</ref>

==Accidents and incidents==
{{External media |topic=|width= |float=right
|image1=[http://www.jetphotos.net/viewphoto.php?id=6455518 Vulcan B.1 XA897 prior to the accident, stopping over at RAF Khormaksar]}}

* {{Further|1956 London Heathrow Avro Vulcan crash}} On 1 October 1956, Vulcan B.1 XA897, the first to be delivered, crashed at London Heathrow Airport during Operation Tasman Flight, a flag-waving trip to Australia and New Zealand. After a [[ground-controlled approach]] in bad weather, it struck the ground {{convert|700|yd|abbr=on}} short of the runway just as engine power was applied.<ref name="blackman142">Blackman 2007, p. 142.</ref><ref>{{Cite news|date=1956|last=Pathé|first=British|title=Round The World Vulcan Crashes|url=https://www.britishpathe.com/video/round-the-world-vulcan-crashes|access-date=18 November 2021|work=[[Pathé News]]|language=en-GB}}</ref> The impact probably broke the drag links on the main undercarriage, allowing the undercarriage to be forced backwards and damaged the wing's trailing edge.<ref name="blackman142"/> After the initial impact, XA897 rose back in the air.<ref name="blackman142"/> The pilot, Squadron Leader D. R. Howard, and co-pilot Air Marshal [[Harry Broadhurst|Sir Harry Broadhurst]], AOC-in-C Bomber Command, both ejected and survived, the other four occupants (including a spare pilot and an Avro representative) were killed when the aircraft hit the ground again and broke up.<ref name="blackman142"/><ref>Gallop 2005, pp. 114–115.</ref><ref>[http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/ "Catalogue Ref. AIR 20/12396."]  ''National Archives'', 1956.</ref>
* In 1957, a Vulcan B.1 XA892 attached to the A&AEE at Boscombe Down for acceptance testing was unintentionally flown to an indicated Mach number (IMN) above 1.04, alerting the crew that it had reached supersonic speed. XA892's commander, Flt Lt Milt Cottee (RAAF), and co-pilot, Flt Lt Ray Bray (RAF), were tasked to fly at {{convert|478|mph|km/h|abbr=on}} and 0.98 IMN, taking the aircraft to a [[Load factor (aeronautics)|load factor]] of 3&nbsp;''g''. It climbed to {{convert|35000|ft|m|abbr=on}} and then dived, intending to reach the target speed at {{convert|27000|ft|m|abbr=on}}. Approaching the target altitude, the throttles were closed and full up-elevator applied, but XA892 continued to pitch nose-down. Cottee contemplated pushing forward to go [[Aerobatics (radio-controlled aircraft)#Inverted flight|inverted]] and then rolling upright; instead, he opened the speed brakes. Although the airspeed was above their maximum operating speed, the speed brakes were undamaged and did slow the aircraft, which came back past the vertical at about {{convert|18000|ft|m|abbr=on}} and levelled off at {{convert|8000|ft|m|abbr=on}}. No sonic boom was reported, so a true Mach number of 1.0 was unlikely to have been  reached.{{refn|When flying at a speed of Mach&nbsp;1.0, the Vulcan suffered a [[position error]] of about 0.07.<ref name = "black 90"/>|group=N}} Afterwards, a rear bulkhead was found to be deformed.<ref name = "black 90">Blackman 2007, p. 90.</ref>
[[File:Avro Vulcan VX770 A.V.Roe Farnborough 11.09.54 edited-2.jpg|thumb|The prototype Vulcan VX770 in 1954, retaining the original "pure delta" wing shape]]
* {{main|1958 Syerston Avro Vulcan crash}}On 20 September 1958, prototype [[1958 Syerston Avro Vulcan crash|Vulcan VX770]] was flown by a Rolls-Royce test pilot on an engine-performance sortie with a flypast at [[RAF Syerston]] Battle of Britain ''At Home'' display. It flew along the main runway then started a roll to [[starboard]] and climbed slightly, during which the starboard wing disintegrated and the main [[Spar (aviation)|spar]] collapsed. VX770 went into a dive with the starboard wing on fire and struck the ground, killing three occupants of a controllers' caravan and all four crew on board. Proposed causes of the structural failure have included pilot error, metal fatigue due to air intake vibration, and inadequate maintenance.<ref>"Extract from National Archives: Ref no. BT 233/403 report on the crash." ''National Archives'', Retrieved: 24 August 2010.</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/7626243.stm "Anniversary of Vulcan crash."] ''BBC News'', 19 September 2008.</ref>{{refn|Avro Chief Test Pilot [[Tony Blackman]] notes that when Avro display pilots carried out aerobatics, the displays were followed by a careful but little-known inspection of the inside of the wing's leading edge. Rolls-Royce pilots also carried out aerobatics, but Blackman speculates that Rolls-Royce did not know of the inspections, and VX770 may have already been severely structurally damaged.<ref>Blackman 2007, p. 151.</ref>|group=N}}
* On 24 October 1958, Vulcan B.1 XA908 of [[No. 83 Squadron RAF|No. 83 Squadron]] crashed east of [[Detroit]], Michigan, USA. A complete electrical failure occurred around {{convert|30000|ft|m|abbr=on}}. The backup system should have provided 20 minutes of emergency power, allowing XA908 to reach one of several airports in the area, but backup power lasted only three minutes due to a short circuit in the service [[busbar]], locking the controls. Bound for [[Lincoln Airport (Nebraska)#History|Lincoln AFB]] in [[Nebraska]], XA908 went into a steep dive before crashing, leaving a {{convert|40|ft|adj=on|spell=in}} crater in the ground, which was later excavated while retrieving wreckage. Despite extensive property damage, there were no ground fatalities and only one hospitalisation. All six crew members were killed,<ref name=fbjcid>{{cite news |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=jL5OAAAAIBAJ&pg=2141%2C4766738 |work=Toledo Blade |location=(Ohio) |agency=Associated Press |title=Flaming British jet crashes in Detroit residential area |date=25 October 1958 |page=1}}</ref><ref name=frsdwell>{{cite news |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=tzFWAAAAIBAJ&pg=6261%2C2958860 |work=Spokesman-Review |location=(Spokane, Washington) |agency=Associated Press |title=Bomber crashes, fires dwellings |date=25 October 1958 |page=1}}</ref> including the co-pilot, who had ejected. The co-pilot's ejection seat was found in [[Lake Saint Clair (North America)|Lake St Clair]], but his body was not recovered until the following spring.<ref name="blackman161">Blackman 2007, p. 161.</ref> They were buried at Oak Ridge Cemetery in [[Trenton, Michigan]], alongside 11 RAF student pilots killed during the Second World War in accidents at nearby [[Naval Air Station Grosse Ile]].<ref>Bak, Richard. [http://www.hourdetroit.com/Hour-Detroit/July-2008/Mayday/index.php?cparticle=2&siarticle=1 "Mayday! Fifty years ago, a British bomber crashed into an east-side Detroit neighbourhood."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722233149/http://www.hourdetroit.com/Hour-Detroit/July-2008/Mayday/index.php?cparticle=2&siarticle=1 |date=22 July 2011 }} ''Hour Detroit'', July 2008.</ref>
