Editing Andes

{{Short description|Mountain range in South America}}
{{About|the mountain range in South America}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2022}}
{{Infobox mountain
| name= Andes Mountains
| native_name={{Native name|qu|[[Antisuyu|Anti]]}}
| other_name= {{Langx|es|Cordillera de los Andes}}
| photo= Cordillera de los Andes.jpg
| photo_caption= An aerial view of the Andes between [[Santiago]] in [[Chile]] and [[Mendoza, Argentina]] with a large ice field on the southern slope of [[San José (volcano)|San José volcano]] (left), [[Marmolejo]] (right), and [[Tupungato]] (far right)
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| country= {{hlist|[[Argentina]]|[[Bolivia]]|[[Chile]]|[[Colombia]]|[[Ecuador]]|[[Peru]]|[[Venezuela]]}}
| geology= 
| orogeny=
| area_km2=
| area_ref=
| length_km= 8900
| length_orientation=
| length_ref=
| width_km= 330
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| highest= [[Aconcagua]]
| highest_location= [[Mendoza Province|Mendoza]], Argentina
| elevation_m= 6961
| elevation_ref=
| coordinates   = {{Coord|32|39|11|S|070|0|42|W|type:mountain_scale:100000|display=inline}}
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| range_coordinates= {{Coord|32|S|70|W|type:mountain|display=inline,title}}
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| map_image= South America laea relief location map.jpg
| map_caption= Map of South America showing the Andes running along the entire western part (roughly parallel to the Pacific coast) of the continent
}}
[[File:Cono de Arita, Salta. (Argentina).jpg|thumb|"[[Salar de Arizaro|Cono de Arita]]" in the [[Puna de Atacama]], [[Salta]] ([[Argentina]])]]
[[File:Aconcagua_south_wall_2020.jpg|thumb|[[Aconcagua]]]]

The '''Andes''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|æ|n|d|iː|z}} {{respell|AN|deez}}), '''Andes Mountains''' or '''Andean Mountain Range''' ({{Langx|es|Cordillera de los Andes}}; {{Langx|qu|Anti}}) are the [[List of mountain ranges#Mountain ranges by length|longest continental mountain range]] in the world, forming a continuous highland along the western edge of [[South America]]. The range is {{Convert|8900|km|mi|abbr=on}} long and {{Convert|200|to|700|km|mi|abbr=on}} wide (widest between [[18th parallel south|18°S]] and [[20th parallel south|20°S]] [[latitude]]) and has an average height of about {{Convert|4000|m|ft|abbr=on}}. The Andes extend from south to north through seven South American countries: [[Argentina]], [[Chile]], [[Bolivia]], [[Peru]], [[Ecuador]], [[Colombia]], and [[Venezuela]].

Along their length, the Andes are split into several ranges, separated by intermediate [[depression (geology)|depressions]]. The Andes are the [[location]] of several high [[plateau]]s—some of which host major cities such as [[Quito]], [[Bogotá]], [[Cali]], [[Arequipa]], [[Medellín]], [[Bucaramanga]], [[Sucre]], [[Mérida, Mérida|Mérida]], [[El Alto]], and [[La Paz]]. The [[Altiplano|Altiplano Plateau]] is the world's second highest after the [[Tibetan Plateau]]. These ranges are in turn grouped into three major divisions based on climate: the [[Tropical Andes]], the [[Dry Andes]], and the [[Wet Andes]].

The Andes are the highest mountain range outside of [[Asia]]. The range's highest peak, Argentina's [[Aconcagua]], rises to an elevation of about {{Convert|6961|m|ft|abbr=on}} above sea level. The [[Summit (topography)|peak]] of [[Chimborazo]] in the Ecuadorian Andes is farther from the Earth's center than any other location on the Earth's surface, due to the [[equatorial bulge]] resulting from the [[Earth's rotation]]. The world's highest [[volcano]]es are in the Andes, including [[Ojos del Salado]] on the Chile-Argentina border, which rises to {{Convert|6893|m|ft|abbr=on}}.

The Andes are also part of the [[American Cordillera]], a chain of [[mountain]] ranges ([[cordillera]]) that consists of an almost continuous sequence of mountain ranges that form the western "backbone" of the [[Americas]] and [[Antarctica]].

==Etymology==
The [[etymology]] of the word ''Andes'' has been debated. The majority consensus is that it derives from the [[Quechua languages|Quechua]] word {{lang|qu|anti}} "east"<ref name=laime>Teofilo Laime Ajacopa, Diccionario Bilingüe Iskay simipi yuyayk'ancha, La Paz, 2007 (Quechua–Spanish dictionary)</ref> as in ''[[Antisuyu]]'' (Quechua for "east region"),<ref name=laime/> one of the four regions of the [[Inca Empire]].

The term ''[[cordillera]]'' comes from the [[Spanish language|Spanish]] word ''cordel'' "rope"<ref>{{cite web |title=Cordillera |url=http://etimologias.dechile.net/?cordillera |website=etimologias.dechile.net |access-date=27 December 2015}}</ref> and is used as a descriptive name for several contiguous sections of the Andes, as well as the entire Andean range, and the combined [[mountain chain]] along the western part of the North and South American [[continent]]s.

==Geography==
[[File:ARG-2016-Aerial-Tierra del Fuego (Ushuaia)–Valle Carbajal 01.jpg|thumb|Aerial view of [[Carbajal Valley|Valle Carbajal]] in the [[Tierra del Fuego]]. The Andes range is about {{convert|200|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} wide throughout its length, except in the [[Orocline|Bolivian flexure]] where it is about {{convert|640|km|mi|0}} wide.|alt=Mountains with snowy peaks]]
The Andes can be divided into three sections:
: '''The Southern Andes''' in [[Argentina]] and [[Chile]], south of [[Llullaillaco]],
: '''The Central Andes''' in [[Peru]] and [[Bolivia]], and
: '''The Northern Andes''' in [[Venezuela]], [[Colombia]], and [[Ecuador]].
At the northern end of the Andes, the separate [[Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta]] range is often, but not always, treated as part of the Northern Andes.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/w9300e/w9300e09.htm |title=Mountains, biodiversity and conservation |website=Food and Agriculture Organization |access-date=28 January 2019}}</ref>

