Editing Astronomer Royal

{{short description|Position in the Royal Households of the United Kingdom}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}
{{more citations needed|date=March 2011}}
[[File:John Flamsteed (Gemälde).jpg|thumb|220px|[[John Flamsteed]], the first astronomer royal, by [[Thomas Gibson (artist)|Thomas Gibson]]. [[Royal Society]], London.]]
'''Astronomer Royal''' is a senior post in the [[Royal Households of the United Kingdom]]. There are two officers, the senior being the astronomer royal dating from 22 June 1675; the junior is the [[Astronomer Royal for Scotland|astronomer royal for Scotland]] dating from 1834. The Astronomer Royal works to make observations to improve navigation, cartography, instrument design, and applications of geomagnetism.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Higgitt |first=Rebekah |date=2013-09-12 |title=Astronomers Royal, scientific advice and engineering |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/the-h-word/2013/sep/12/history-science-astronomer-royal-engineering |access-date=2024-04-12 |work=The Guardian |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> The position was created with the overall goal of discovering a way to determine longitude at sea when out of sight of land'''<ref name=":52">{{Cite book |last=Forbes |first=Eric Gray |title=Greenwich observatory |date=1975 |publisher=Taylor and Francis |isbn=978-0-85066-093-7 |location=London |pages=174}}</ref>'''.

== History ==
The post was created by [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] in 1675, at the same time as he founded the [[Royal Observatory, Greenwich]]. He appointed [[John Flamsteed]], instructing him "{{sic|hide=y|forthwith to apply himself with the most exact care and diligence to the rectifying the tables of the motions of the heavens, and the places of the fixed stars, so as to find out the so-much desired longitude of places, for the perfecting the art of navigation}}."<ref>F Baily, "An Account of the Rev. John Flamsteed", reprinted in [https://books.google.com/books?id=48L1w21XYI4C&pg=PA293 vol. 28, at p. 293]. "The Museum of foreign literature, science and art", R Walsh et al., publ. E Litell, 1836.</ref><ref name="forbes1975">{{cite book |last=Forbes |first=Eric G. |title=Greenwich Observatory, volume 1: Origins and Early History (1675–1835) |date=1975 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |location=London |bibcode=1975gosb.book.....F}}</ref><ref name="mccrea_rgo_1975">{{cite book |last=McCrea |first=William Hunter |title=Royal Greenwich Observatory : an Historical Review Issued on the Occasion of its Tercentenary |date=1975 |publisher=Her Majesty's Stationery Office |location=London |bibcode=1975rgo..book.....M}}</ref> The first six Astronomer Royals dedicated themselves primarily to this task and focused on astronomical observations that would benefit navigation.<ref name=":52"/>

The astronomer royal was director of the [[Royal Observatory, Greenwich]] from the establishment of the post in 1675 until 1972. The astronomer royal became an honorary title in 1972 without executive responsibilities, and a separate post of [[director of the Royal Greenwich Observatory]] was created to manage the institution.<ref name="mccrea_rgo_1975" /><ref name="meadows1975">{{cite book |last=Meadows |first=A. J. |title=Greenwich Observatory, volume 2: Recent History (1836–1975) |date=1975 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |location=London |bibcode=1975gosb.book.....F}}</ref>

The origin of the title Astronomer Royal is unknown.<ref name=":05">{{Cite journal |last=Lovell |first=Bernard |date=1994 |title=The Royal Society, the Royal Greenwich Observatory and the Astronomer Royal |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/532168 |journal=Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London |volume=48 |issue=2 |pages=283–297 |doi=10.1098/rsnr.1994.0029 |jstor=532168 |issn=0035-9149}}</ref> Although Flamsteed is widely considered the first Astronomer Royal, he was never appointed with the title and only referred to in the Warrant to Ordinance as "Our Astronomical Observer".<ref name=":05" />  Similar language was used to appoint all the Astronomers Royal until 1881 with [[William Christie (astronomer)|William Christie]]'s appointment. The term Astronomer Royal did not become commonly used until the late 18th Century while the Royal Warrants still used "Our Astronomical Observer".<ref name=":05" /> Other titles such as Royal Professor at Greenwich were also used in less formal documents during this time.<ref name=":05" />

In 1703, [[Isaac Newton]] was elected President of the Royal Society and was upset with the lack of publications coming from the Greenwich Observatory under Flamsteed.<ref name=":15">{{Cite book |last=Ronan |first=Colin |title=Astronomers Royal |date=1969 |publisher=Doubleday and Company |isbn= |location=New York |pages=43–44}}</ref> This eventually led to Queen Anne's Warrant of 1710 where members of the [[Royal Society]] were appointed as the Board of Visitors to the Royal Observatory to oversee Flamsteed.<ref name=":05"/> The original Board of Visitors consisted entirely of associates and allies of Newton which enraged Flamsteed.<ref name=":15"/>