* On 24 July 1959, Vulcan B.1 XA891 crashed due to an electrical failure during an engine test. Shortly after takeoff, the crew observed generator warning lights and loss of busbar voltage. The aircraft commander, Avro Chief Test Pilot Jimmy Harrison,<ref>Blackman 2007, p. 112.</ref> climbed XA891 to {{convert|14000|ft|m|abbr=on}}, steering away from the airfield and populated areas, while the AEO attempted to solve the problem. When it became clear that control would not be regained, Harrison instructed the rear compartment crew to exit the aircraft and the co-pilot to eject, before ejecting himself.<ref name="blackman161"/> All the crew survived, making them the first complete Vulcan crew to successfully escape. The aircraft crashed near [[Kingston upon Hull]].<ref name="lamingp60" />
* On 26 October 1959, Vulcan B.1 XH498 participated in an airshow marking the opening of [[Wellington International Airport]], formerly [[Rongotai Airport]]. After a "[[touch-and-go landing]]" on Runway 34, it came around for a full-stop landing. Turbulence and wind shear caused XH498 to land short of the runway threshold. The port undercarriage leg clipped the embankment at the Moa point or southern end, damaging wing attachments, engine fuel lines, and the main landing gear drag link, which was ruptured and unable to support the aircraft. The port wing tip nearly scraped the runway surface before it was able to lift off again, spilling fuel over the crowd. Pilot actions prevented a possible disaster as spectators were present on the western apron. XH498 flew to RNZAF Ohakea for a safe emergency landing on just the nose and starboard landing gear with little further damage. A UK repair team returned it to airworthiness; on 4 January 1960, XH498 departed, remaining in service until 19 October 1967.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://aviation-safety.net/wikibase/wiki.php?id=59726|title=ASN Aircraft incident 26-OCT-1959 Avro Vulcan B Mk 1 XH498|first=Harro|last=Ranter}}</ref>
* On 16 September 1960, Vulcan B.2 XH557 damaged the "Runway Garage" at [[Bristol Filton Airport|Filton]]. XH557 had been allocated to Bristol Siddeley Engines to test the Olympus 301 engine and was being delivered to Filton. Approaching in poor weather conditions, the aircraft touched down halfway along the runway. The braking parachute was streamed, but realising the aircraft would not stop in time, the captain opened the throttles to go round. The Runway Garage took the full force of the jet blast and property damage was sustained; four petrol pumps were blown flat, a streetlight on the A38 was knocked down, railings were blown over, and multiple cars had their windscreens shattered. The aircraft diverted to St. Mawgan, flying into Filton days later.<ref>Baxter 1992, p. 60.</ref>
* On 12 June 1963, Vulcan B.1A XH477 of [[No. 50 Squadron RAF|No. 50 Squadron]] crashed in Aberdeenshire, Scotland. During a low-level exercise, the Vulcan was flown into terrain. All five crewmembers were killed.<ref>{{cite web |title=ASN Wikibase Occurrence # 55322 |url=https://aviation-safety.net/wikibase/55322 |website=Aviation Safety Network |publisher=Flight Safety Foundation |access-date=19 May 2020}}</ref><ref>{{citation |title=Crew Of Five Killed When Vulcan Crashes Into Scottish Mountain |url=https://britishnewspaperarchive.co.uk/viewer/bl/0000271/19630613/304/0018 |access-date=19 May 2020 |work=The Liverpool Echo and Evening Express |date=13 June 1963 |page=18  |url-access=subscription<!--|quote=Ten feet higher and it would have cleared the hill.-->}}</ref><ref name="blackman154">Blackman 2007, p. 154.</ref><ref name="lamingp219">Laming 2002, p. 219.</ref>
* On 11 May 1964, Vulcan B.2 XH535 crashed during a demonstration. The aircraft entered a spin while a very low speed and high rate of descent were being demonstrated. The landing parachute was deployed, stopping the spin briefly before it began to spin again. Around {{convert|2500|ft|m|abbr=on}}, the aircraft commander instructed the crew to abandon the aircraft. The commander and co-pilot ejected successfully, but none of the rear compartment crew did so, presumably due to the ''g'' forces in the spin.<ref>Blackman 2007, p. 155.</ref>
* On 16 July 1964, Vulcan B.1A XA909 crashed in [[Anglesey]] after a midair explosion caused both No. 3 and No. 4 engines to be shut down. The explosion was caused by the failure of a bearing in No. 4 engine. The starboard wing was extensively damaged, the pilot had insufficient aileron power, and both airspeed indications were highly inaccurate. The whole crew successfully abandoned XA909 and was found within a few minutes and rescued.<ref>Blackman 2007, p. 157.</ref>
* On 7 October 1964, Vulcan B.2 XM601 crashed during an overshoot from an asymmetric power practice approach at Coningsby. The co-pilot had executed the asymmetric power approach with two engines producing thrust and two at idle. He was being checked by the squadron commander, who was unfamiliar with the aircraft. When he commenced the overshoot, the copilot moved all the throttles to full power. The engines that had been producing power reached full power more quickly than the engines at idle and the resultant asymmetric thrust exceeded the available rudder authority, causing the aircraft to spin and crash. All the crew perished.<ref>Jackson 1990, p. 178.</ref>
* On 25 May 1965, Vulcan B.2 XM576 crash-landed at [[Scampton]], causing it to be written off within a year of delivery.<ref>Brookes and Davey 2009, p. 92.</ref>