The [[Leeward Antilles]] islands [[Aruba]], [[Bonaire]], and [[Curaçao]], which lie in the [[Caribbean Sea]] off the coast of [[Venezuela]], were formerly thought to represent the submerged peaks of the extreme northern edge of the Andes range, but ongoing geological studies indicate that such a simplification does not do justice to the complex tectonic boundary between the [[South American Plate|South American]] and [[Caribbean Plate|Caribbean plates]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Miller |first1=Meghan S. |first2=Alan |last2=Levander |first3=Fenglin |last3=Niu |first4=Aibing |last4=Li |title=Upper mantle structure beneath the Caribbean-South American plate boundary from surface wave tomography |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research |volume=114 |issue=B1 |page=B01312 |doi=10.1029/2007JB005507 |date=23 June 2008 <!--Revision date--> |url=http://www.gseis.rice.edu/Reprints/047_MillerEL09JGR.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100605003245/http://www.gseis.rice.edu/Reprints/047_MillerEL09JGR.pdf |archive-date=5 June 2010 |access-date=21 November 2010 |bibcode=2009JGRB..114.1312M |doi-access=free}}</ref>

==Geology==
{{Geology of the Andes}}
The Andes are an [[Orogeny|orogenic]] belt of mountains along the [[Pacific Ring of Fire]], a zone of [[volcanic activity]] that encompasses the Pacific rim of the Americas as well as the [[Asia-Pacific]] region. The Andes are the result of [[tectonic plate]] processes extending during the [[Mesozoic]] and [[Tertiary]] eras, caused by the [[subduction]] of [[oceanic crust]] beneath the [[South American Plate]] as the [[Nazca Plate]] and South American Plate converge. These processes were accelerated by the effects of climate. As the uplift of the Andes created a rain shadow on the western fringes of [[Chile]], [[ocean current]]s and prevailing winds carried moisture away from the [[Chilean coast]]. This caused some areas of the subduction zone to be sediment-starved, which in turn prevented the subducting plate from having a well lubricated surface. These factors increased the rate of contractional coastal uplift in the Andes.<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://doi.org/10.1038/nature02049 |doi=10.1038/nature02049 |title=Cenozoic climate change as a possible cause for the rise of the Andes |year=2003 |last1=Lamb |first1=Simon |last2=Davis |first2=Paul |journal=Nature |volume=425 |issue=6960 |pages=792–797 |pmid=14574402 |bibcode=2003Natur.425..792L |s2cid=4354886}}</ref> The main cause of the rise of the Andes is the contraction of the western rim of the [[South American Plate]] due to the subduction of the [[Nazca Plate]] and the [[Antarctic Plate]]. To the east, the Andes range is bounded by several [[sedimentary basin]]s, such as the [[Orinoco Basin]], the [[Amazon Basin]], the [[Madre de Dios River|Madre de Dios]] Basin, and the [[Gran Chaco]], that separate the Andes from the ancient [[craton]]s in eastern South America. In the south, the Andes share a long boundary with the former [[Patagonia#Geology|Patagonia Terrane]]. To the west, the Andes end at the [[Pacific Ocean]], although the [[Peru-Chile trench]] can be considered their ultimate western limit. From a geographical approach, the Andes are considered to have their western boundaries marked by the appearance of coastal lowlands and less-rugged topography. The Andes also contain large quantities of [[iron ore]] located in many mountains within the range.

The Andean orogen has a series of bends or [[orocline]]s. The [[Bolivian Orocline]] is a seaward-concave bending in the coast of [[South America]] and the Andes Mountains at about 18° S.<ref name="Isacks1988" /><ref name="Kley1999">{{Citation |last=Kley |first=J. |title=Geologic and geometric constraints on a kinematic model of the Bolivian orocline |journal=[[Journal of South American Earth Sciences]] |volume=12 |issue=2 |year=1999 |pages=221–235 |doi=10.1016/s0895-9811(99)00015-2 |bibcode=1999JSAES..12..221K}}</ref> At this point, the orientation of the Andes turns from northwest in [[Peru]] to south in [[Chile]] and [[Argentina]].<ref name="Kley1999" /> The Andean segments north and south of the Orocline have been rotated 15° counter-clockwise to 20° clockwise respectively.<ref name="Kley1999" /><ref name="Beck1987">{{Citation |last=Beck |first=Myrl E. |title=Tectonic rotations on the leading edge of South America: The Bolivian orocline revisited |journal=[[Geology (journal)|Geology]] |volume=15 |issue=9 |year=1987 |pages=806–808 |doi=10.1130/0091-7613(1987)15<806:trotle>2.0.co;2 |bibcode=1987Geo....15..806B}}</ref> The [[Orocline|Bolivian Orocline]] area overlaps with the area of the maximum width of the [[Altiplano|Altiplano Plateau]], and according to Isacks (1988) the Orocline is related to [[crustal shortening]].<ref name="Isacks1988">{{Citation |last=Isacks |first=Bryan L. |title=Uplift of the Central Andean Plateau and Bending of the Bolivian Orocline |journal=[[Journal of Geophysical Research]] |volume=93 |issue=B4 |year=1988 |pages=3211–3231 |url=http://geomorphology.sese.asu.edu/Papers/Isacks_Uplift_Andean_Plateau_1988.pdf |doi=10.1029/jb093ib04p03211 |bibcode=1988JGR....93.3211I}}</ref> The specific point at 18° S where the [[coast]]line bends is known as the [[Arica]] Elbow.<ref name="PrezziVilas">{{cite journal |last1=Prezzi |first1=Claudia B. |last2=Vilas |first2=Juan F. |date=1998 |title=New evidence of clockwise vertical axis rotations south of the Arica elbow (Argentine Puna) |journal=[[Tectonophysics (journal)|Tectonophysics]] |volume=292 |issue=1 |pages=85–100 |doi=10.1016/s0040-1951(98)00058-4 |bibcode=1998Tectp.292...85P}}</ref> Further south lies the Maipo Orocline, a more subtle [[orocline]] between 30° S and 38°S with a seaward-concave break in the trend at 33° S.<ref name="Arriagada2013">{{Citation |last1=Arriagada |first1=César |last2=Ferrando |first2=Rodolfo |last3=Córdova |first3=Loreto |last4=Morata |first4=Diego |last5=Roperch |first5=Pierrick |title=The Maipo Orocline: A first scale structural feature in the Miocene to Recent geodynamic evolution in the central Chilean Andes |journal=[[Andean Geology]] |volume=40 |issue=3 |year=2013 |pages=419–437 |url=http://www.scielo.cl/pdf/andgeol/v40n3/art02.pdf}}</ref> Near the southern tip of the Andes lies the Patagonian Orocline.<ref name="Charrieretal2006">{{cite book |last1=Charrier |first1=Reynaldo |last2=Pinto |first2=Luisa |last3=Rodríguez |first3=María Pía |author-link=Reynaldo Charrier |editor-last=Moreno |editor-first=Teresa |editor2-last=Gibbons |editor2-first=Wes |title=Geology of Chile |publisher=Geological Society of London |date=2006 |pages=5–19 |chapter=3. Tectonostratigraphic evolution of the Andean Orogen in Chile |isbn=978-1-86239-219-9}}</ref>

