Editing Atlas Mountains

{{Short description|North African mountain range}}
{{For|the volcanic cone|Mount Atlas}}
{{Infobox mountain
| name              = Atlas Mountains
| native_name       = 
| native_name_lang  = 
| photo             = Tizi'n'Toubkal.jpg
| photo_caption     = [[Jebel Toubkal|Mount Toubkal]] in [[Toubkal National Park]] within the [[High Atlas]], Morocco
| highest           = [[Toubkal]]
| highest_location  = Morocco
| elevation_m       = 4167
| elevation_ref     =<ref name=otm>{{cite opentopomap|Toubkal|31.05963|-7.91513|2023-06-16}}</ref>
| coordinates       = {{coord|31.05963|N|7.91513|W|type:mountain_scale:100000|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
| coordinates_ref   =<ref name=otm/>
| listing           = [[List of mountain ranges|Mountain ranges]]
| country           = {{hlist|[[Morocco]]|[[Algeria]]|[[Tunisia]]}}
| subdivision2_type = Region
| subdivision2      = [[Maghreb]]
| parent            = 
| area_km2          = 
| length_km         = 2,500
| length_orientation= 
| length_ref        =
| width_km          = 
| width_orientation = 
| geology           = 
| age               = [[Precambrian]]
| orogeny           = 
| map_image         = AtlasRange.jpg
| map_caption       = The location of the Atlas Mountains (red) across [[North Africa]]
|fetchwikidata=ALL
}}

The '''Atlas Mountains''' are a [[mountain range]] in the [[Maghreb]] in [[North Africa]]. They separate the [[Sahara]] Desert from the [[Mediterranean Sea]] and the [[Atlantic Ocean]]; the name "Atlantic" is derived from the mountain range, which stretches around {{convert|2500|km|mi|abbr=on}} through [[Morocco]], [[Algeria]] and [[Tunisia]]. The range's highest peak is [[Toubkal]], which is in central Morocco, with an elevation of {{convert|4167|m|ft|0}}.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://kids.britannica.com/students/article/Atlas-Mountains/273001|title=Atlas Mountains – Students {{!}} Homework Help|website=Britannica Kids |language=en-US|access-date=2017-07-07}}</ref> The Atlas Mountains are primarily inhabited by [[Berbers|Berber]] populations.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://study.com/academy/lesson/atlas-mountains-facts-and-location.html|title=Atlas Mountains: Facts and Location |publisher=study.com|access-date=2017-07-07}}</ref>

The terms for 'mountain' are ''Adrar'' and ''adras'' in some [[Berber languages]], and these terms are believed to be [[cognate]]s of the [[Toponymy|toponym]] ''Atlas''. The mountains are home to a number of [[animal]]s and [[plant]]s which are mostly found within Africa but some of which can be found in Europe. Many of these species are [[endangered]] and a few are already [[extinct]]. The weather is generally cool but summers are sunny, and the average temperature there is 25&nbsp;°C.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://www.holiday-weather.com/atlas_mountains/ | title=Atlas Mountains, Morocco - Live Weather Update}}</ref> The Atlas Mountains have earned a reputation as a trekkers’ den, attracting adventurers year-round.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Petter |first=George |date=23 June 2022 |title=Travel Guide to Atlas Mountains |url=https://www.marrakech-desert-trips.com/your-essential-travel-guide-to-atlas-mountains/ |website=Marrakech Desert Trips}}</ref>

==Geology==
[[File:Atlas-Mountains-Labeled-2.jpg|left|thumb|upright=1.75|A map showing the location of the Atlas Mountains across [[North Africa]]]]

The [[basement rock]] of most of Africa was formed during the [[Precambrian]] supereon and is much older than the Atlas Mountains lying on the continent. The Atlas was formed during three subsequent phases of Earth's geology.