* On 11 February 1966, Vulcan B.2 XH536 of IX SQN [[RAF Cottesmore|Cottesmore Wing]] crashed in the [[Brecon Beacons]] during a low-level exercise. The aircraft struck the ground at {{convert|1910|ft|m|abbr=on}} near the summit of [[Fan Bwlch Chwyth]] {{convert|1978|ft|m|abbr=on}}, {{convert|20|mi|km|abbr=on}} northeast of [[Swansea]]. All crew members died. Hilltops at the time were snow-covered and cloud extended down to {{convert|1400|ft|m|abbr=on}}.<ref name="blackman154"/>
* On 6 April 1967, Vulcan B.2 XL385 burnt out on the runway at RAF Scampton at the beginning of its take-off run. The aircraft was carrying a Blue Steel missile training round. All the crew, including an [[Air Training Corps]] cadet, escaped unhurt. The aircraft was engulfed in flames and totally destroyed. The accident was caused by the failure of an Olympus 301 HP turbine disc as the engine reached full power.<ref name='baxter66'>Baxter 1990, p. 66.</ref>
* On 30 January 1968, Vulcan B.2 XM604 crashed following a loss of control during an overshoot at RAF Cottesmore. The rear crew members were killed, though both pilots ejected. The captain ejected at a very late stage and only survived because his deploying parachute was snagged by some power cables. The accident was caused by the failure of an Olympus 301 LP turbine disc after the aircraft had returned to the airfield following indications of a bomb-bay overheat.<ref name='baxter66'/>
* On 7 January 1971, Vulcan B.2 XM610 of [[No. 44 Squadron RAF|No.44 Squadron]] crashed due to a blade fatigue failure in the No. 1 engine, damaging the fuel system and causing a fire. The crew abandoned the aircraft safely, after which it crashed harmlessly in [[Wingate, County Durham|Wingate]].<ref>Blackman 2007, p. 159.</ref>
* On 14 October 1975, [[1975 Żabbar Avro Vulcan crash|Vulcan B.2 XM645]] of [[No. 9 Squadron RAF|No.9 Squadron]] lost its left undercarriage and damaged the airframe when it undershot the runway at [[RAF Luqa]] in Malta. The aircraft broke up over the town of [[Żabbar]] while turning inbound for an emergency landing. The pilot and co-pilot escaped using their ejection seats, the other five crew members were killed. Large aircraft pieces fell on the town; one woman, Vincenza Zammit, was killed by an electric cable, and some 20 others were injured.<ref>{{Cite web |date=1975 |title=Board of Inquiry into crash of Vulcan aircraft on Malta on 14th October 1975. With photographs and maps |url=https://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/C10855569 |website=[[The National Archives (United Kingdom)|The National Archives]] |id=AIR 20/12628}}</ref>
* On 17 January 1977, Vulcan B.2 XM600 of No. 101 Squadron crashed near Spilsby, Lincolnshire. During a practice emergency descent, the bomb-bay fire warning light flashed on followed by No.2 engine fire warning light. The captain shut the engine down and the AEO reported flames coming from the area of No.2 engine, just behind the deployed [[ram air turbine]] (RAT). As the fire intensified, the captain ordered the aircraft to be abandoned. The three rear crew members escaped  around {{convert|6000|ft|m|abbr=on}}. After ordering the co-pilot to eject, the captain ejected at around {{convert|3000|ft|m|abbr=on}}, as control was lost. The cause was due to arcing on the RAT's electrical terminals, burning a hole in an adjacent fuel pipe and setting the fuel on fire.<ref name='blackman162'>Blackman 2007, p. 162.</ref>
* On 12 August 1978, Vulcan B.2 XL390 of No. 617 Squadron crashed during an air display at [[Naval Air Station Glenview]], Illinois, in the United States. The crew had been authorized to carry out a display at Chicago's [[Meigs Field]] airport; the captain had elected to carry out an unauthorized display at Glenview beforehand. After a low-level run, probably below {{convert|100|ft|m|abbr=on}}, the aircraft pulled up for an improperly executed [[wingover]], resulting in a low-level stall and crash, killing all on board.<ref name='blackman153'>Blackman 2007, p. 153.</ref>
* On 3 June 1982, Vulcan XM597 broke its probe while attempting to refuel in flight, while returning from a mission over the Falkland Islands. With insufficient fuel to reach its base on Ascension Island, the pilot discarded classified information over the Atlantic Ocean and diverted to [[Rio de Janeiro]]. Shortly after entering Brazilian airspace, the [[Brazilian Air Force]] sent two [[Northrop F-5]]s to escort it to [[Galeão Air Force Base]]. This led to high-level diplomatic talks between the UK and Brazil, which remained neutral during the Falklands War. After seven days of detention, the Vulcan and its crew were allowed to return home on the condition that XM597 play no further part in the conflict.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://vrt1.co.uk/files/VRT%20Fact%20Sheet%202%20Vulcan%20and%20the%20Falklands%20War.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=10 February 2016 |archive-date=2 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140202092126/http://vrt1.co.uk/files/VRT%20Fact%20Sheet%202%20Vulcan%20and%20the%20Falklands%20War.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* On 28 May 2012, Vulcan B.2 XH558 suffered a failure of the two port engines while starting a take-off roll from [[Robin Hood Airport]], Doncaster.  Bags of [[silica gel]] desiccant had been inadvertently left in the air intake after maintenance. Less than a second after increasing power from 80% to 100%, these were ingested by one of the port engines, immediately destroying it. The remaining port engine ingested debris from the first engine, destroying this one, as well. The fire-prevention systems proved effective, neither the airframe nor control systems suffered damage. The pilot had no difficulty bringing the aircraft to a safe stop, having remained on the ground throughout. On 3 July 2012, XH558 returned to flight.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vulcantothesky.org/news/368/82/Initial-test-flight-completed.html|title=Vulcan To The Sky – Initial test flight completed|first=Internet Solutions Services Limited – Lewis|last=Howles|access-date=9 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714230718/http://www.vulcantothesky.org/news/368/82/Initial-test-flight-completed.html|archive-date=14 July 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Surviving aircraft==
{{Main|List of surviving Avro Vulcans}}
[[File:XH558Display.jpeg|thumb|XH558 performs its first post-restoration public display on 5 July 2008]]