===Orogeny===
{{main|Andean orogeny}}
The western rim of the [[South American Plate]] has been the place of several pre-Andean [[orogeny|orogenies]] since at least the late [[Proterozoic]] and early [[Paleozoic]], when several [[terrane]]s and [[microcontinent]]s collided and amalgamated with the ancient [[craton]]s of eastern South America, by then the [[South American Plate|South American part]] of [[Gondwana]].

The formation of the modern Andes began with the events of the [[Triassic]], when [[Pangaea]] began the breakup that resulted in developing several [[rift]]s. The development continued through the [[Jurassic]] Period. It was during the [[Cretaceous]] Period that the Andes began to take their present form, by the [[Tectonic uplift|uplifting]], [[Fault (geology)|faulting]], and [[Fold (geology)|folding]] of [[sedimentary rock|sedimentary]] and [[metamorphic rock|metamorphic]] rocks of the ancient cratons to the east. The rise of the Andes has not been constant, as different regions have had different degrees of tectonic stress, uplift, and [[erosion]].

Across the {{convert|1000|km|mi|-wide|sp=us|adj=mid}} [[Drake Passage]] lie the mountains of the [[Antarctic Peninsula]] south of the [[Scotia Plate]], which appear to be a continuation of the Andes chain.

The far east regions of the Andes experience a series of changes resulting from the Andean orogeny. Parts of the [[Sunsás orogeny|Sunsás Orogen]] in [[Amazonian craton]] disappeared from the surface of the earth, being [[thrust fault|overridden]] by the Andes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Santos |first1=J.O.S. |last2=Rizzotto |first2=G.J. |last4=McNaughton |first4=N.J. |last3=Potter |first3=P.E. |last5=Matos |first5=R.S. |last6=Hartmann |first6=L.A. |last7=Chemale Jr. |first7=F. |last8=Quadros |first8=M.E.S. |date=2008 |title=Age and autochthonous evolution of the Sunsás Orogen in West Amazon Craton based on mapping and U–Pb geochronology |journal=[[Precambrian Research]] |volume=165 |issue=3–4 |pages=120–152 |doi=10.1016/j.precamres.2008.06.009 |bibcode=2008PreR..165..120S}}</ref> The [[Sierras de Córdoba]], where the effects of the ancient [[Pampean orogeny]] can be observed, owe their modern uplift and relief to the [[Andean orogeny]] in the [[Tertiary]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rapela |first1=C.W. |last2=Pankhurst |first2=R.J |last3=Casquet |first3=C. |last4=Baldo |first4=E. |last5=Saavedra |first5=J. |last6=Galindo |first6=C. |last7=Fanning |first7=C.M. |author-link2=Robert John Pankhurst |date=1998 |editor2-last=Rapela |editor2-first=C.W. |editor1-last=Pankhurst |editor1-first=R.J |chapter=The Pampean Orogeny of the southern proto-Andes: Cambrian continental collision in the Sierras de Córdoba |chapter-url=http://sp.lyellcollection.org/content/142/1/181.full.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://sp.lyellcollection.org/content/142/1/181.full.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |title=The Proto-Andean Margin of Gondwana |series=Geological Society, London, Special Publications |volume=142 |issue=1 |pages=181–217 |doi=10.1144/GSL.SP.1998.142.01.10 |s2cid=128814617 |access-date=7 December 2015}}</ref> Further south in southern [[Patagonia]], the onset of the Andean orogeny caused the [[Magallanes Basin]] to evolve from being an [[extensional tectonics|extensional]] [[back-arc basin]] in the [[Mesozoic]] to being a contractional [[Andean Foreland Basin|foreland basin]] in the [[Cenozoic]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Wilson |first=T.J. |date=1991 |title=Transition from back-arc to foreland basin development in the southernmost Andes: Stratigraphic record from the Ultima Esperanza District, Chile |journal=Geological Society of America Bulletin |volume=103 |issue=1 |pages=98–111 |doi=10.1130/0016-7606(1991)103<0098:tfbatf>2.3.co;2 |bibcode=1991GSAB..103...98W}}</ref>

=== Seismic activity ===
Tectonic forces above the [[subduction zone]] along the entire west coast of South America where the [[Nazca Plate]] and a part of the [[Antarctic Plate]] are sliding beneath the [[South American Plate]] continue to produce an ongoing [[Orogeny|orogenic event]] resulting in minor to major [[earthquake]]s and [[volcanic eruption]]s to this day. Many high-magnitude earthquakes have been recorded in the region, such as the [[2010 Chile earthquake|2010 Maule earthquake]] (M8.8), the [[2015 Illapel earthquake]] (M8.2), and the [[1960 Valdivia earthquake]] (M9.5), which as of 2024 was the strongest ever recorded on seismometers.