In 1765, the [[Board of Longitude]] decided that the Astronomer Royal's observations were the property of the Crown and must be printed and published each year.<ref name=":44">Ronan, Colin (1969). ''Astronomers Royal''. New York: Doubleday and Company. pp. 44-45.</ref> John Pond and subsequent Astronomers Royal elected to publish their findings quarterly instead.<ref name="forbes19752">{{cite book |last=Forbes |first=Eric G. |title=Greenwich Observatory, volume 1: Origins and Early History (1675–1835) |date=1975 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |location=London |pages=176 |bibcode=1975gosb.book.....F}}</ref>

Sir [[George Biddell Airy|George Airy]] transformed the position from its original purpose of improving navigation to conducting more general astronomical and scientific research.<ref name=":62">{{Cite book |last=Maunder |first=E. Walter |title=The Royal Observatory Greenwich |publisher=The Religious Tract Society |year=1900 |location=London, England |pages=113–114}}</ref>  With approval from the Board of Visitors in 1836, Airy created a Magnetic and Meteorological Department in the Royal Observatory Greenwich. Following this, in 1873 he created the Solar Photography Department.<ref name=":62" />

Astronomers Royal are responsible for many different discoveries and theories. They had several assistants who aided in their research at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich. The most important position was that of the computers or people that would perform all the mathematical computations behind the astronomers' observations. Many of these computers were women, but they were often left out of articles and books, thus leaving them out of most common historical sources.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Mullen |first=Kane |date=2020 |title=Temporary Measures: Women Computers at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, 1890–1895 |url=https://data.isiscb.org/isis/citation/CBB011712539/ |journal=Journal for the History of Astronomy |volume=51 |issue=1 |pages=88–121 |doi=10.1177/0021828620901358|bibcode=2020JHA....51...88M }}</ref>

Originally, the Astronomer Royal had one assistant but increased to six during [[John Pond]]'s appointment as Astronomer Royal'''.'''<ref name="forbes19752" /> The astronomer royal today receives a [[stipend]] of 100 [[GBP]] per year and is a member of the [[royal household]], under the general authority of the [[Lord Chamberlain]]. After the separation of the two offices of Astronomer Royal and Director of the Royal Greenwich Observatory, the position of astronomer royal has been largely honorary, although the holder remains available to advise the Sovereign on astronomical and related scientific matters,<ref name="monarchywebsite">{{cite web
 | url = http://www.royal.gov.uk/TheRoyalHousehold/OfficialRoyalposts/AstronomerRoyal.aspx
 | title = Astronomer Royal
 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160308012357/http://www.royal.gov.uk/TheRoyalHousehold/OfficialRoyalposts/AstronomerRoyal.aspx
 | archive-date = 2016-03-08
 | website = [[Monarchy of the United Kingdom|The British Monarchy]]
 | publisher = [[Royal Households of the United Kingdom|Royal Household]] 
 | url-status = dead
 | access-date = 2017-06-23
}}</ref> and the office is of great prestige.

There was formerly a [[Royal Astronomer of Ireland]] who was also the Andrew's Professor of Astronomy at the University of Dublin.<ref name=":23">{{Cite journal |last=Wayman |first=P.A. |date=March 1986 |title=The Andrews Professors of Astronomy and Dunsink Observatory, 1785-1985 |url=https://articles.adsabs.harvard.edu/full/1986IrAJ...17..167W |access-date=2024-03-08 |journal=Irish Astronomical Journal|volume=17 |page=167 |bibcode=1986IrAJ...17..167W }}</ref> Both became vacant in 1921 with Irish Independence but a new Andrew's Professor of Astronomy was appointed in 1985.<ref name=":23" />