Several Vulcans survive, housed in museums in both the United Kingdom and North America (USA and Canada). One Vulcan, [[Avro Vulcan XH558|XH558 (G-VLCN) ''Spirit of Great Britain'']], was used as a display aircraft by the RAF as part of the [[Vulcan Display Flight]] until 1993. After being grounded, it was later restored to flight by the Vulcan To The Sky Trust and displayed as a civilian aircraft from 2008 until 2015, before being retired a second time for engineering reasons. In retirement, XH558 is to be retained at its base at [[Doncaster Sheffield Airport]] as a taxiable aircraft, a role already performed by two other survivors, [[Avro Vulcan XL426|XL426]] (G-VJET) based at [[Southend Airport]], and [[Avro Vulcan XM655|XM655]] (G-VULC), based at [[Wellesbourne Mountford Airfield]]. XJ823, a B.2, can be seen at the [[Solway Aviation Museum]] at [[Carlisle Lake District Airport]]. XM607 is currently being restored at RAF Waddington, where it has been gate guardian since being retired. XM594 is on display at the Newark Air Museum, Newark, Nottinghamshire, England.

==Specifications (B.1)==
[[File:Avro Vulcan B Mk 2.svg|thumb|upright=1.35|Vulcan B.2]]

{{Aircraft specs
|ref=Polmar,<ref name = 'polmar264'>Polmar and Bell 2004, p. 264.</ref> Laming<ref name="Laming155-182">Laming 2002, pp. 155, 182.</ref>
|prime units?=kts
<!--
        General characteristics
-->
|crew=5 (pilot, co-pilot, AEO, navigator radar, navigator plotter)<ref group ="nb">Two extra seats could be fitted for crew chiefs, for a total of seven crew.</ref>
|length ft=97
|length in=1
|length note=
|span ft=99
|span in=5
|span note=
|height ft=26
|height in=6
|height note=
|wing area sqft=3554
|wing area note=
|aspect ratio=<!-- sailplanes -->
|airfoil='''root:''' [[NACA airfoil|NACA 0010 mod.]]; '''tip:''' [[NACA airfoil|NACA 0008 mod.]]<ref name="Selig">{{cite web |last1=Lednicer |first1=David |title=The Incomplete Guide to Airfoil Usage |url=https://m-selig.ae.illinois.edu/ads/aircraft.html |website=m-selig.ae.illinois.edu |access-date=16 April 2019}}</ref>
|empty weight lb=83573
|empty weight note=equipped and crewed
|gross weight lb=
|gross weight note=
|max takeoff weight lb=170000
|max takeoff weight note=
|fuel capacity={{cvt|9280|impgal|USgal l}}; {{cvt|74240|lb|0}}
|more general=
<!--
        Powerplant
-->
|eng1 number=4
|eng1 name=[[Bristol Olympus Mk.101]]  / Mk.102 / Mk.104
|eng1 type=twin-spool [[turbojet]] engines
|eng1 kw=<!-- prop engines -->
|eng1 hp=<!-- prop engines -->
|eng1 shp=<!-- prop engines -->
|eng1 kn=<!-- jet/rocket engines -->
|eng1 lbf=11000
|eng1 note=
<!--
        Performance
-->
|perfhide=