The amount, magnitude, and type of seismic activity varies greatly along the subduction zone. These differences are due to a wide range of factors, including friction between the plates, angle of subduction, buoyancy of the subducting plate, rate of subduction, and hydration value of the mantle material. The highest rate of seismic activity is observed in the central portion of the boundary, between 33°S and 35°S. In this area, the angle of subduction is very low, meaning the subducting plate is nearly horizontal. Studies of mantle hydration across the subduction zone have shown a correlation between increased material hydration and lower-magnitude, more-frequent seismic activity. Zones exhibiting dehydration instead are thought to have a higher potential for larger, high-magnitude earthquakes in the future.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rodriguez Piceda |first1=Constanza |last2=Gao |first2=Ya-Jian |last3=Cacace |first3=Mauro |last4=Scheck-Wenderoth |first4=Magdalena |last5=Bott |first5=Judith |last6=Strecker |first6=Manfred |last7=Tilmann |first7=Frederik |date=2023-03-17 |title=The influence of mantle hydration and flexure on slab seismicity in the southern Central Andes |journal=Communications Earth & Environment |language=en |volume=4 |issue=1 |page=79 |doi=10.1038/s43247-023-00729-1 |issn=2662-4435 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2023ComEE...4...79R}}</ref>

The mountain range is also a source of shallow intraplate earthquakes within the South American Plate. The largest such earthquake (as of 2024) [[1947 Satipo earthquake|struck Peru in 1947]] and measured {{M|s}} 7.5. In the Peruvian Andes, these earthquakes display normal ([[1946 Ancash earthquake|1946]]), strike-slip (1976), and reverse ([[1969 Huaytapallana earthquake|1969]], 1983) mechanisms. The Amazonian Craton is actively underthrusted beneath the sub-Andes region of Peru, producing thrust faults.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dorbath |first1=L. |last2=Dorbath |first2=C. |last3=Jimenez |first3=E. |last4=Rivera |first4=L. |title=Seismicity and tectonic deformation in the Eastern Cordillera and the sub-Andean zone of central Peru |journal=Journal of South American Earth Sciences |date=1991 |volume=4 |issue=1–2 |pages=13–24 |doi=10.1016/0895-9811(91)90015-D |bibcode=1991JSAES...4...13D |url=https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/39863456.pdf}}</ref> In Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru, thrust faulting occurs along the sub-Andes due in response to contraction brought on by subduction, while in the high Andes, normal faulting occurs in response to gravitational forces.<ref name="Suárez83">{{cite journal |last1=Suárez |first1=Gerardo |last2=Molnar |first2=Peter |last3=Burchfiel |first3=B. Clark |title=Seismicity, fault plane solutions, depth of faulting, and active tectonics of the Andes of Peru, Ecuador, and southern Colombia |journal=Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth |date=1983 |volume=88 |issue=B12 |pages=10403–10428 |doi=10.1029/JB088iB12p10403 |bibcode=1983JGR....8810403S}}</ref>

In the extreme south, a major [[transform fault]] separates [[Tierra del Fuego]] from the small [[Scotia Plate]].

===Volcanism===
{{Main|Andean Volcanic Belt}}
[[File:Browncanyonquilotoa.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Rift valley|Rift Valley]] near [[Quilotoa]], Ecuador]]
[[File:Central Andes Mountains, Salar de Arizaro, Argentina.jpg|thumb|upright|This photo from the [[ISS]] shows the high plains of the Andes Mountains in the foreground, with a line of young volcanoes facing the much lower Atacama Desert]]

The Andes range has many active volcanoes distributed in four volcanic zones separated by areas of inactivity. The Andean volcanism is a result of the [[subduction]] of the Nazca Plate and Antarctic Plate underneath the South American Plate. The belt is subdivided into four main volcanic zones that are separated from each other by volcanic gaps. The volcanoes of the belt are diverse in terms of activity style, products, and morphology.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=González-Maurel |first1=Osvaldo |last2=le Roux |first2=Petrus |last3=Godoy |first3=Benigno |last4=Troll |first4=Valentin R. |last5=Deegan |first5=Frances M. |last6=Menzies |first6=Andrew |date=15 November 2019 |title=The great escape: Petrogenesis of low-silica volcanism of Pliocene to Quaternary age associated with the Altiplano-Puna Volcanic Complex of northern Chile (21°10′-22°50′S) |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0024493719303196 |journal=Lithos |language=en |volume=346–347 |pages=105162 |doi=10.1016/j.lithos.2019.105162 |bibcode=2019Litho.34605162G |s2cid=201291787 |issn=0024-4937}}</ref> Although some differences can be explained by which volcanic zone a volcano belongs to, there are significant differences inside volcanic zones and even between neighboring volcanoes. Despite being a typical location for [[calc-alkalic]] and subduction volcanism, the Andean Volcanic Belt has a large range of volcano-tectonic settings, such as rift systems, extensional zones, [[Transpression|transpressional faults]], subduction of [[mid-ocean ridge]]s, and [[seamount]] chains apart from a large range of crustal thicknesses and [[magma]] ascent paths, and different amount of crustal assimilations.

===Ore deposits and evaporites===
The Andes Mountains host large [[ore]] and [[salt]] deposits, and some of their eastern [[fold and thrust belt]]s act as traps for commercially exploitable amounts of [[hydrocarbon]]s. In the forelands of the [[Atacama Desert]], some of the largest [[porphyry copper]] mineralizations occur, making Chile and Peru the first- and second-largest exporters of [[copper]] in the world.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Trade Map - List of exporters for the selected product in 2023 (Copper ores and concentrates) |url=https://www.trademap.org/Country_SelProduct.aspx?nvpm=1%7C%7C%7C%7C%7C2603%7C%7C%7C4%7C1%7C1%7C2%7C1%7C%7C2%7C1%7C1%7C1&AspxAutoDetectCookieSupport=1 |access-date=2024-08-17 |website=www.trademap.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Robb |first=Laurence |title=Introduction to Ore-Forming Processes |edition=4th |year=2007 |publisher=[[Blackwell Science]] Ltd |location=[[Malden, MA]], United States  |isbn=978-0-632-06378-9 |page=104 }}</ref> Porphyry copper in the western slopes of the Andes has been generated by [[hydrothermal fluid]]s (mostly water) during the cooling of [[pluton (geology)|plutons]] or volcanic systems. The porphyry mineralization further benefited from the dry climate that reduced the disturbing actions of [[meteoric water]]. The dry climate in the central western Andes has also led to the creation of extensive [[Chile saltpeter|saltpeter deposits]] that were extensively mined until the invention of synthetic [[nitrate]]s. Yet another result of the dry climate are the [[Dry lake|salars]] of [[Salar de Atacama|Atacama]] and [[Salar de Uyuni|Uyuni]], the former being the largest source of [[lithium]] and the latter the world's largest reserve of the element.{{fact|date=March 2025}} Early Mesozoic and [[Neogene]] plutonism in Bolivia's Cordillera Central created the [[Bolivian tin belt]] as well as the famous, now mostly depleted, silver deposits of [[Cerro Rico|Cerro Rico de Potosí]].