==Astronomers Royal==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! # !! Image !! Name !! Start year !! End year ||  class="unsortable"| Reference
|-
| 1. || [[File:John Flamsteed 1702.jpg|100px]] || [[John Flamsteed]] || 1675 || 1719 || <ref name="forbes1975"/><ref name="monarchywebsite"/>
|-
| 2. || [[File:Edmond Halley 072.jpg|100px]] || [[Edmond Halley]] || 1720 || 1742 || <ref name="forbes1975"/><ref name="monarchywebsite"/>
|-
| 3. || [[File:James Bradley by Thomas Hudson.jpg|100px]] || [[James Bradley]] || 1742 || 1762 || <ref name="forbes1975"/><ref name="monarchywebsite"/>
|-
| 4. || [[File:The Reverend Nathaniel Bliss.jpg|100px]] || [[Nathaniel Bliss]] || 1762 || 1764 || <ref name="forbes1975"/><ref name="monarchywebsite"/>
|-
| 5. || [[File:Maskelyne Nevil.jpg|100px]] || [[Nevil Maskelyne]] || 1765 || 1811 || <ref name="forbes1975"/><ref name="monarchywebsite"/>
|-
| 6. ||  || [[John Pond]] || 1811 || 1835 || <ref name="forbes1975"/><ref name="monarchywebsite"/>
|-
| 7. || [[File:George Biddell Airy 1891.jpg|100px]] || Sir [[George Biddell Airy]] || 1835 || 1881 || <ref name="meadows1975"/><ref name="monarchywebsite"/>
|-
| 8. || [[File:William H M Christie.jpg|100px]] || Sir [[William Christie (astronomer)|William Christie]] || 1881 || 1910 || <ref name="meadows1975"/><ref name="monarchywebsite"/>
|-
| 9. || [[File:Frank Watson Dyson.jpg|100px]] || Sir [[Frank Watson Dyson|Frank Dyson]] || 1910 || 1933 || <ref name="meadows1975"/><ref name="monarchywebsite"/>
|-
| 10. ||  || Sir [[Harold Spencer Jones]] || 1933 || 1955 || <ref name="meadows1975"/><ref name="monarchywebsite"/>
|-
| 11. ||  || Sir [[Richard van der Riet Woolley]] || 1956 || 1971 || <ref name="meadows1975"/><ref name="monarchywebsite"/>
|-
| 12. |||| Sir [[Martin Ryle]] || 1972 || 1982 || <ref name="meadows1975"/><ref name="monarchywebsite"/>
|-
| 13. || [[File:Francis Graham Smith.jpg|100px]] || Sir [[Francis Graham-Smith]] || 1982 || 1990 || <ref name="monarchywebsite"/>
|-
| 14. || [[File:SirArnoldWolfendale.jpg|100px]] || Sir [[Arnold Wolfendale]] || 1991 || 1995 || <ref name="monarchywebsite"/>
|-
| 15. || [[File:Official portrait of Lord Rees of Ludlow crop 2.jpg|100px]] || [[Martin Rees|Martin Rees, Baron Rees of Ludlow]] || 1995 || ''Incumbent'' || <ref name="monarchywebsite"/>
|}

== Notable discoveries and works of Astronomers Royal ==
[[John Flamsteed]] is responsible for a few important discoveries including proving his theory of annual [[stellar parallax]] and the discovery of the planet [[Uranus]], even though he thought it was a star.<ref name=":03">{{Cite journal |last=Armitage |first=Angus |date=1946 |title=Our First Astronomer Royal—the Tercentenary of John Flamsteed |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43412820 |journal=Science Progress (1933- ) |volume=34 |issue=135 |pages=506–515 |jstor=43412820 |issn=0036-8504}}</ref>  In 1694, he gathered evidence of the stellar parallax and became the first person to prove that the Earth revolves around the sun.<ref name=":03"/> However, his most significant contribution to the Royal Observatory and later to the Astronomers Royal was his high standard of work.

Six years after the death of Flamsteed, ''Historia Coelestis Britannica'' was published containing much of the data and theories he had spent his life working on both before and after his appointment as Astronomer Royal.<ref name=":33">{{Cite journal |last=Schaffer |first=S. |date=July 1984 |title=The Preface to John Flamsteed's Historia Coelestis Britannica (Book): Annals of Science |url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&AuthType=sso&db=aph&AN=6129346&site=eds-live&scope=site&custid=081-800 |journal=Annals of Science |volume=41 |issue=4 |pages=409}}</ref> It contains accurate tables of lunar motion, planetary motion, and detailed stellar catalog of 2935 stars.<ref name=":33" /> This publication made the Astronomer Royal and the [[Royal Observatory, Greenwich]] internationally renown for precise observation.<ref name=":15"/>

[[Edmond Halley]] was determined to find a way to find longitude at sea without sight of land.<ref name=":44"/> Starting in 1725, Halley while serving as Astronomer Royal and a Commissioner on the [[Board of Longitude]] made very detailed and precise observations of the moon.<ref name=":44" /> From these observations he was able to show that longitude could be calculated using the moon in 1731.<ref name=":44" /> Although the error is his calculations was about 69 miles at the equator, it was more accurate than any other methods until the use of the [[marine chronometer]] for finding longitude.<ref name=":44" />

In 1833, [[John Pond]] published his catalog of 1113 different stars.<ref name="forbes19754">{{cite book |last=Forbes |first=Eric G. |title=Greenwich Observatory, volume 1: Origins and Early History (1675–1835) |date=1975 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |location=London |pages=175 |bibcode=1975gosb.book.....F}}</ref> The catalog contained more stars recorded to a much higher degree of accuracy than any other publication at the time, and impressed many other astronomers across Europe.<ref>Ronan, Colin (1969). ''Astronomers Royal''. New York: Doubleday and Company. pp. 129.</ref>