|max speed kts=561
|max speed note=at altitude
|max speed mach=0.96
|cruise speed kts=493
|cruise speed note= / M0.86 at {{convert|45000|ft|m}}
|stall speed kts=
|stall speed note=
|never exceed speed kts=
|never exceed speed note=
|minimum control speed kts=
|minimum control speed note=
|range nmi=2265
|range note=
|combat range nmi=
|combat range note=
|ferry range nmi=
|ferry range note=
|endurance=<!-- if range unknown -->
|ceiling ft=56000
|ceiling note=
|g limits=<!-- aerobatic -->
|roll rate=<!-- aerobatic -->
|glide ratio=<!-- sailplanes -->
|climb rate ftmin=
|climb rate note=
|time to altitude=
|wing loading lb/sqft=
|wing loading note=
|fuel consumption lb/mi=
|thrust/weight=0.31

|more performance=
<!--
        Armament
-->
|armament= * 21 × 1,000 pounds (454&nbsp;kg) of [[gravity bomb|conventional bombs]]
* 1 × [[Blue Danube (nuclear weapon)|Blue Danube]] nuclear gravity bomb
* 1 × [[Violet Club]] 400&nbsp;kt nuclear gravity bomb
* 1 × U.S. [[Mark 5 nuclear bomb|Mark 5]] nuclear gravity bomb supplied under [[Project E]]
* 1 × [[Yellow Sun (nuclear weapon)|Yellow Sun]] Mk.1 400&nbsp;kt nuclear gravity bomb
* 1 × [[Yellow Sun (nuclear weapon)|Yellow Sun]] Mk.2 1.1&nbsp;Mt thermonuclear gravity bomb
* 1 × [[Red Beard (nuclear weapon)|Red Beard]] nuclear gravity bomb
* 1 × [[WE.177B]] parachute-retarded nuclear gravity bomb<ref name = 'kev65'/>

|avionics=
}}

===Comparison of variants===

{| class="wikitable"
|-
|+ Variants compared<ref>Pilot's Notes AP 4505-C PN</ref><ref>Aircrew Manual AP 101B-1902-15</ref>
|-
! style="width:15%;"|
! style="width:17%;"|B.1
! style="width:17%;"|B.1A
! style="width:17%;"|B.2
! style="width:17%;"|B.2 (MRR)
! style="width:17%;"|K.2
|-
! Wingspan
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"| {{convert|99|ft|5|in|m|abbr=on}}
| colspan="3" style="text-align:center;"| {{convert|111|ft|0|in|m|abbr=on}}
|-
! Length
| style="text-align:center;"|{{convert|97|ft|1|in|m|abbr=on}}
| colspan="4" style="text-align:center;"|{{convert|105|ft|6|in|m|abbr=on}}      [{{convert|99|ft|11|in|m|abbr=on}} without probe]
|-
! Height
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"| {{convert|26|ft|6|in|m|abbr=on}}
| colspan="3" style="text-align:center;"| {{convert|27|ft|1|in|m|abbr=on}}
|-
! Wing area
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|{{convert|3554|sqft|m2|abbr=on}}<ref name="blackman213">Blackman 2007, p. 213.</ref>
| colspan="3" style="text-align:center;"|{{convert|3964|sqft|m2|abbr=on}}<ref name="blackman213"/>
|-
! Max. takeoff weight
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|{{convert|167000|lb|kg|abbr=on}}<br/>{{convert|185000|lb|kg|abbr=on}} (operational necessity)
| colspan="3" style="text-align:center;"|{{convert|204000|lb|kg|abbr=on}}
|-
! Cruising speed
| colspan="5" style="text-align:center;"|Mach 0.86 [[Machmeter|indicated]]
|-
! Max. speed
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|Mach 0.95 indicated
| style="text-align:center;"|Mach 0.93 indicated<br/>(Mach 0.92 with 301 engines)
| style="text-align:center;"|Mach 0.93<br/>indicated
| style="text-align:center;"| Unknown
|-
! Service ceiling
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|56,000&nbsp;ft<ref name="blackman213"/>
| colspan="3" style="text-align:center;"|45,000&nbsp;ft to 60,000&nbsp;ft<ref group="nb">Depended upon oxygen equipment fitted. No airframe limitation on height.</ref>
|-
! Electrical system
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|112 V [[direct current|DC]]
| colspan="3" style="text-align:center;"|115/200 V [[alternating current|AC]] [[Three-phase electric power|3-phase]] 400 [[Hertz|Hz]]
|-
! Emergency electrical<br/>system
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|Battery
| colspan="3" style="text-align:center;"|[[Ram air turbine]] and [[Auxiliary power unit|Airborne Auxiliary Power Plant]]
|-
! Engines
| style="text-align:center;"|4 × [[Rolls-Royce Olympus|Bristol<br/> Olympus 101, 102 or 104]]
| style="text-align:center;"|4 × Bristol<br/> Olympus 104
| style="text-align:center;"|4 × Bristol Siddeley<br/> Olympus 200-series, 301
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|4 × Bristol Siddeley<br/> Olympus 200-series
|-
! Fuel capacity <br/>(main)
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|{{cvt|9280|impgal|USgal l}} / {{cvt|74240|lb|0}} [[Jet fuel|avtur]])<ref group="nb">At specific gravity of .8 (8lb/gal).</ref>
| colspan="3" style="text-align:center;"|{{cvt|9260|impgal|USgal l}} / {{cvt|74080|lb|0}}
|-
! Fuel capacity <br/>(bomb bay)
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|None
| style="text-align:center;"|{{cvt|0|-|1990|impgal|USgal l}} / {{cvt|0|-|15920|lb|0}}
| style="text-align:center;"|{{cvt|1990|impgal|USgal l}} / {{cvt|15920|lb|0}}<ref group="nb">2 × {{cvt|995|impgal|USgal l}} cylindrical tanks.</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"|{{cvt|2985|impgal|USgal l}} / {{cvt|23880|lb|0}}<ref group="nb">3 × {{cvt|995|impgal|USgal l}} cylindrical tanks.</ref>
|-
! Powered flying controls
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|1 × rudder (duplex), 4 × elevators, 4 × ailerons
| colspan="3" style="text-align:center;"|1 × rudder (duplex), 8 × elevons
|-
! Armament
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|1 × free-fall [[nuclear weapon|nuclear bomb]] ''or''<br/>21 × {{convert|1000|lb|abbr=on}}<br/>conventional bombs
| style="text-align:center;"|1 × [[Blue Steel (missile)|Blue Steel]] missile ''or'' <br/>1 × free-fall [[nuclear weapon|nuclear bomb]] ''or''<br/> 21 × {{convert|1000|lb|abbr=on}}<br/> conventional bombs<br/>
| colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"|None <br/>
|}

