Editing Ardhanarishvara

{{short description|Composite form of the Hindu deities Shiva and Parvati}}
{{good article}}
{{Redirect|Ardhanari|the 2012 film|Ardhanaari{{!}}''Ardhanaari''|the composite form of the deities Vishnu and Lakshmi|Vaikuntha Kamalaja}}
{{Infobox deity<!--Wikipedia:WikiProject Hindu mythology-->
| type = Hindu
| image = Standing_Ardhanari_c.1800.jpg
| name = Ardhanarishvara
| caption = Ardhanarishvara
| Devanagari = अर्धनारीश्वर
| Sanskrit_transliteration = {{IAST|Ardhanārīśvara}}
| affiliation = A combined form of [[Shiva]] and [[Parvati]]
| god_of = 
| abode = 
| mantra = 
| weapon = Trishula
| mount = [[Nandi (bull)|Nandi]] and a lion named Somanandi
}}

'''Ardhanarishvara''' ({{langx|sa|अर्धनारीश्वर|Ardhanārīśvara|the half-female Lord|translit-std=IAST}}) is a form of the Hindu deity [[Shiva]] combined with his consort [[Parvati]]. Ardhanarishvara is depicted as half-male and half-female, equally split down the middle.

Ardhanarishvara represents the synthesis of masculine and feminine energies of the universe ([[Purusha]] and [[Prakriti]]) and illustrates how [[Shakti]], the female principle of God, is inseparable from (or the same as, according to some interpretations) Shiva, the male principle of God, and vice versa. The union of these principles is exalted as the root and womb of all creation. Another view is that Ardhanarishvara is a symbol of Shiva's all-pervasive nature. The right half is usually the male Shiva, illustrating his traditional attributes.

The earliest Ardhanarishvara images are dated to the [[Kushan Empire|Kushan]] period, starting from the first century [[Common era|CE]]. Its iconography evolved and was perfected in the [[Gupta Empire|Gupta]] era. The [[Puranas]] and various iconographic treatises write about the mythology and iconography of Ardhanarishvara. Ardhanarishvara remains a popular iconographic form found in most Shiva temples throughout India, though very few temples are dedicated to this deity.

==Names==
The name Ardhanarishvara means "the Lord Who is half woman". Ardhanarishvara is also known by other names like Ardhanaranari ("the half man-woman"), Ardhanarisha ("the Lord who is half woman"), Ardhanarinateshvara ("the [[Nataraja|Lord of Dance]] (Who is half-woman),<ref>[http://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/cgibin/monier/serveimg.pl?file=/scans/MWScan/MWScanjpg/mw0092-ardhakarNa.jpg Monier Williams Sanskrit-English Dictionary (2008 revision)]</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=India through the ages|url=https://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada|last=Gopal|first=Madan|year= 1990| page= [https://archive.org/details/indiathroughages00mada/page/69 69]|editor=K.S. Gautam|publisher=Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India}}</ref> Parangada,<ref name = "garg"/> Naranari ("man-woman"), Ammaiyappan (a [[Tamil language|Tamil]] Name meaning "Mother-Father"),<ref name="jordan">{{cite book|last=Jordan|first=Michael|title=Dictionary of gods and goddesses  |edition=2|year=2004|publisher=Facts on File, Inc.|isbn=0-8160-5923-3|page=27}}</ref> and Ardhayuvatishvara (in [[Assam]], "the Lord whose half is a young woman or girl").<ref name ="swami57"/> The  [[Gupta Empire|Gupta]]-era writer Pushpadanta in his ''Mahimnastava'' refers to this form as ''dehardhaghatana'' ("Thou and She art each the half of one body"). [[Utpala (astronomer)|Utpala]], commenting on the [[Bṛhat Saṃhitā|''Brihat Samhita'']], calls this form Ardha-Gaurishvara ("the Lord whose half is the fair one"; the fair one – Gauri – is an attribute of [[Parvati]]).<ref>Swami Parmeshwaranand p. 60</ref> The [[Vishnudharmottara Purana|''Vishnudharmottara Purana'']] simply calls this form Gaurishvara ("The Lord/husband of Gauri).<ref name = "collins80"/>

==Origins and early images==
[[File:Kushana Ardhanareswar.jpg|thumb|upright|An early [[Kushan Empire|Kushan]] head of Ardhanarishvara, discovered at Rajghat, now in the [[Mathura Museum]]]]