=== Climate ===
The Andes Mountains is connected connection to the climate of South America, particularly through the hyper-arid conditions of the adjacent Atacama Desert. The Atacama Bench, a prominent low-relief feature along the Pacific seaboard, serves as a key geomorphological record of the long-term interplay between Andean tectonics and Cenozoic climate. While the initial uplift and shortening of the Andes were driven by the subduction of the Nazca Plate beneath the South American Plate, arid climate acted as an important feedback mechanism. Reduced erosion rates in the increasingly arid Atacama region may have effectively stopped tectonic activity in certain parts of the mountain range. This lack of erosion could have facilitated the eastward propagation of deformation, leading to the widening of the Andean orogen over time. Thus, the Atacama Desert and its geological features, like the Atacama Bench, offer critical insights into the coupled evolution of the Andes Mountains and the changing regional climate.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Armijo |first1=Rolando |last2=Lacassin |first2=Robin |last3=Coudurier-Curveur |first3=Aurélie |last4=Carrizo |first4=Daniel |date=2015-04-01 |title=Coupled tectonic evolution of Andean orogeny and global climate |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0012825215000148 |journal=Earth-Science Reviews |volume=143 |pages=1–35 |doi=10.1016/j.earscirev.2015.01.005 |bibcode=2015ESRv..143....1A |issn=0012-8252}}</ref>

==History==
{{Main|History of Andean South America}}
The Andes Mountains, initially inhabited by [[hunter-gatherers]], experienced the development of [[agriculture]] and the rise of politically centralized [[Andean civilizations|civilizations]], which culminated in the establishment of the century-long [[Inca Empire]]. This all changed in the 16th century, when the Spanish [[conquistador]]s colonized the mountains in advance of the [[mining]] economy.

In the tide of [[Anti-imperialism|anti-imperialist]] nationalism, the Andes became the scene of a [[Spanish American wars of independence|series of independence wars]] in the 19th century, when rebel forces swept through the region to overthrow [[Spanish colonial empire|Spanish colonial]] rule. Since then, many former Spanish territories have become five independent Andean states.

==Climate and hydrology==
{{See also|Tropical Andes|Dry Andes|Wet Andes}}
[[File:Andes1a.JPG|thumb|Central Andes]]
[[File:Andes bolivianos.jpg|thumb|Bolivian Andes]]

The climate in the Andes varies greatly depending on latitude, altitude, and proximity to the sea. Temperature, atmospheric pressure, and humidity decrease in higher elevations. The southern section is rainy and cool, while the central section is dry. The northern Andes are typically rainy and warm, with an average temperature of {{convert|18|C|F|0}} in [[Colombia]]. The climate is known to change drastically in rather short distances. [[Rainforest]]s exist just kilometers away from the snow-covered peak of [[Cotopaxi]]. The mountains have a large effect on the temperatures of nearby areas. The [[snow line]] depends on the location. It is between {{convert|4500|and|4800|m|ft|abbr=on}} in the tropical Ecuadorian, Colombian, Venezuelan, and northern Peruvian Andes, rising to {{convert|4800|-|5200|m|ft|abbr=on}} in the drier mountains of southern Peru and northern Chile south to about [[30th parallel south|30°S]] before descending to {{convert|4500|m|ft|-1|abbr=on}} on Aconcagua at [[32nd parallel south|32°S]], {{convert|2000|m|ft|-2|abbr=on}} at [[40th parallel south|40°S]], {{convert|500|m|ft|-1|abbr=on}} at [[50th parallel south|50°S]], and only {{convert|300|m|ft|-1|abbr=on}} in [[Tierra del Fuego]] at [[55th parallel south|55°S]]; from 50°S, several of the larger glaciers descend to sea level.<ref>
{{cite web |title=Climate of the Andes |url=http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/andes_climate_page.htm |access-date=9 December 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071214073114/http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/andes_climate_page.htm |archive-date=14 December 2007 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all}}
</ref>

The Andes of Chile and [[Argentina]] can be divided into two climatic and glaciological zones: the [[Dry Andes]] and the [[Wet Andes]]. Since the Dry Andes extend from the latitudes of the [[Atacama Desert]] to the area of the [[Maule River]], precipitation is more sporadic, and there are strong temperature oscillations. The line of equilibrium may shift drastically over short periods of time, leaving a whole glacier in the [[ablation]] area or in the [[Glacier ice accumulation|accumulation area]].

In the high Andes of [[Central Chile]] and [[Mendoza Province]], [[rock glacier]]s are larger and more common than glaciers; this is due to the high exposure to [[solar radiation]].<ref>{{cite conference|first1=Jan-Christoph|last1=Otto|first2=Joachim|last2=Götz|first3=Markus|last3=Keuschnig|first4=Ingo|last4=Hartmeyer|first5=Dario|last5=Trombotto|first6=Lothar|last6=Schrott|year=2010|title=Geomorphological and geophysical investigation of a complex rock glacier system—Morenas Coloradas valley (Cordon del Plata, Mendoza, Argentina)|conference=EGU General Assembly|page=3625}}</ref> In these regions, glaciers occur typically at higher altitudes than rock glaciers.<ref name=Corte1976/> The lowest active rock glaciers occur at 900 m a.s.l. in [[Aconcagua]].<ref name=Corte1976>{{Cite journal |title=Rock glaciers |journal=[[Biuletyn Peryglacjalny]] |last=Corte |first=Arturo E. |volume=26 |pages=175–197 |year=1976}}</ref>