==Notable appearances in media==
{{Main|Aircraft in fiction#Avro Vulcan|l1=Avro Vulcan in fiction}}
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==See also==
{{Portal|United Kingdom|Aviation}}
{{aircontent
|see also=
|related=
|similar aircraft=
* [[Boeing B-47 Stratojet]]
* [[Handley Page Victor]]
* [[Tupolev Tu-16]]/[[Xian H-6]]
* [[Vickers Valiant]]
|lists=
* [[List of aircraft of the Royal Air Force]]
* [[List of bomber aircraft]]
* [[List of surviving Avro Vulcans]]
* [[List of V Bomber dispersal bases]]
}}

==References==

===Notes===
{{Reflist|group=N}}
{{reflist|group="nb"}}

===Citations===
{{Reflist}}

===Bibliography===
* Austin, Steve. "Workhorse (V-Bombers: Test-bed Vulcan)." ''FlyPast'', No. 335, June 2009, pp.&nbsp;108–113.
* Baxter, Alan. ''Olympus: The First Forty Years''. Derby, UK: Rolls-Royce Heritage Trust, 1990. {{ISBN|978-0-9511710-9-7}}.
* Blackman, Tony. ''Vulcan Test Pilot: My Experiences in the Cockpit of a Cold War Icon.'' London: Grub Street, 2007. {{ISBN|978-1-904943-88-4}}.
* Braybrook, Roy. [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZUjMYkfr-pwC&pg=PA17 ''Battle for the Falklands: Air Forces.''] Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 1982. {{ISBN|0-85045-493-X}}.
* Brookes, Andrew. ''Victor Units of the Cold War: Osprey Combat Aircraft: 88.'' Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 2011. {{ISBN|978-1-84908-339-3}}.
* Brookes, Andrew and Chris Davey. [https://books.google.com/books?id=pmQXR69pRoIC ''Vulcan Units of The Cold War'' (Osprey Combat Aircraft: 72).] Oxford, UK: Osprey Publishing, 2009. {{ISBN|978-1-84603-297-4}}.
* Bull, Stephen. [https://books.google.com/books?id=EGKATNM4scMC ''Encyclopedia of Military Technology And Innovation.''] Santa Barbara, California: Greenwood Publishing Group, 2004. {{ISBN|978-1-57356-557-8}}.
* Bulman, Craig. ''The Vulcan B.Mk2 From a Different Angle.'' Bishop Auckland, UK: Pentland Press Ltd, 2001. {{ISBN|978-1-85821-899-1}}.
* Buttler, Tony. "Avro Type 698 Vulcan (Database)." ''Aeroplane'', Vol. 35, No. 4, Issue No. 408, April 2007.
* Buttler, Tony. ''British Secret Projects: Jet Bombers Since 1949.'' Hinckley, Leicestershire, UK: Midland, 2003. {{ISBN|1-85780-130-X}}.
* Buttler, Tony. "Vital Bombers: Origins of the RAF's 'V-Bomber' Force". ''[[Air Enthusiast]]'', No. 79, January/February 1999, pp.&nbsp;28–41. {{ISSN|0143-5450}}.
* Darling Kev. ''Avro Vulcan.'' North Branch, USA: Speciality Press, 1999. {{ISBN|1-58007-023-X}}.
* Darling, Kev. [https://books.google.com/books?id=wdM5wJlVhpcC ''Avro Vulcan, Part One'' (RAF Illustrated).] Vale of Glamorgan Wales, UK: Big Bird Aviation Publication, 2007. {{ISBN|978-1-84799-237-6}}.
* Dawson, T.W.G., G.F. Kitchen and G.B. Glider. [http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/catalogue/displaycataloguedetails.asp?CATLN=6&CATID=4943225&SearchInit=4&SearchType=6&CATREF=AVIA+6%2F20895 ''Measurements of the Radar Echoing Area of the Vulcan by the Optical Simulation Method.'']  Farnborough, Hants, UK: Royal Aircraft Establishment, September 1957 National Archive Catalogue file, AVIA 6/20895
* Fildes, David. "Buck Rogers in the 20th Century: The Origins of the Vulcan." ''Aeroplane'', Vol. 36, No. 3, Issue No. 419, March 2008.
* Frawley, Gerard. ''The International Directory of Military Aircraft, 2002–2003.'' Fyshwick, ACT, Australia: Aerospace Publications, 2002. {{ISBN|1-875671-55-2}}.
* Gallop, Alan. ''Time Flies: Heathrow at 60''. Stroud, UK: Sutton Publishing, 2005. {{ISBN|0-7509-3840-4}}.
* Gibson, Chris. ''Vulcan's Hammer: V-Force Aircraft and Weapons Projects Since 1945''. Crowborough, UK: Hikoki Publications, 2011. {{ISBN|978-19021-0917-6}}
* [[Bill Gunston|Gunston, Bill]]. "The V-bombers: Avro Vulcan – Part 3". ''Aeroplane Monthly,'' Vol. 8, No. 12, December 1980, pp.&nbsp;620–626. {{ISSN|0143-7240}}.
* {{not a typo|Halpenny}}, Bruce Barrymore. ''Avro Vulcan: The History and Development of a Classic Jet.'' Barnsley, South Yorkshire, UK: Pen & Sword Aviation, 2006. {{ISBN|1-84415-426-2}}.
* Hamilton-Paterson, James. ''Empire of the Clouds: When Britain's Aircraft Ruled the World.'' London: Faber & Faber, 2010. {{ISBN|978-0-571-24794-3}}.