Another notable Astronomer Royal was Sir [[George Biddell Airy]]. While still in college at [[Trinity College, Cambridge]], he noticed he was having trouble reading with his left eye.<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal |last=Levene |first=John R. |date=1966 |title=Sir George Biddell Airy, F.R.S. (1801-1892) and the Discovery and Correction of Astigmatism |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/531067 |journal=Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=180–199 |doi=10.1098/rsnr.1966.0017 |jstor=531067 |issn=0035-9149}}</ref> Eventually, his condition would be classified as an [[astigmatism]], but at the time, there was no cure that worked for everyone. After consulting with others who had the same condition, he specially crafted a lens to refract the light rays and correct the astigmatism.<ref name=":13" /> With experience working with lenses, he spent a significant amount of his time as the Astronomer Royal improving the measuring instruments in the Royal Observatory, Greenwich.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal |last=Hill |first=Geo. A. |date=1892 |title=Sir George Biddell Airy |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1766331 |journal=Science |volume=19 |issue=469 |pages=64–65 |doi=10.1126/science.ns-19.469.64 |jstor=1766331 |pmid=17744420 |bibcode=1892Sci....19...64H |issn=0036-8075}}</ref> Using these improved instruments, he meticulously double-checked measurements and discoveries made by past astronomers.<ref name=":2" />

[[Frank Watson Dyson|Frank Dyson]], the ninth Astronomer Royal, determined latitude variation caused by irregular movement of Earth's magnetic poles.<ref name=":7">{{Cite book |last=Wilson |first=Margaret |title=Ninth Astronomer Royal |publisher=W.Heffer and Sons Limited |year=1951 |location=Cambridge, England |pages=162–163}}</ref> He used a telescope floating in mercury and was able to detect when the poles of the earth wobbled any distance greater than one foot.<ref name=":7" /> During the 1919 eclipse, Dyson was crucial in designing the [[Eddington experiment]] with [[Arthur Eddington]] to test [[Albert Einstein]]'s [[Theory of relativity]].<ref name=":8">Wilson, Margaret (1951). ''Ninth Astronomer Royal''. Cambridge, England: W.Heffer and Sons Limited. pp.&nbsp;191–193.</ref> Starting months before the eclipse, stars were photographed and carefully charted, and during the total eclipse the same stars would be photographed and charted again.<ref name=":8" /> If Einstein's theory was correct then the light from the selected stars would be bent passing around the sun and show more deflection than Newtonian theory could account for.<ref name=":8" /> When the photographs from the eclipse were developed it became clear that Einstein's theory had accurately predicted the position of stars. This was one of the first experiments done to test [[general relativity]].<ref name=":8" />

== In popular culture ==
The astronomer royal is mentioned in [[H. G. Wells]]' novel ''[[The War of the Worlds]]'', in [[George Orwell]]'s ''[[Down and Out in Paris and London]]'',<ref>p. 175, Penguin edition</ref> and in [[Thomas Pynchon]]'s novel ''[[Mason & Dixon]].<ref>ch. 11, Picador/Holt edition</ref> ''He also makes an appearance in the lyrics of ''[[Gilbert and Sullivan]]'''s ''[[The Pirates of Penzance]]''<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Pirates of Penzance by Gilbert and Sullivan |url=https://gsarchive.net/pirates/web_op/pirates18.html#:~:text=Some%20person%20in%20authority%2C%20I%20don%E2%80%99t%20know%20who%2C%20very%20likely%20the%20Astronomer%20Royal |website=The Gilbert and Sullivan Archive}}</ref> and plays an important role in [[Fred Hoyle]]'s novel ''[[The Black Cloud]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Burchell |first=Tania |date=February 8, 2020 |title=The Black Cloud: Scientists in Science Fiction |url=https://science.nrao.edu/about/publications/pawsey/NRAO%20ONLINE.31.Burchell%20BlackCloud%20%20Hoyle%20creates%20Pawsey%20as%20Harry%20Leicester%20Australian%20Scientist.pdf |access-date=March 18, 2024 |website=National Radio Astronomy Observatory}}</ref>

==References==
<references/>

==External links==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20121010081330/http://www.royal.gov.uk/TheRoyalHousehold/OfficialRoyalposts/AstronomerRoyal.aspx Official website]
{{Astronomers Royal}}
{{British Monarchy Household}}

[[Category:Astronomers Royal|*]]
[[Category:Ceremonial officers in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Lists of British people]]
[[Category:Positions within the British Royal Household]]
[[Category:Lists of space scientists|Astronomer Royal]]
[[Category:Royal Observatory, Greenwich]]