The first tectonic deformation phase involves only the [[Anti-Atlas]], which was formed in the [[Paleozoic]] Era (~300 million years ago) as the result of [[continental collision]]s. [[North America]], [[Europe]] and [[Africa]] were connected millions of years ago.
[[File:Atlas Mountains tectonic plates.png|thumb|The tectonic boundary]]
The Anti-Atlas Mountains are believed to have originally been formed as part of the [[Alleghenian orogeny]]. These mountains were formed when Africa and America collided and were once a chain rivaling today's [[Himalayas]]. Today, the remains of this chain can be seen in the [[Atlantic Seaboard fall line|Fall Line region]] in the [[Eastern United States]]. Some remnants can also be found in the later formed [[Appalachian Mountains|Appalachians]] in North America.

A second phase took place during the [[Mesozoic]] Era (before ~66 My). It consisted of a widespread extension of the Earth's [[Crust (geology)|crust]] that [[rift]]ed and separated the continents mentioned above. This extension was responsible for the formation of many thick intracontinental [[sedimentary basin]]s including the present Atlas. Most of the rocks forming the surface of the present High Atlas were deposited under the ocean at that time.

In the [[Paleogene]] and [[Neogene]] Periods (~66 million to ~1.8 million years ago), the mountain chains that today constitute the Atlas were uplifted, as the land masses of Europe and Africa collided at the southern end of the [[Iberian Peninsula]]. Such [[Convergent boundary|convergent tectonic boundaries]] occur where two plates slide towards each other forming a [[subduction]] zone (if one plate moves underneath the other), and/or a [[orogeny|continental collision]] (when the two plates contain [[continental crust]]). In the case of the Africa-Europe collision, it is clear that tectonic convergence is partially responsible for the formation of the [[High Atlas]], as well as for the closure of the [[Strait of Gibraltar]] and the formation of the [[Alps]] and the [[Pyrenees]].<ref name="UAB.es">[http://einstein.uab.cat/c_geotectonica/WebAtlas/AtlasLitho.htm UAB.es]{{Dead link|date=October 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} Potential field modelling of the Atlas [[lithosphere]]</ref><ref name=tp2005>{{cite journal|title=Crustal structure under the central High Atlas Mountains (Morocco) from geological and gravity data|last1=Ayarza|first1=P.|others= et al.|year=2005|journal=[[Tectonophysics (journal)|Tectonophysics]]|volume=400|issue=1–4 |pages=67–84|doi=10.1016/j.tecto.2005.02.009|bibcode=2005Tectp.400...67A }}</ref>

However, there is a lack of evidence for the nature of the subduction in the Atlas region, or for the thickening of the Earth's crust generally associated with continental collisions. One of the most striking features of the Atlas to geologists is the relatively small amount of crustal thickening and tectonic shortening despite the important altitude of the mountain range. Recent studies suggest that deep processes rooted in the Earth's mantle may have contributed to the uplift of the High and Middle Atlas.<ref name="UAB.es"/><ref name=tp2005/>
[[File:Atlas Mountain range.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|View of the mountains]]

===Natural resources===
The Atlas are rich in [[natural resources]]. There are deposits of [[iron ore]], [[lead ore]], [[copper]], [[silver]], [[mercury (element)|mercury]], [[rock salt]], [[phosphate]], [[marble]], [[anthracite|anthracite coal]] and [[natural gas]] among other resources.{{citation needed|date=December 2021}}

==Subranges==
[[File:Morocco High Atlas Mountains.jpg|thumb|Satellite photograph of the High Atlas and Anti-Atlas Mountains. North is at the bottom; the city of [[Goulmima]] can be seen at center left.|upright=1.59]]
The range can be divided into four general regions:

* [[Anti-Atlas]], [[High Atlas]] and [[Middle Atlas]] (Morocco)
* [[Tell Atlas]] (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia)
* [[Aurès Mountains]] (Algeria, Tunisia)
* [[Saharan Atlas]] (Algeria)