* Hearn, Chester G. ''Carriers in Combat: The Air War at Sea.'' London: Stackpole Books, 2007. {{ISBN|0-8117-3398-X}}.
* Jackson, A. J. ''Avro Aircraft Since 1908, 2nd Edition.'' London: Putnam Aeronautical Books, 1990. {{ISBN|0-85177-834-8}}.
* Jackson, Paul. "Vulcan: Delta Force". ''Wings of Fame'', Volume 3. London: Aerospace Publishing, 1996. pp.&nbsp;34–95. {{ISBN|1-874023-70-0}}. {{ISSN|1361-2034}}.
* Jackson Robert. ''Avro Vulcan.'' Somerset, UK: Patrick Stephens Ltd, First Edition 1984. Hardback. {{ISBN|0-850-59630-0}}
* Jackson Robert. ''Avro Vulcan.'' Somerset, UK: Patrick Stephens Ltd, Second Edition 1987. Hardback. {{ISBN|1852600101}}
* Jackson, Robert. ''Combat Aircraft Prototypes since 1945.''  Arco/Prentice Hall Press, 1986. {{ISBN|0-671-61953-5}}.
* Jackson, Robert. ''V-Force Britain's Airborne Nuclear Deterrent'' Shepperton, UK: Ian Allan Publishing, 1986. 0-711-02750-1
* Jefford, C.G. ''RAF Squadrons:, A Comprehensive Record of the Movement and Equipment of all RAF Squadrons and their Antecedents since 1912.'' Shrewsbury, Shropshire, UK: Airlife Publishing, 2001. {{ISBN|1-84037-141-2}}.
* Jenkins, Dennis R. ''B-1 Lancer: The Most Complicated Warplane Ever Developed.'' New York: McGraw-Hill, 1999. {{ISBN|0-07-134694-5}}.
* Jones, Barry. ''V-Bombers: Valiant, Victor and Vulcan''. Ramsbury, UK: The Crowood Press, Paperback edition, 2007. {{ISBN|978-1-86126-945-4}}.
* Jones, Barry. "Black Buck – The Swansong." ''Aeroplane'', Vol. 35, No. 4, Issue No. 408, April 2007.
* Kingsley, Simon and Shaun Quegan. ''Understanding Radar Systems.'' Raleigh, North Carolina: SciTech Publishing, 1999. {{ISBN|1-891121-05-7}}.
* Lake, Alan. ''Flying Units of the RAF: The Ancestry, Formation and Disbandment of all Flying Units since 1912.'' Shrewsbury, Shropshire, UK: Airlife Publishing, 1999. {{ISBN|1-84037-086-6}}.
* Laming, Tim. ''The Vulcan Story: 1952–2002'' Enderby, Leicester, UK: Silverdale Books, 2002. {{ISBN|1-85605-701-1}}.
* Leitch, Andy. "V Force Arsenal: Weapons for the Valiant, Victor and Vulcan". ''[[Air Enthusiast]]'', No. 107, September/October 2003, pp.&nbsp;52–59. {{ISSN|0143-5450}}.
* Polmar, Norman and Dana Bell. ''One Hundred Years of World Military Aircraft.'' Annapolis, Maryland: Naval Institute Press, 2004. {{ISBN|1-59114-686-0}}.
* Price, Alfred, Tony Blackman and Andrew Edmondson. ''Avro Vulcan Manual: An Insight into Owning, Restoring, Servicing and Flying Britain's Legendary Cold War Bomber (Owner's Workshop Manual).'' Sparkford, Somerset, UK: Haynes, 2010. {{ISBN|1-84425-831-9}}.
* Richardson, Doug. ''Stealth Warplanes.'' North Branch, Minnesota: Zenith Imprint, 2001. {{ISBN|0-7603-1051-3}}.
* Seddon, J. and E. L. Goldsmith. ''Intake Aerodynamics'' (Aiaa Education Series). Reston, Virginia: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, 1999. {{ISBN|1-56347-361-5}}.
* Segell, Glen. ''Wither or dither: British Aerospace Collaborative Procurement with Europe.'' London: Glen Segell Publishers, 1997. {{ISBN|1-901414-03-5}}.
* Stephens, Alan. ''Power Plus Attitude: Ideas, Strategy and Doctrine in the Royal Australian Air Force, 1921–1991''. Canberra, Australia: AGPS Press, 1992. {{ISBN|0-644-24388-0}}.
* ''Vulcan B.Mk.1A Pilot's Notes (AP 4505C–PN).'' London: Air Ministry, 1961.
* ''Vulcan B.Mk.2 Aircrew Manual (AP101B-1902-15).'' London: Air Ministry, 1984.
* Wansbrough-White, Gordon. ''Names With Wings: The Names & Naming Systems of Aircraft & Engines Flown by the British Armed Forces 1878–1984.'' Shrewsbury, UK: Airlife Publishing Ltd, 1995. {{ISBN|1-85310-491-4}}.
* White, Rowland. ''Vulcan 607: The Epic Story of the Most Remarkable British Air Attack since WWII.'' London: Bantam Press, 2006. {{ISBN|0-593-05391-5}}.
* Willis, David. "Avro Vulcan survivors." ''Aeroplane'', Vol. 35, No. 4, Issue No. 408, April 2007.
* Wilson, Stewart. ''Lincoln, Canberra & F-111 in Australian service.'' Weston Creek, Australia: Aerospace Publications, 1989. {{ISBN|0-9587978-3-8}}.
* Wynn, Humphrey. ''RAF Strategic Nuclear Deterrent Forces: Origins, Roles and Deployment 1946–1969.'' London: The Stationery Office, 1997. {{ISBN|0-11-772833-0}}.