The conception of Ardhanarishvara may have been inspired by [[Vedic]] literature's composite figure of [[Yama (Hinduism)|Yama]]-[[Yami]],{{sfn|Chakravarti|1986|p=44}}<ref name = "swami58">Swami Parmeshwaranand p. 58</ref> the Vedic descriptions of the primordial Creator Vishvarupa or [[Prajapati]] and the fire-god [[Agni]] as "bull who is also a cow,"<ref name ="Kramrisch200"/><ref name = "Srinivasan57"/> the [[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad|''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'']]'s [[Ātman (Hinduism)|Atman]] ("Self") in the form of the androgynous cosmic man [[Purusha]]{{sfn|Chakravarti|1986|p=44}}<ref name = "Srinivasan57"/> and the androgynous myths of the [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] [[Hermaphroditus]] and [[Phrygians|Phrygian]] [[Agdistis]].<ref name ="Kramrisch200"/><ref name = "Daniélou63ff"/> The ''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'' says that Purusha splits himself into two parts, male and female, and the two halves copulate, producing all life – a theme concurrent in Ardhanarishvara's tales.<ref>Srinivasan pp. 57, 59</ref> The [[Shvetashvatara Upanishad|''Shvetashvatara Upanishad'']] sows the seed of the [[Puranas|Puranic]] Ardhanarishvara. It declares [[Rudra]] – the antecedent of the Puranic Shiva – the maker of all and the root of Purusha (the male principle) and [[Prakriti]] (the female principle), adhering to [[Samkhya]] philosophy. It hints at his androgynous nature, describing him both as male and female.<ref>Srinivasan pp. 57–8</ref>

The concept of Ardhanarishvara originated in [[Kushan Empire|Kushan]] and Greek cultures simultaneously; the iconography evolved in the Kushan era (30–375 CE), but was perfected in the Gupta era (320-600 CE).<ref name = "swami55ff">Swami Parmeshwaranand pp. 55–6</ref>{{sfn|Chakravarti|1986|p=146}} A mid-first century Kushan era [[Stele|stela]] in the [[Mathura Museum]] has a half-male, half-female image, along with three other figures identified with [[Vishnu]], [[Gaja Lakshmi]] and [[Kubera]].<ref name = "swami58"/><ref>See image in Goldberg pp. 26–7</ref> The male half is [[ithyphallic]] or with an ''urdhvalinga'' and makes an ''[[Abhayamudra|abhaya mudra]]'' gesture; the female left half holds a mirror and has a rounded breast. This is the earliest representation of Ardhanarishvara, universally recognized.<ref name = "swami58"/><ref name = "Goldberg30"/> An early Kushan Ardhanarishvara head discovered at Rajghat is displayed at the [[Mathura Museum]]. The right male half has matted hair with a skull and crescent moon; the left female half has well-combed hair decorated with flowers and wears a patra-kundala (earring). The face has a common [[third eye]]. A terracotta seal discovered in [[Vaishali (ancient city)|Vaishali]] has half-man, half-woman features.<ref name = "swami58"/> Early Kushan images show Ardhanarishvara in a simple two-armed form, but later texts and sculptures depict a more complex iconography.<ref name = "Srinivasan57"/>

Ardhanarishvara is referred to by the Greek author [[Stobaeus]] ({{Circa|500 AD}}) while quoting [[Bardasanes]] ({{Circa|154}}–222 AD), who learnt from an Indian embassy's visit to [[Syria]] during the reign of [[Elagabalus]] (Antoninus of Emesa) (218–22 AD).{{sfn|Chakravarti|1986|p=44}}<ref name = "swami55ff"/> A terracotta androgynous bust, excavated at [[Taxila]] and dated to the [[Saka]]-[[Parthian Empire|Parthian]] era, pictures a bearded man with female breasts.<ref name = "swami55ff"/>{{sfn|Chakravarti|1986|p=146}}

Ardhanarishvara is interpreted as an attempt to [[Syncretism|syncretise]] the two principal Hindu sects, [[Shaivism]] and [[Shaktism]], dedicated to Shiva and the [[Mahadevi|Great Goddess]]. A similar syncretic image is [[Harihara]], a composite form of Shiva and Vishnu, the Supreme deity of the [[Vaishnava]] sect.<ref name = "garg">Garg (ed), pp. 598–9</ref>{{sfn|Chakravarti|1986|p=43}}<ref name = "Dehejia37ff">Dehejia pp. 37–9</ref><ref name="Pande">{{cite web|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080704072150/http://www.alkapande.com/paper1.htm|archive-date=4 July 2008|url=http://www.alkapande.com/paper1.htm|title=The Icon of Creation – Ardhanarisvara|last=Pande|first=Dr. Alka|work=Official site of author|access-date=6 February 2011}}</ref>

==Iconography==
[[File:Shakta Ardhanari.jpg|thumb|left|A rare example of a Shakta Ardhanarishvara, where the dominant right side is female]]
The iconographic 16th century work ''[[Shilparatna]]'', the [[Matsya Purana|''Matsya Purana'']] and [[Agama (Hinduism)|Agamic]] texts like ''Amshumadbhedagama'', ''Kamikagama'', ''Supredagama'' and ''Karanagama'' – most of them of South Indian origin – describe the iconography of Ardhanarishvara.<ref>Rao p. 323</ref><ref name = "matsya"/><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rajarajan|first=R. K. K.|title=Dance of Ardhanari as Pattini-Kannaki with special reference to the Cilappatikaram|url=https://www.academia.edu/2955548|journal=Berliner Indologische Studien|date=January 2000 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rajarajan|first=R. K. K.|title=Dance of Ardhanārī. A Historiographical Retrospection|url=https://www.academia.edu/3740760 |journal=Convegni |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Rajarajan|first=R. K. K.|url=https://www.academia.edu/30222114|title=Masterpieces of Indian Literature and Art - Tears of Kaṇṇaki: Annals and Iconology of the 'Cilappatikāram'|language=en}}</ref> The right superior side of the body usually is the male Shiva and the left is the female Parvati; in rare depictions belonging to the Shaktism school, the feminine holds the dominant right side.<ref name = "goldberg145">Goldberg pp. 145–8</ref> The icon usually is prescribed to have four, three or two arms, but rarely is depicted with eight arms. In the case of three arms, the Parvati side has only one arm, suggesting a lesser role in the icon.