Though precipitation increases with height, there are semiarid conditions in the nearly {{convert|7000.|m|adj=on}} highest mountains of the Andes. This dry [[steppe]] climate is considered to be typical of the subtropical position at 32–34° S. The valley bottoms have no woods, just dwarf scrub. The largest glaciers, for example the Plomo Glacier and the Horcones Glaciers, do not even reach {{cvt|10|km}} in length and have only insignificant ice thickness. At glacial times, however, {{Circa}} 20,000 years ago, the glaciers were over ten times longer. On the east side of this section of the Mendozina Andes, they flowed down to {{cvt|2060|m}} and on the west side to about {{cvt|1220|m}} above sea level.<ref name="Kuhle, M. 2011">{{cite book|last=Kuhle|first=M|year=2011|chapter=The High-Glacial (Last Glacial Maximum) Glacier Cover of the Aconcagua Group and Adjacent Massifs in the Mendoza Andes (South America) with a Closer Look at Further Empirical Evidence|title=Quaternary Glaciation – Extent and Chronology, A Closer Look|series=Developments in Quaternary Sciences|volume=15|editor1-last=Ehlers|editor1-first=J|editor2-last=Gibbard|editor2-first=PL|editor3-last=Hughes|editor3-first=PD|pages=735–738|publisher=Elsevier B.V.|location=Amsterdam|doi=10.1016/B978-0-444-53447-7.00053-2|bibcode=2011DevQS..15..735K|isbn=978-0-444-53447-7}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Brüggen|first=J|year=1929|title=Zur Glazialgeologie der chilenischen|journal=Anden. Geol. Rundsch.|volume=20|pages=1–35|location=Berlin|doi=10.1007/BF01805072|language=de}}</ref> The massifs of [[Aconcagua]] ({{cvt|6961|m|disp=or}}), [[Tupungato]] ({{cvt|6550|m|disp=or}}), and [[Nevado Juncal]] ({{cvt|6110|m|disp=or}}) are tens of kilometres away from each other and were connected by a joint ice stream network. The Andes' dendritic glacier arms, components of valley glaciers, were up to {{cvt|112.5|km}} long and over {{cvt|1250|m}} thick, and spanned a vertical distance of {{cvt|5150|m}}. The climatic glacier snowline (ELA) was lowered from {{cvt|4600|m}} to {{cvt|3200|m}} at glacial times.<ref name="Kuhle, M. 2011"/><ref>{{cite book|last=Kuhle|first=M|year=2004|chapter=The Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) glacier cover of the Aconcagua group and adjacent massifs in the Mendoza Andes (South America)|editor1-last=Ehlers|editor1-first=J|editor2-last=Gibbard|editor2-first=PL|title=Quaternary Glaciation— Extent and Chronology. Part III: South America, Asia, Africa, Australia, Antarctica|series=Developments in Quaternary Sciences|volume=2c|publisher=Elsevier B.V.|location=Amsterdam|pages=75–81|doi=10.1016/S1571-0866(04)80113-1|bibcode=2004DevQS...2...75K|isbn=978-0-444-51593-3}}</ref>

==Flora==
[[File:20100116 Sonso 002.JPG|thumb|[[Laguna de Sonso Nature Reserve|Laguna de Sonso]] tropical dry forest in Northern Andes]]
The Andean region cuts across several [[natural region|natural]] and floristic regions, due to its extension, from [[Caribbean]] Venezuela to cold, windy, and wet [[Cape Horn]] passing through the hyperarid [[Atacama Desert]]. [[Rainforest]]s and [[Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests|tropical dry forests]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Tropical and Subtropical Dry Broadleaf Forest Ecoregions |url=http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/ecoregions/about/habitat_types/selecting_terrestrial_ecoregions/habitat02.cfm |website=wwf.panda.org |access-date=27 December 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425205410/http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/ecoregions/about/habitat_types/selecting_terrestrial_ecoregions/habitat02.cfm |archive-date=25 April 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> used to{{When|date=June 2024}} encircle much of the northern Andes but are now greatly [[Deforestation|diminished]], especially in the [[El Chocó|Chocó]] and inter-Andean valleys of Colombia. Opposite the humid Andean slopes are the relatively dry Andean slopes in most of western Peru, Chile, and Argentina. Along with several [[Interandean Valles]], they are typically dominated by [[deciduous]] woodland, shrub and [[xeric]] vegetation, reaching the extreme in the slopes near the virtually lifeless Atacama Desert.

About 30,000 species of [[vascular plants]] live in the Andes, with roughly half being [[endemism|endemic]] to the region, surpassing the diversity of any other [[Biodiversity hotspot|hotspot]].<ref name = "biodiv"/> The small tree ''[[Cinchona pubescens]]'', a source of [[quinine]] that is used to treat [[malaria]], is found widely in the Andes as far south as Bolivia. Other important crops that originated from the Andes are [[tobacco]] and [[potato]]es. The high-altitude ''[[Polylepis]]'' forests and woodlands are found in the Andean areas of [[Colombia]], [[Ecuador]], [[Peru]], [[Bolivia]], and [[Chile]]. These trees, by locals referred to as Queñua, Yagual, and other names, can be found at altitudes of {{convert|4500|m|ft|-1|abbr=on}} above sea level. It remains unclear if the patchy distribution of these forests and woodlands is natural, or the result of clearing that began during the [[Inca]]n period. Regardless, in [[modern history|modern times]], the clearance has accelerated, and the trees are now considered highly [[endangered]], with some believing that as little as 10% of the original woodland remains.<ref>{{cite web |title=Pants of the Andies |url=http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/andes_plant_page.htm |access-date=9 December 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071215105448/http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/andes_plant_page.htm |archive-date=15 December 2007 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

==Fauna==
[[File:Tunki Tanpupata.jpg|thumb|A male [[Andean cock-of-the-rock]], a species found in humid Andean forests and the [[national bird]] of Peru]]
[[File:Ausangate-hillside-MT.jpg|thumb|Herds of [[alpaca]]s near [[Ausangate]] mountain]]
{{Main|Fauna of the Andes}}
The Andes are rich in fauna: With almost 1,000 species, of which roughly 2/3 are [[endemism|endemic]] to the region, the Andes are the most important region in the world for [[amphibian]]s.<ref name="biodiv">[http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/hotspots/andes/Pages/biodiversity.aspx Tropical Andes] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100821222457/http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/hotspots/andes/Pages/biodiversity.aspx |date=21 August 2010 }} – biodiversityhotspots.org</ref> The diversity of animals in the Andes is high, with almost 600 species of [[mammal]]s (13% endemic), more than 1,700 species of birds (about 1/3 endemic), more than 600 species of [[reptile]]s (about 45% endemic), and almost 400 species of fish (about 1/3 endemic).<ref name="biodiv"/>