===Anti-Atlas===
{{main|Anti-Atlas}}

The Anti-Atlas extends from the [[Atlantic Ocean]] in the southwest of Morocco toward the northeast to the heights of [[Ouarzazate]] and further east to the city of [[Tafilalt]] (altogether a distance of approximately {{convert|500|km|mi|sigfig=1|disp=or}}). In the south it borders the [[Sahara]]. The easternmost point of the anti-Atlas is the [[Jbel Saghro]] range and its northern boundary is flanked by sections of the [[High Atlas|High Atlas range]]. It includes the Djebel Siroua, a massif of volcanic origin with the highest summit of the range at 3,304 m. The Jebel Bani is a much lower range running along the southern side of the Anti Atlas.<ref>{{Cite web|title=du Djebel Sarho aux dunes de Merzouga|url=http://vchery.free.fr/mektoub/maroc/maroc.htm|access-date=2021-01-19|website=vchery.free.fr}}</ref>

===High Atlas===
[[Image:AtlasOasis.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|High Atlas, Morocco]]
{{main|High Atlas}}

The High Atlas in central Morocco rises in the west at the [[Atlantic Ocean|Atlantic coast]] and stretches in an eastern direction to the Moroccan-Algerian border. It has several peaks over {{convert|4000|m|ft|sigfig=2|abbr=on}}, including the highest summit in North Africa, [[Toubkal]] ({{convert|4167|m|ft|abbr=on|disp=or}}), and further east Ighil [[m'Goun]] ({{convert|4071|m|ft|abbr=on|disp=or}}), the second major summit of the range. At the Atlantic and to the southwest, the range drops abruptly and makes a transition to the coast and the Anti-Atlas range. To the north, in the direction of [[Marrakesh]], the range descends less abruptly. On the heights of [[Ouarzazate]] the massif is cut through by the [[Draa River|Draa Valley]] which opens southward. It is mainly inhabited by Berber people, who live in small villages and cultivate the high plains of the [[Ourika River|Ourika Valley]]. Near Barrage Cavagnac<ref>{{Citation|title= L'INGÉNIEUR CAVAGNAC, un nom bien connu des Anciens de Marrakech|url= http://mangin2marrakech.canalblog.com/archives/2017/04/11/35168981.html|access-date= 2018-01-01|archive-date= 2022-09-29|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220929034148/http://mangin2marrakech.canalblog.com/archives/2017/04/11/35168981.html|url-status= bot: unknown}}</ref> there is a [[hydroelectric]] [[dam]] that has created the artificial lake [[Lalla Takerkoust]]. The lake serves also as a source for fish for the local fishermen.

The largest villages and towns of the area are [[Ouarzazate]], [[Tahannaout]], [[Amizmiz]], [[Imlil, Atlas Mountains|Imlil]], [[Tin Mal]] and [[Ijoukak]].

[[File:Lake of Barrage Couvagnac Panoramic.jpg|thumb|upright=2.72|right|A panoramic picture of the artificial lake of Lalla Takerkoust near Barrage Cavagnac, with the [[hydroelectric]] [[dam]] (far right)]]

[[File:Panoramic view of typical Berber village (Morocco - High Atlas Mountains).jpg|thumb|upright=1.63|right|A panoramic view of typical Berber village in the [[Morocco|Moroccan]] part of the High Atlas]]

===Middle Atlas===

{{main|Middle Atlas}}
The Middle Atlas is completely in Morocco and is the northernmost of its three main Atlas ranges. The range lies north of the High Atlas, separated by the [[Moulouya River|Moulouya]] and [[Oum Er-Rbia River|Oum Er-Rbia]] rivers, and south of the [[Rif]] mountains, separated by the [[Sebou River]]. To the west are the main coastal plains of Morocco with many of the major cities and, to the east, the high barren plateau that lies between the Saharan and Tell Atlas. The high point of the range is the [[jbel Bou Naceur]] (3340 m). The Middle Atlas experiences more rain than the ranges to the south, making it an important water catchment for the coastal plains and important for biodiversity. It is home to the majority of the world's population of [[Barbary macaque]].