==Further reading==
{{refbegin}}
* Arnold, Lorna. ''Britain and the H-Bomb''. Basingstoke, Hampshire, UK: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001. {{ISBN|0-333-94742-8}}.
* Chesnau, Roger and Ray Rimell. ''Avro Vulcan B Mk 2'' (Aeroguide 29). Ringshall, Suffolk, UK: Ad Hoc Publications, 2003. {{ISBN|0-946958-39-4}}.
* Dodds, Colin. "Flying the Tin Triangle." ''Aeroplane'', Vol. 35, No. 4, Issue No. 408, April 2007.
* Holmes, Harry. ''Avro: The History of an Aircraft Company.'' Wiltshire, UK: Crowood Press, 2004. {{ISBN|1-86126-651-0}}.
* McLelland, Tim. ''The Avro Vulcan: A Complete History.'' Manchester, UK: Crécy Publishing Limited, 2007. {{ISBN|978-0-85979-127-4}}.
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons}}
* [http://www.vulcans.co.uk/ Avro Vulcan Bomber Tribute Page]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20111102183250/http://www.tvoc.co.uk/ Vulcan to the Sky]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110309183240/http://www.avrovulcan.org.uk/ Vulcans in Camera]
* [http://www.thunder-and-lightnings.co.uk/vulcan/history.html Vulcan history]
* [http://www.avrovulcan.com/ Vulcan Restoration Trust]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ffJ0WX1Xct0 Video of Roland Falk rolling a Vulcan at Farnborough in 1955]
* [http://www.johnfalk.com/ Vulcan Test Pilot Roly Falk history]
* [http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1957/1957%20-%201833.html Building the Vulcan] a 1957 ''Flight'' article
* [http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1958/1958%20-%200138.html the Vulcan Story] ''Flight'' article of 1958
* [http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1954/1954%20-%200646.html ''The Virtues of the Avro Vulcan''] a 1954 AVRO advertisement for the Vulcan in [[Flight International|''Flight'']] magazine
* [http://www.bill-wood.uk ''The autobiography of Bill Wood a Vulcan test pilot''] 

{{Avro aircraft}}
{{Strategic nuclear weapon systems of the United Kingdom}}
{{British military aircraft since World War II}}

[[Category:Avro Vulcan| ]]
[[Category:Avro aircraft|Vulcan]]
[[Category:1950s British bomber aircraft]]
[[Category:Tailless delta-wing aircraft]]
[[Category:Air refueling]]
[[Category:Quadjets]]
[[Category:Aircraft first flown in 1952]]
[[Category:Mid-wing aircraft]]
[[Category:V bombers|Vulcan]]
[[Category:Aircraft with retractable tricycle landing gear]]