===Male half===

The male half wears a ''jata-mukuta'' (a headdress formed of piled, matted hair) on his head, adorned with a crescent moon. Sometimes the ''jata-mukuta'' is adorned with serpents and the river goddess [[Ganges in Hinduism|Ganga]] flowing through the hair. The right ear wears a ''nakra-kundala'', ''sarpa-kundala'' ("serpent-earring") or ordinary kundala ("earring"). Sometimes, the male eye is depicted smaller than the female one and a half-moustache is also seen.<ref name = "Rao324ff"/><ref name = "Goldberg4"/> A half third eye (''trinetra'') is prescribed on the male side of the forehead in the canons; a full eye may also be depicted in middle of forehead separated by both the sides or a half eye may be shown above or below Parvati's round dot.<ref name = "Rao324ff"/><ref name = "Goldberg5"/> A common elliptical halo (''prabhamandala''/''prabhavali'') may be depicted behind the head; sometimes the shape of the halo may differ on either side.<ref name = "Goldberg5"/>

In the four-armed form, a right hand holds a ''[[parashu]]'' (axe) and another makes an ''abhaya mudra'' (gesture of reassurance), or one of the right arms is slightly bent and rests on the head of Shiva's bull mount, [[Nandi (bull)|Nandi]], while the other is held in the ''abhaya mudra'' gesture. Another configuration suggests that a right hand holds a ''[[trishula]]'' (trident) and another makes a ''[[Varadamudra|varada mudra]]'' (gesture of blessing). Another scripture prescribes that a trishula and ''[[akshamala]]'' (rosary) are held in the two right hands. In the two-armed form, the right hand holds a [[kapala]] (skull cup) or gestures in a ''varada mudra''.<ref name = "Rao324ff">Rao pp. 324–5</ref><ref name = "Goldberg4">Goldberg p. 12</ref> He may also hold a skull.<ref name = "matsya"/> In the [[Badami]] relief, the four-armed Ardhanarishvara plays a [[veena]] (lute), using a left and a right arm, while other male arm holds a ''parashu'' and the female one a lotus.<ref name = "Rao327ff">Rao pp. 327–8</ref>

[[File:Ardhanari.png|thumb|upright|A three-armed bronze Ardhanarishvara]]
The Shiva half has a flat masculine chest, a straight vertical chest, broader shoulder, wider waist and muscular thigh.<ref name = "Goldberg4"/> He wears a [[Upanayana|''yagnopavita'']] (sacred thread) across the chest, which is sometimes represented as a ''naga-yagnopavita'' (a snake worn as a ''yagnopavita'') or a string of pearls or gems. The ''yajnopavita'' may also divide the torso into its male and female halves. He wears ornaments characteristic of Shiva's iconography, including serpent ornaments.<ref name = "matsya"/><ref name = "Rao324ff"/><ref name = "Goldberg5"/><ref name="britannica"/>

In some North Indian images,<ref name = "Goldberg5"/> the male half may be nude and also be ithyphallic (''urdhavlinga'' or ''urdhavreta'': with an erect phallus), however, connotes the very opposite in this context.{{sfn|Kramrisch|1994a|p=218}} It contextualizes "[[Coitus reservatus|seminal retention]]" or practice of [[Celibacy#Hinduism|celibacy]]<ref name="govind52">Ghurye, G.S., 1952. Ascetic Origins. Sociological Bulletin, 1(2), pp.162-184.</ref> (illustration of ''Urdhva Retas''),{{sfn|Kramrisch|1994a|p=26}}<ref name="brill72">Pensa, Corrado. "Some Internal and Comparative Problems in the Field of Indian Religions." Problems and Methods of the History of Religions. Brill, 1972. 102-122.</ref><ref name="patt06">Pattanaik, Devdutt. Shiva to Shankara: Decoding the phallic symbol. Indus Source, 2006.</ref> and represents the deity as "the one who stands for complete control of the senses, and for the supreme carnal renunciation",{{sfn|Kramrisch|1994a|p=218}} other images found in North India include full or half phallus and one testicle.<ref name = "Goldberg30"/> However, such imagery is never found in South Indian images;<ref name = "Goldberg5">Goldberg p. 13</ref> the loins are usually covered in a garment (sometimes a [[dhoti]]) of silk or cotton, or the skin of a tiger or deer), typically down to the knee, and held in place by a ''sarpa-mekhala'', serpent girdle or jewellery. The right leg may be somewhat bent or straight and often rests on a lotus pedestal (''padma-pitha''). The whole right half is described as smeared with ashes and as terrible and red-coloured or gold or coral in appearance; however, these features are rarely depicted.<ref name = "Rao324ff"/><ref name = "Goldberg5"/>