The [[vicuña]] and [[guanaco]] can be found living in the [[Altiplano]], while the closely related [[Domestication|domesticated]] [[llama]] and [[alpaca]] are widely kept by locals as [[pack animal]]s and for their [[meat]] and [[wool]]. The crepuscular (active during dawn and dusk) [[chinchilla]]s, two threatened members of the [[rodent]] order, inhabit the Andes' alpine regions.<ref name=NeoMammals3>Eisenberg, J.F.; & Redford, K.H. (2000). ''Mammals of the Neotropics, Volume 3: The Central Neotropics: Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil.'' {{ISBN|978-0-226-19542-1}}</ref><ref name=NeoMammals2>Eisenberg, J.F.; & Redford, K.H. (1992). ''Mammals of the Neotropics, Volume 2: The Southern Cone: Chile, Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay.'' {{ISBN|978-0-226-70682-5}}</ref> The [[Andean condor]], the largest bird of its kind in the [[Western Hemisphere]], occurs throughout much of the Andes but generally in very low densities.<ref name=HAndesBirds>Fjeldsaa, J.; & Krabbe, N. (1990). ''Birds of the High Andes: A Manual to the Birds of the Temperate Zone of the Andes and Patagonia, South America.'' {{ISBN|978-87-88757-16-3}}</ref> Other animals found in the relatively open habitats of the high Andes include the [[Huemul (zoology)|huemul]], [[cougar]], foxes in the genus ''[[Pseudalopex]]'',<ref name=NeoMammals3/><ref name=NeoMammals2/> and, for birds, certain species of [[tinamou]]s (notably members of the genus ''[[Nothoprocta]]''), [[Andean goose]], [[giant coot]], [[flamingo]]s (mainly associated with [[hypersaline]] lakes), [[lesser rhea]], [[Andean flicker]], [[diademed sandpiper-plover]], [[Geositta|miners]], [[Phrygilus|sierra-finches]] and [[Diuca|diuca-finches]].<ref name=HAndesBirds/>

[[Lake Titicaca]] hosts several endemics, among them the highly endangered [[Titicaca flightless grebe]]<ref name=HAndesBirds/> and [[Titicaca water frog]].<ref name=ThreatenedAmph>Stuart, Hoffmann, Chanson, Cox, Berridge, Ramani and Young, editors (2008). ''Threatened Amphibians of the World.'' {{ISBN|978-84-96553-41-5}}</ref> A few species of [[hummingbirds]], notably some [[Oreotrochilus|hillstars]], can be seen at altitudes above {{convert|4000|m|ft|-2|abbr=on}}, but far higher [[Species richness|diversities]] can be found at lower altitudes, especially in the humid Andean forests ("[[cloud forest]]s") growing on slopes in Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, and far northwestern Argentina.<ref name=HAndesBirds/> These forest-types, which includes the [[Yungas]] and parts of the Chocó, are very rich in flora and fauna, although few large mammals exist, exceptions being the threatened [[mountain tapir]], [[spectacled bear]], and [[yellow-tailed woolly monkey]].<ref name=NeoMammals3/>

Birds of humid Andean forests include [[mountain-toucan|mountain toucan]]s, [[quetzal]]s, and the [[Andean cock-of-the-rock]], while [[mixed species flock|mixed-species flock]]s dominated by [[tanagers]] and [[furnariids]] are commonly seen—in contrast to several vocal but typically [[crypsis|cryptic]] species of [[wrens]], [[tapaculo]]s, and [[antpitta]]s.<ref name=HAndesBirds/>

A number of species such as the [[royal cinclodes]] and [[white-browed tit-spinetail]] are associated with ''Polylepis'', and consequently also [[threatened]].<ref name=HAndesBirds/>

==Human activity==
{{See also|Cultural periods of Peru|Inca Empire|Viceroyalty of Peru}}
{{more citations needed section|date=January 2011}}

The Andes Mountains form a north–south axis of cultural influences. A long series of cultural development culminated in the expansion of the [[Inca civilization]] and [[Inca Empire]] in the central Andes during the 15th century. The Incas formed this civilization through [[imperialism|imperialistic]] [[militarism]] as well as careful and meticulous governmental management.<ref>D'Altroy, Terence N. The Incas. Blackwell Publishing, 2003</ref> The government sponsored the construction of [[Aqueduct (watercourse)|aqueducts]] and [[roads]] in addition to pre-existing installations. Some of these constructions still exist today.
[[File:Church_Heart_of_the_Andes.jpg|thumb|[[Frederic Edwin Church]], ''Heart of the Andes,'' 1859.]]
Devastated by European diseases and by [[Inca Civil War|civil war]], the Incas were defeated in 1532 by an alliance composed of tens of thousands of allies from nations they had subjugated (e.g. [[Huanca people|Huancas]], [[Chachapoyas culture|Chachapoyas]], [[Cañari]]s) and a small army of 180 Spaniards led by [[Francisco Pizarro]]. One of the few Inca sites the Spanish never found in their conquest was [[Machu Picchu]], which lay hidden on a peak on the eastern edge of the Andes where they descend to the Amazon. The main surviving languages of the Andean peoples are those of the [[Quechua languages|Quechua]] and [[Aymara language]] families. [[Woodbine Parish]] and [[Joseph Barclay Pentland]] surveyed a large part of the Bolivian Andes from 1826 to 1827.

===Cities===
In modern times, the largest cities in the Andes are [[Bogotá]], with a metropolitan population of over ten million, and [[Santiago]], [[Medellín]], [[Cali]], and [[Quito]]. [[Lima]] is a coastal city adjacent to the Andes and is the largest city of all Andean countries. It is the seat of the [[Andean Community of Nations]].

[[La Paz]], Bolivia's seat of government, is the highest capital city in the world, at an elevation of approximately {{convert|3650|m|0|abbr=on}}. Parts of the La Paz conurbation, including the city of [[El Alto]], extend up to {{convert|4200|m|0|abbr=on}}.