[[File:Atlas Mountains 2018009rgb.jpg|thumb|Snow on the Atlas Mountains in Morocco, January 2019]]

===Saharan Atlas===
{{main|Saharan Atlas}}

The Saharan Atlas of [[Algeria]] runs east of the High Atlas, crossing Algeria from the Moroccan border and into Tunisia. The [[Aures Mountains]] are often presented as being the easternmost part of the Saharan Atlas. Though not as high as the High Atlas, they reach similar altitudes as the Tell Atlas range that runs to the north of them and closer to the coast. The highest peak in the range, outside of the Aures Mountains, is the {{convert|2236|m|ft|abbr=on}} high Djebel Aissa. They mark the northern edge of the [[Sahara Desert]]. The mountains see some rainfall and are better suited to agriculture than the [[plateau]] region to the north. Today, most of the population of the region are Berbers ([[Imazighen]]).{{citation needed|date=May 2020}}

===Tell Atlas===
{{main|Tell Atlas}}
[[File:Akouker Djurdjura April 2017.jpg|thumb|Northern slopes of Djebel Akouker ({{cvt|2184|m|ft|disp=or}}) in the Djurdjura range (Tell Atlas, Algeria)]]

The Tell Atlas is a mountain chain over {{convert|1500|km|mi|sigfig=1}} in length, belonging to the Atlas mountain ranges and stretching from Eastern Morocco to Tunisia, and through Algeria. It parallels the [[Mediterranean]] coast and joins with the Saharan Atlas in Eastern Algeria and Tunisia. The highest summit of the Tell Atlas is the {{convert|2308|m|ft|abbr=on}} Lalla Khadidja in the [[Djurdjura]] range of [[Kabylia]]. The western end of the Tell Atlas merges with the [[Middle Atlas]] range in Morocco.

The area immediately to the south of the Tell Atlas is the high plateau of the [[Hautes Plaines]], with lakes in the wet season and salt flats in the dry. The eastern half of the Tell Atlas has the most humid climate of North Africa, with annual precipitation reaching well above {{convert|1000|mm|in|abbr=on}}, and sometimes over {{convert|1500|mm|in|abbr=on}} like in the [[Collo]] Peninsula or near [[Ain Draham]]. An important amount of snow falls on the summits in winter.

[[File:Hammam Essalhine Aquae Flaviane Khenchela Mont View 2.jpg|thumb|right|[[Aurès Mountains|Aures Mountains]]]]

===Aurès===
{{main|Aurès Mountains}}

The Aurès Mountains are the easternmost portion of the Atlas mountain range. It covers parts of [[Algeria]] and [[Tunisia]]. The [[Aurès]] [[natural region]] is named after the range.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://countrystudies.us/algeria/51.htm| title = Algeria – Ethnic Groups and Languages}}</ref>

==Flora and fauna==
{{expand section|date=April 2018}}
[[File:Barbary lion.jpg|thumb|A male [[Barbary lion]] photographed in [[Algeria]] by [[Alfred Edward Pease]] in 1893.<ref name="Pease1913" />]]

[[File:Blidean Atlas mixed forest May 2010.jpg|thumb|Mixed forest (Atlas cedar, oaks, ash trees) in the Blidean Atlas ( a part of the Tell Atlas) , South of [[Algiers]].]]

Flora in the mountains include the [[Atlas cedar]],<ref name=gaussen>Gaussen, H. (1964). Genre ''Cedrus''. Les Formes Actuelles. ''Trav. Lab. For. Toulouse'' T2 V1 11: 295–320</ref> [[evergreen oak]] and many semi-evergreen oaks such as the [[Algerian oak]].

Animals that live in the area include the [[Barbary macaque]] (misnamed as the Barbary ape),<ref name="VanLavieren2012">Van Lavieren, E. (2012). The Barbary Macaque (''Macaca sylvanus''); A unique endangered primate species struggling to survive. Revista Eubacteria, (30): 1–4.</ref> [[Barbary leopard]],<ref name="Emmanuel1982">{{cite journal |last=Emmanuel |first=John |title=A Survey of Population and Habitat of the Barbary Macaqu Macaca Sylvanus L. In North Morocco |journal=Biological Conservation |date=September 1982 |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=45–66 |doi=10.1016/0006-3207(82)90046-5|bibcode=1982BCons..24...45F }}</ref> [[Barbary stag]], [[Barbary sheep]], [[Honey badger|Atlas Mountain badger]], [[Cuvier's gazelle]], [[North African boar]], [[striped hyena]], [[red fox]], [[northern bald ibis]], [[Algerian nuthatch]], [[dipper]], and [[Atlas mountain viper]].