===Female half===
The female half has ''karanda-mukuta'' (a basket-shaped crown) on her head or well-combed knotted hair or both. The left ear wears a ''valika-kundala'' (a type of earring). A ''[[tilaka]]'' or ''[[Bindi (decoration)|bindu]]'' (a round red dot) adorns her forehead, matching Shiva's third eye. The left eye is painted with black eyeliner.<ref name="Rao325ff" /> While the male neck is sometimes adorned with a jewelled hooded serpent, the female neck has a blue lotus matching it.<ref name="swami57" />

In the four-armed form, one of the left arms rests on Nandi's head, while the other is bent in ''kataka mudra'' pose and holds a ''[[Nymphaea nouchali|nilotpala]]'' (blue lotus) or hangs loosely at her side. In the three-armed representation, the left hand holds a flower, a mirror or a parrot. In the case of two-armed icons, the left hand rests on Nandi's head, hangs loose or holds either a flower, a mirror or a parrot. The parrot may be also perched on Parvati's wrist. Her hand(s) is/are adorned with ornaments like a ''keyura'' (anklet) or ''kankana'' (bangles).<ref name="britannica"/><ref name = "Rao325ff">Rao pp. 325–6</ref>

Parvati has a well-developed, round bosom and a narrow feminine waist embellished with various ''haras'' (religious bracelets) and other ornaments, made of diamonds and other gems. She has a fuller thigh and a curvier body and hip than the male part of the icon.<ref name = "Goldberg30">Goldberg p. 30</ref><ref name = "Rao325ff"/> The torso, hip and pelvis of the female is exaggerated to emphasize the anatomical differences between the halves.<ref>Rao pp. 329–30</ref> Though the male private parts may be depicted, the female genitalia are never depicted and the loins are always draped.<ref name = "Goldberg30"/> She wears a multi-coloured or white silken garment down to her ankle and one or three girdles around her waist. The left half wears an anklet and her foot is painted red with [[henna]]. The left leg may be somewhat bent or straight, resting on a lotus pedestal. In contrast to the Shiva half, the Parvati half – smeared with saffron – is described as calm and gentle, fair and parrot-green or dark in colour.<ref name="britannica"/><ref name = "Rao325ff"/> She may be draped in a [[sari]] covering her torso and legs.

===Postures and vahana===
[[File:God marriage AS.jpg|thumb|upright|A seated Ardhanarishvara with both the vahanas]]

The posture of Ardhanarishvara may be ''[[tribhanga]]'' – bent in three parts: head (leaning to the left), torso (to the right) and right leg or in the ''sthanamudra'' position (straight), sometimes standing on a lotus pedestal, whereupon it is called ''samapada''. Seated images of Ardhanarishvara are missing in iconographic treatises, but are still found in sculpture and painting.<ref name = "Goldberg5"/><ref name = "Rao330ff">Rao pp. 330–2</ref> Though the canons often depict the Nandi bull as the common ''[[vahana]]'' (mount) of Ardhanarishvara, some depictions have Shiva's bull ''vahana'' seated or standing near or behind his foot, while the goddess's lion ''vahana'' is near her foot.<ref>Srinivasan p.266</ref><ref>Daniélou p. 147</ref>

===Eight-armed form===

The [[Parsurameswar Temple|Parashurameshvara Temple]] at [[Bhubaneswar]] has a dancing eight-armed Ardhanarishvara. The upper male arms hold a lute and ''akshamala'' (rosary), while the upper female ones hold a mirror and a book; the others are broken.<ref name ="swami57">Swami Parmeshwaranand p. 57</ref> Another non-conventional Ardhanarishvara is found at [[Darasuram]]. The sculpture is three-headed and eight-armed, holding ''akshamala'', ''khadga'' (sword), ''pasha'', ''musala'', ''kapala'' (skull cup), lotus and other objects.<ref name="Rao330ff"/>

===Other textual descriptions===

The [[Naradiya Purana|''Naradiya Purana'']] mentions that Ardhanarishvara is half-black and half-yellow, nude on one side and clothed on other, wearing skulls and a garland of lotuses on the male half and female half respectively.<ref>Swami Parmeshwaranand p. 61</ref> The ''Linga Purana'' gives a brief description of Ardhanarishvara as making ''varada'' and ''abhaya mudras'' and holding a ''trishula'' and a lotus.<ref name="linga">Collins p. 78-9</ref> The ''Vishnudharmottara Purana'' prescribes a four-armed form, with right hands holding a rosary and ''trishula'', while the left ones bear a mirror and a lotus. The form is called ''Gaurishvara'' in this text.<ref name = "collins80"/>

==Legends==
[[File:Ardhanari.jpg|thumb|upright|Ardhanarishvara relief is from the [[Elephanta Caves]] near [[Mumbai]]]]

The mythology of Ardhanarishvara – which mainly originates in the Puranic canons – was developed later to explain existent images of the deity that had emerged in the Kushan era.<ref name = "Srinivasan57">Srinivasan p.57</ref><ref name = "Dehejia37ff"/><ref>Goldberg p. 157</ref>

The unnamed half-female form of Shiva is also alluded to in the epic ''[[Mahabharata]]''. In Book XIII, Upamanyu praises Shiva rhetorically asking if there is anyone else whose half-body is shared by his spouse, and adds that the universe had risen from the union of sexes, as represented by Shiva's half-female form. In some narratives, Shiva is described as dark and fair-complexioned, half yellow and half white, half woman and half man, and both woman and man. In Book XIII, Shiva preaches to Parvati that half of his body is made up of her body.<ref name = "Mbh">Collins p.76</ref>

In the ''[[Skanda Purana]]'', Parvati requests Shiva to allow her to reside with him, embracing "limb-to-limb", and so Ardhanarishvara is formed.<ref name="swami60ff">Swami Parmeshwaranand pp. 60–1</ref> It also tells that when the demon [[Andhaka]] wanted to seize Parvati and make her his wife, Vishnu rescued her and brought her to his abode. When the demon followed her there, Parvati revealed her Ardhanarishvara form to him. Seeing the half-male, half-female form, the demon lost interest in her and left. Vishnu was amazed to see this form and saw himself in the female part of the form.<ref name="Pande"/>

The ''[[Shiva Purana]]'' describes that the creator god [[Brahma]] created all male beings, the [[Prajapati]]s, and told them to regenerate, which they were unable to do. Confronted with the resulting decline in the pace of creation, Brahma was perplexed and contemplated on Shiva for help. To enlighten Brahma of his folly, Shiva appeared before him as Ardhanarishvara. Brahma prayed to the female half of Shiva to give him a female to continue creation. The goddess agreed and created various female powers from her body, thereby allowing creation to progress.<ref name ="Kramrisch200"/><ref name="swami60ff"/><ref>Rao pp. 321–2</ref> In other Puranas like the [[Linga Purana|''Linga Purana'']], [[Vayu Purana|''Vayu Purana'']], [[Vishnu Purana|''Vishnu Purana'']], [[Skanda Purana|''Skanda Purana'']],<ref name ="Kramrisch200"/> [[Kurma Purana|''Kurma Purana'']],<ref>Collins p.77-8</ref> and [[Markandeya Purana|''Markandeya Purana'']],<ref>Collins pp. 76–7</ref> Rudra (identified with Shiva) appears as Ardhanarishvara, emerging from Brahma's head, forehead, mouth or soul as the embodiment of Brahma's fury and frustration due to the slow pace of creation. Brahma asks Rudra to divide himself, and the latter complies by dividing into male and female. Numerous beings, including the 11 [[Rudras]] and various female [[shakti]]s, are created from both the halves. In some versions, the goddess unites with Shiva again and promises to be born as [[Dakshayani|Sati]] on earth to be Shiva's wife.<ref name ="Kramrisch200">Kramrisch pp. 200–3, 207–8</ref> In the ''Linga Purana'', the Ardhanarishvara Rudra is so hot that in the process of appearing from Brahma's forehead, he burns Brahma himself. Ardhanarishvara Shiva then enjoys his own half – the Great Goddess – by "the path of yoga" and creates Brahma and Vishnu from her body. In the repetitive cycle of [[Kalpa (aeon)|aeons]], Ardhanarishvara is ordained to reappear at the beginning of every creation as in the past.<ref name ="linga"/><ref>Kramrisch p. 205</ref>

[[File:Shiva Vinadhara.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Ardhanarishvara playing a ''veena'' surrounded by [[Bhringi]] and a female attendant, [[Badami]]<ref>Rao pp. 327–8: The male half of the four-armed Ardhanarishvara at [[Badami]] wears snake ornaments and a knee-length deerskin dress and holds a ''parashu''. His ''jatamukuta'' is adorned by the crescent moon as well as a skull. The female side wears gold ornaments and an ankle-length silk garment, and carries a ''nilotpala''. Together with the remaining arms, Ardhanarishvara plays a ''veena''. The skeleton figure identified with Bhringi stands beside him. The bull stands behind the deity.</ref>]]

The ''Matsya Purana'' describes how Brahma, pleased with a penance performed by Parvati, rewards her by blessing her with a golden complexion. This renders her more attractive to Shiva, to whom she later merges as one half of his body.<ref name = "matsya">Collins p.77</ref>