Many animals used to inhabit the Atlas mountains such as the [[Atlas bear]],<ref name="Bryden1899">{{cite book |author=Johnston, H. H. |year=1899 |pages=544–608 |title=Great and small game of Africa |location=London |url=https://archive.org/stream/greatsmallgameof00majo#page/544/mode/2up |editor1-last=Bryden |editor1-first=H. A. |publisher=Rowland Ward Ltd.}}</ref> [[North African elephant]], North African [[aurochs]], [[bubal hartebeest]] and [[Atlas wild ass]],<ref name=equids>{{cite book|last=Des Roses Moehlman|first=Patricia|title=Equids: Zebras, Asses, and Horses: Status Survey and Conservation Action plan|year=2002|publisher=IUCN|location=Cambridge|isbn=9782831706474|page=2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8Bj4q83ry1QC&q=%22Atlas+Wild+Ass%22&pg=PA2}}</ref> but these subspecies are all extinct. [[Barbary lion]]s<ref name="Pease1913">{{cite book |last=Pease |first=A. E. |author-link=Alfred Edward Pease |title=The Book of the Lion |publisher=[[John Murray (publishing house)|John Murray]] |chapter=The Distribution of Lions |pages=109−147 |location=London |year=1913 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/bookoflion1913alfr#page/112/mode/2up}}</ref> are currently extinct in the wild, but descendants exist in captivity.<ref name="YamaguchiHaddane2002">{{cite journal |author1=Yamaguchi, N. |author2=Haddane, B. |year=2002 |title=The North African Barbary Lion and the Atlas Lion Project |journal=International Zoo News |volume=49 |issue=8 |pages=465–481 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/266755974}}</ref><ref name="Burger2006">{{Cite journal |doi=10.1007/s10344-005-0009-z |url=http://www.uni-mainz.de/FB/Biologie/Anthropologie/MolA/Download/Burger%20Hemmer%202006.pdf |title=Urgent call for further breeding of the relic zoo population of the critically endangered Barbary lion (''Panthera leo leo'' Linnaeus 1758) |year=2006 |author=Burger, J. |author2=Hemmer, H. |journal=European Journal of Wildlife Research |volume=52 |issue=1 |pages=54–58 |s2cid=30407194 |access-date=2007-04-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070703152826/http://www.uni-mainz.de/FB/Biologie/Anthropologie/MolA/Download/Burger%20Hemmer%202006.pdf |archive-date=2007-07-03 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="Black_al2010">{{Cite journal |author=Black, S. |author2=Yamaguchi, N. |author3=Harland, A.|author4=Groombridge, J. |name-list-style=amp |title=Maintaining the genetic health of putative Barbary lions in captivity: an analysis of Moroccan Royal Lions |journal=European Journal of Wildlife Research |volume=56 |issue=1 |pages=21–31 |year=2010 |doi=10.1007/s10344-009-0280-5 |s2cid=44941372 |url=http://kar.kent.ac.uk/27502/1/Black_et_al_%282009%29_Genetic_Health_of_putative_barbary_lions.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808151129/https://kar.kent.ac.uk/27502/1/Black_et_al_(2009)_Genetic_Health_of_putative_barbary_lions.pdf |archive-date=2017-08-08 |url-status=live}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Atlas (mythology)]]
* [[Capsian culture]]
* [[Nafusa Mountains]]
* [[Teffedest Mountains]]
* [[Djurdjura Mountains]]
* [[Rif]]
* [[Bouzareah Mountain]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Wikivoyage|Atlas Mountains}}
{{Commons}}
* {{cite EB9 |wstitle= Atlas (2.) |volume= III |page=27 |short=1}}

{{Major African geological formations}}
{{Regions of the world}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Atlas Mountains| ]]
[[Category:Maghreb]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of Morocco]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of Algeria]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of Tunisia]]
[[Category:Physiographic provinces]]