[[Tamil Nadu|Tamil]] temple lore narrates that once the gods and sages (''[[rishi]]'') had gathered at Shiva's abode, they prayed their respects to Shiva and Parvati. However, the sage [[Bhringi]] had vowed to worship only one deity, Shiva, and ignored Parvati while [[pradakshina|worshipping and circumambulating]] him. Agitated, Parvati cursed Bhringi to lose all his flesh and blood, reducing him to a skeleton. In this form Bhringi could not stand erect, so the compassionate ones who witnessed the scene blessed the sage with a third leg for support. As her attempt to humiliate the sage had failed, Parvati punished herself with austerities that pleased Shiva and led him to grant her the boon of uniting with him, thereby compelling Bhringi to worship her as well as himself in the form of Ardhanarishvara.  However, the sage assumed the form of a beetle and circumambulating only the male half, drilling a hole in the deity. Amazed by his devotion, Parvati reconciled with the sage and blessed him.<ref>Rao pp. 322–3</ref><ref name="Pattanaik">{{cite web |url=http://devdutt.com/ardhanareshwara-the-hierarchy-of-halves/ |title=Ardhanareshwara |last=Pattanaik |first=Devdutt |date=Sep 16, 2005 |work=Official site of [[Devdutt Pattanaik]] |access-date=6 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101121175321/http://devdutt.com/ardhanareshwara-the-hierarchy-of-halves/ |archive-date=21 November 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The seventh-century Shaiva [[Nayanars|Nayanar]] saint [[Appar]] mentions that after marrying Parvati, Shiva incorporated her into half of his body.<ref name="Pande"/>

In the [[Kalika Purana|''Kalika Purana'']], Parvati (called Gauri here) is described as having suspected Shiva of infidelity when she saw her own reflection in the crystal-like breast of Shiva. A conjugal dispute erupted but was quickly resolved, after which Parvati wished to stay eternally with Shiva in his body. The divine couple was thereafter fused as Ardhanarishvara.<ref name="swami60ff"/> Another tale from North India also talks about Parvati's jealousy. Another woman, the river Ganga – often depicted flowing out of Shiva's locks – sat on his head, while Parvati (as Gauri) sat on his lap. To pacify Gauri, Shiva united with her as Ardhanarishvara.<ref name="Pattanaik"/>

Only in tales associated with the hindu sect of Shakta (in which the Goddess is considered the Supreme Being) is the Goddess venerated as the Maker of All. In these tales, it is her body (not Shiva's) which splits into male and female halves.<ref name = "goldberg145"/>

==Symbolism==
[[File:Khajuraho Ardharnareshvar.jpg|thumb|Ardhanarishvara sculpture, [[Khajuraho]], depicting [[Shiva]] with [[Parvati]] as his equal half.]]
Ardhanarishvara symbolizes that the male and female principles are inseparable.<ref name="britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/33339/Ardhanarisvara|title=Ardhanārīśvara|year=2011|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=26 January 2011}}</ref> The composite form conveys the [[unity of opposites]] (''coniunctio oppositorum'') in the universe.<ref name = "garg"/><ref name = "Daniélou63ff">Daniélou pp. 63–7</ref><ref name="kinsley">{{cite book|last=Kinsley|first=David |title=Hindu Goddesses: Visions of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Tradition|year=1998|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ|isbn=81-208-0394-9|pages=49–53}}</ref><ref>Goldberg p.115</ref> The male half of Ardhanarishvara stands for [[Purusha]] and female half is [[Prakriti]]. Purusha is the male principle and passive force of the universe, while Prakriti is the female active force; both are "constantly drawn to embrace and fuse with each other, though... separated by the intervening axis". The union of Purusha (Shiva) and Prikriti (Shiva's energy, Shakti) generates the universe, an idea also manifested in the union of the [[Linga]] of Shiva and [[Yoni]] of Devi creating the cosmos.<ref>Rao pp. 332</ref><ref name="swami59">Swami Parmeshwaranand p. 59</ref><ref name="Daniélou">{{cite book|last=Daniélou|first=Alain|title=The Myths and Gods of India: the Classic Work on Hindu Polytheism|year=1985|publisher=Inner Traditions|isbn=0-89281-354-7|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/mythsgodsofindia00dani}}</ref> The ''Mahabharata'' lauds this form as the source of creation.<ref name = "Mbh"/> Ardhanarishvara also suggests the element of [[Kama]] or Lust, which leads to creation.<ref name="Daniélou"/>

Ardhanarishvara signifies "totality that lies beyond duality", "bi-unity of male and female in God" and "the bisexuality and therefore the non-duality" of the Supreme Being.<ref name = "Dehejia37ff"/><ref name=conner67>{{cite book |title= Cassell's Encyclopedia of Queer Myth, Symbol and Spirit|last= Conner |first= Randy P. |author2=Sparks, David Hatfield |author3=Sparks, Mariya |year=1998 |publisher=Cassell |location=UK |isbn=0-304-70423-7|page = 67|chapter = Ardhararishvara}}</ref> It conveys that God is both Shiva and Parvati, "both male and female, both father and mother, both aloof and active, both fearsome and gentle, both destructive and constructive" and unifies all other dichotomies of the universe.<ref name="kinsley"/> While Shiva's rosary in the Ardhanarishvara iconography associates him with asceticism and spirituality, Parvati's mirror associates her to the material illusory world.<ref name = "Srinivasan158"/> Ardhanarishvara reconciles and harmonizes the two conflicting ways of life: the spiritual way of the ascetic as represented by Shiva, and the materialistic way of the householder as symbolized by Parvati, who invites the ascetic Shiva into marriage and the wider circle of worldly affairs. The interdependence of Shiva on his power (''Shakti'') as embodied in Parvati is also manifested in this form.<ref name="kinsley"/> Ardhanarishvara conveys that [[Shiva]] and [[Shakti]] are one and the same, an interpretation also declared in inscriptions found along with Ardhanarishvara images in [[Java]] and the eastern [[Malay Archipelago]].<ref name = "garg"/><ref name="swami58"/> The ''Vishnudharmottara Purana'' also emphasizes the identity and sameness of the male Purusha and female Prakriti, manifested in the image of Ardhanarishvara.<ref>Srinivasan p. 59</ref> According to Shaiva guru [[Sivaya Subramuniyaswami]] (1927–2001), Ardhanarishvara signifies that the great Shiva is "All, inseparable from His energy" (i.e. his ''Shakti'') and is beyond gender.<ref>{{cite book|last=Sivaya Subramuniyaswami|author-link=Sivaya Subramuniyaswami|title=Dancing with Siva: Hinduism's Contemporary Catechism|year=2003|publisher=Himalayan Academy Publications|page=758}}</ref>

[[File:Ardhanari Gangakonda.jpeg|thumb|left|upright|A three-armed Ardhanarishvara sculpture with only Nandi as a ''vahana'', 11th century, [[Gangaikonda Cholapuram]] temple]]
Across cultures, hermaphrodite figures like Ardhanarishvara have traditionally been associated with fertility and abundant growth. In this form, Shiva in his eternal embrace with Prakriti represents the eternal reproductive power of Nature, whom he regenerates after she loses her fertility. "It is a duality in unity, the underlying principle being a sexual dualism".<ref name="swami59"/> Art historian [[C. Sivarama Murti|Sivaramamurti]] calls it "a unique connection of the closely knit ideal of man and woman rising above the craving of the flesh and serving as a symbol of hospitality and parenthood".<ref name = "Dehejia37ff"/> The dual unity of Ardhanarishvara is  considered "a model of conjugal inseparability". Padma Upadhyaya comments, "The idea of ... Ardhanārīśvara is to locate the man in the woman as also the woman in the man and to create perfect homogeneity in domestic affairs".{{sfn|Chakravarti|1986|p=43}}

Often, the right half of Ardhanarishvara is male and the left is female. The left side is the location of the heart and is associated with 'feminine' characteristics like intuition and creativity, while the right is associated with the brain and 'masculine' traits – logic, valour and systematic thought.<ref name = "Daniélou63ff"/><ref>Goldberg p. 156</ref> The female is often not equal in the Ardhanarishvara, the male god who is half female; she remains a dependent entity.<ref name="Courtright">{{cite journal|last=Courtright|first=Paul B.|date=December 2005|title=Review: The Lord Who is Half Woman: Ardhanāriśvara in Indian and Feminist Perspective.|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Religion|volume=73|issue=4|pages=1215–1217|doi=10.1093/jaarel/lfi130|url=http://jaar.oxfordjournals.org/content/73/4/1215.full}}</ref> Ardhanarishvara "is in essence Shiva, not Parvati". This is also reflected in mythology, where Parvati becomes a part of Shiva. It is likewise reflected in iconography: Shiva often has two supernatural arms and Parvati has just one earthly arm, and his bull ''vahana'' – not her lion vahana – typically accompanies them.<ref name="Seid">{{cite journal|last=Seid|first=Betty|year=2004|title=The Lord Who Is Half Woman (Ardhanarishvara)|journal=Art Institute of Chicago Museum Studies|publisher=The Art Institute of Chicago|volume=30|issue=1|pages=48–95|jstor=4129920}}</ref>

==Worship==
[[File:Ardinary.jpg|thumb|right|Ardhanarishvara worshipped at [[Sri Rajarajeswari Peetam]]]]

Ardhanarishvara is one of the most popular iconographic forms of Shiva. It is found in more or less all temples and shrines dedicated to Shiva all over India and South-east Asia.<ref name="britannica"/><ref>Goldberg p. 1</ref><ref name = "Yadav161">Yadav p. 161</ref> There is ample evidence from texts and the multiple depictions of the Ardhanarishvara in stone to suggest that a cult centred around the deity may have existed. The cult may have had occasional followers, but was never aligned to any sect. This cult focusing on the joint worship of Shiva and the Goddess may even have had a high position in Hinduism, but when and how it faded away remains a mystery.<ref>Swami Parmeshwaranand pp. 55, 61</ref> Though a popular iconographic form, temples dedicated to the deity are few.<ref name = "Yadav161"/><ref name = "Tiruchengode"/> A popular one is located in [[Ardhanareeswarar temple, Tiruchengode|Thiruchengode]],<ref name = "Tiruchengode">{{cite book | last= Moorthy| first= K. K.| title= The Temples of Tamilnadu| year = 1991 |place = Tirupathi|chapter = Tiruchengodu - Ardhanareeswarar Tirukovil}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.arthanareeswarar.com/English.asp|title=Site about Tiruchengode temple|access-date=2011-03-14|archive-date=2016-03-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304000443/http://www.arthanareeswarar.com/English.asp|url-status=dead}}</ref> while five others are located in [[Kallakkurichi taluk]], all of them in the Indian state of [[Tamil Nadu]].<ref>{{cite book | last= Hiltebeitel | first= Alf |author-link=Alf Hiltebeitel | title= The Cult of Draupadi: Mythologies: from Gingee to Kuruksetra| volume=1 | year = 1988 | publisher= University of Chicago Press | isbn = 978-0-226-34046-3| page = 447}}</ref>

The ''Linga Purana'' advocates the worship of Ardhanarishvara by devotees to attain union with Shiva upon dissolution of the world and thus attain [[moksha|salvation]].<ref name = "Srinivasan158">Srinivasan p. 158</ref> The ''Ardhanarinateshvara Stotra'' composed by [[Adi Shankara|Adi Shankaracharya]] is a popular hymn dedicated to the deity.<ref>Goldberg p. 4</ref> The [[Nayanars|Nayanar]] saints of Tamil Nadu exault the deity in hymns. While the 8th-century Nayanar saint [[Sundarar]] says that Shiva is always inseparable from the Mother Goddess,<ref name ="swami57"/> another 7th-century Nayanar saint [[Sambandar]] describes how the "[[eternal feminine]]" is not only his consort, but she is also part of him.<ref name ="swami57"/> The renowned Sanskrit writer [[Kalidasa]] (c. 4th–5th century) alludes Ardhanarishvara in invocations of his [[Raghuvaṃśa|Raghuvamsa]] and [[Mālavikāgnimitram|Malavikagnimitram]], and says that Shiva and Shakti are as inseparable as word and meaning.<ref name = "collins80">Collins p. 80</ref> The 9th-century Nayanar saint [[Manikkavacakar]] casts Parvati in the role of the supreme devotee of Shiva in his hymns. He alludes to Ardhanarishvara several times and regards it the ultimate goal of a devotee to be united with Shiva as Parvati is in the Ardhanarishvara form.<ref name="kinsley"/>

==See also==
* [[Shatkona]], a six-pointed star, with a meaning similar (if not the same) as ''Ardhanarishvara''.  
* [[Harihara]]: composite form of the gods Shiva and Vishnu
* [[Jumadi]]: a regional composite form of Shiva and Parvati
* [[Vaikuntha Kamalaja]]: composite form of Vishnu and Lakshmi
*[[Shilanath Mahadev Mandir]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist|3}}

==References==
* {{cite book|last=Collins|first=Charles Dillard |title=The iconography and ritual of Śiva at Elephanta|year=1988|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=0-88706-773-5}}
* {{cite book|last=Chakravarti|first=Mahadev |title=The concept of Rudra-Śiva through the ages  |year=1986|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ|isbn=81-208-0053-2}}
* {{cite book|last=Daniélou|first=Alain |title=Gods of love and ecstasy: the traditions of Shiva and Dionysus|year=1992|publisher=Inner Traditions International|isbn=0-89281-374-1}}
* {{cite book|last=Dehejia|first=Harsha V. |title=Pārvatīdarpaṇa: an exposition of Kāśmir Śaivism through the images of Śiva and Parvati|year=1997|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ|isbn=81-208-1484-3}}
* {{cite book|last= Goldberg|first=Ellen|title=The Lord who is half woman: Ardhanārīśvara in Indian and feminist perspective|year=2002|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=0-7914-5325-1}}
* {{cite book|editor= Garg, Ganga Ram|title=Encyclopaedia of the Hindu world|volume=3: Ar-Az|year=1992|publisher=Concept Publishing Company.|isbn=81-7022-376-8}}
* {{cite book|last=Kramrisch|first=Stella|title=The Presence of Siva|url=https://archive.org/details/presenceofsiva0000kram|url-access=registration|year=1981|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=0-691-01930-4}}
* {{cite book|last=Rao|first=T.A. Gopinatha|title=Elements of Hindu iconography |volume=2: Part I|year=1916|publisher=Law Printing House|location=Madras}}
* {{cite book|last=Srinivasan|first=Doris Meth|title=Many Heads, Arms, and Eyes: Origin, Meaning, and Form of Multiplicity in Indian Art|year=1997|publisher=BRILL|oclc=208705592}}
* {{cite book|last=Swami Parmeshwaranand|title=Encyclopaedia of the Śaivism|volume=1|year=2004|publisher=Sarup & Sons|isbn=81-7625-427-4|chapter=Ardhanārīśvara}}
* {{cite book|last=Yadav|first=Neeta|title=Ardhanārīśvara in art and literature|year=2000|publisher=D.K. Printworld|isbn=81-246-0169-0}}
* {{ Citation | last=Kramrisch |first=Stella |title=The Presence of Śiva |year=1994a |publisher=Princeton University Press |location=Princeton, New Jersey |isbn=978-0691019307 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/presenceofsivamy00skra}}

==External links==
{{commonscat}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110514150341/http://www.shaivam.org/siddhanta/maardh.html Ardhanari]

{{Shaivism}}
{{HinduMythology}}

{{Authority control}}


[[Category:Hindu deities]]
[[Category:Forms of Shiva]]
[[Category:Forms of Parvati]]
[[Category:Androgynous and hermaphroditic deities]]
[[Category:Intersex topics in religion and mythology]]