Other cities in or near the Andes include [[Bariloche]], [[San Fernando del Valle de Catamarca|Catamarca]], [[San Salvador de Jujuy|Jujuy]], [[Mendoza, Argentina|Mendoza]], [[Salta, Argentina|Salta]], [[San Juan, Argentina|San Juan]], [[San Miguel de Tucumán|Tucumán]], and [[Ushuaia]] in Argentina; [[Calama, Chile|Calama]] and [[Rancagua]] in Chile; [[Cochabamba]], [[Oruro, Bolivia|Oruro]], [[Potosí]], [[Sucre]], [[Tarija]], and [[Yacuiba]] in Bolivia; [[Arequipa]], [[Cajamarca]], [[Cusco]], [[Huancayo]], [[Huánuco]], [[Huaraz]], [[Juliaca]], and [[Puno]] in Peru; [[Ambato, Ecuador|Ambato]], [[Cuenca, Ecuador|Cuenca]], [[Ibarra, Ecuador|Ibarra]], [[Latacunga]], [[Loja, Ecuador|Loja]], [[Riobamba]], and [[Tulcán]] in Ecuador; [[Armenia, Colombia|Armenia]], [[Cúcuta]], [[Bucaramanga]], [[Duitama]], [[Ibagué]], [[Ipiales]], [[Manizales]], [[Palmira, Valle del Cauca|Palmira]], [[Pasto, Colombia|Pasto]], [[Pereira, Colombia|Pereira]], [[Popayán]], [[Rionegro]], [[Sogamoso]], [[Tunja]], and [[Villavicencio]] in Colombia; and [[Barquisimeto]], [[La Grita]], [[Mérida, Mérida|Mérida]], [[San Cristóbal, Táchira|San Cristóbal]], Tovar, [[Trujillo, Trujillo|Trujillo]], and [[Valera]] in Venezuela. The cities of [[Caracas]], [[Valencia, Carabobo|Valencia]], and [[Maracay]] are in the [[Venezuelan Coastal Range]], which is a debatable extension of the Andes at the northern extremity of South America.

{{Gallery
| height       = 160
| width        = 200
|File:La Paz Skyline.jpg|[[La Paz]], Bolivia is the highest capital city in the world
|File:Santiago depois da chuva (11).JPG|[[Santiago de Chile]]
|File:Cerros orientales Bogota.jpg|[[Bogotá]]
|File:FACHADA ASAMBLEA NACIONAL. QUITO, 20 DE FEBRERO 2020. 01.jpg|[[Quito]]
|File:Mérida3.jpg|View of  [[Mérida, Mérida|Mérida, Venezuela]]
}}

===Transportation===

Cities and large towns are connected with [[Asphalt concrete|asphalt]]-paved roads, while smaller towns are often connected by dirt roads, which may require a [[four-wheel-drive]] vehicle.<ref name="andesmap">{{Cite web |url=http://andes.zoom-maps.com/ |title=Andes travel map |access-date=20 June 2010 |archive-date=24 September 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100924154519/http://andes.zoom-maps.com/ |url-status=dead}}</ref>

The rough terrain has historically put the costs of building [[highway]]s and [[railroad]]s that cross the Andes out of reach of most neighboring countries, even with modern [[civil engineering]] practices. For example, the main crossover of the Andes between Argentina and Chile is still accomplished through the [[Paso Internacional Los Libertadores]]. Only recently{{When|date=June 2024}} have the ends of some highways that came rather close to one another from the east and the west been connected.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.lanacion.com.ar/1159492-jujuy-apuesta-a-captar-las-cargas-de-brasil-en-transito-hacia-chile |title=''Jujuy apuesta a captar las cargas de Brasil en tránsito hacia Chile'' by Emiliano Galli |newspaper=La Nación |publisher=La Nación newspaper |access-date=22 July 2011 |date=7 August 2009}}</ref> Much of the transportation of passengers is done via aircraft.

There is one railroad that connects Chile with Peru via the Andes, however, and there are others that make the same connection via southern Bolivia.

There are multiple highways in Bolivia that cross the Andes. Some of these were built during a [[Chaco War|period of war]] between Bolivia and [[Paraguay]], in order to transport Bolivian troops and their supplies to the war front in the lowlands of southeastern Bolivia and western Paraguay.

For decades, Chile claimed ownership of land on the eastern side of the Andes. These claims were given up in about 1870 during the [[War of the Pacific]] between Chile and the allied Bolivia and Peru, in a diplomatic deal to keep Peru out of the war. The [[Chilean Army]] and [[Chilean Navy]] defeated the combined forces of Bolivia and Peru, and Chile took over Bolivia's only province on the Pacific Coast, some land from Peru that was returned to Peru decades later. Bolivia has been completely [[landlocked]] ever since. It mostly uses [[seaport]]s in eastern Argentina and [[Uruguay]] for international trade because its diplomatic relations with Chile have been suspended since 1978.

Because of the tortuous terrain in places, villages and towns in the mountains—to which travel via [[motorized vehicle]]s is of little use—are still located in the high Andes of Chile, Bolivia, Peru, and [[Ecuador]]. Locally, the relatives of the [[camel]], the [[llama]], and the [[alpaca]] continue to carry out important uses as pack animals, but this use has generally diminished in modern times. [[Donkey]]s, [[mule]]s, and horses are also useful.

===Agriculture===
[[File:Peruvianterracefarmers.jpg|thumb|Peruvian farmers sowing maize and beans]]
{{See also|Andean agriculture|Incan agriculture|Vertical archipelago}}

The ancient peoples of the Andes such as the Incas have practiced [[irrigation]] techniques for over 6,000 years. Because of the mountain slopes, [[Andén|terracing]] has been a common practice. Terracing, however, was only extensively employed after Incan imperial expansions to fuel their expanding realm. The [[potato]] holds a very important role as an internally consumed staple crop. [[Maize]] was also an important crop for these people, and was used for the production of [[chicha]], important to Andean native people. Currently,{{When|date=June 2024}} [[tobacco]], [[cotton]], and [[coffee]] are the main export crops. [[Coca]], despite eradication programs in some countries, remains an important crop for legal local use in a mildly stimulating [[herbal tea]], and illegally for the production of [[cocaine]].

===Irrigation===
[[File:Women irrigators in the Andes.jpg|thumb|Irrigating land in the Peruvian Andes]]

In unirrigated land, [[pasture]] is the most common type of land use. In the rainy season (summer), part of the rangeland is used for cropping (mainly potatoes, barley, broad beans, and wheat).

Irrigation is helpful in advancing the sowing data of the summer crops, which guarantees an early yield in periods of food shortage. Also, by early sowing, maize can be cultivated higher up in the mountains (up to {{cvt|3800|m|||}}). In addition, it makes cropping in the dry season (winter) possible and allows the cultivation of frost-resistant vegetable crops like [[onion]] and [[carrot]].<ref>W. van Immerzeel, 1989. ''Irrigation and erosion/flood control at high altitudes in the Andes.'' Published in Annual Report 1989, pp. 8–24, International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement, Wageningen, The Netherlands. On line: [https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/andes.pdf]</ref>

===Mining===
[[File:Huasos Maulinos - Rugendas.jpg|thumb|left|Chilean [[huaso]]s, 19th century]]
The Andes rose to fame for their mineral wealth during the [[Spanish colonization of the Americas|Spanish conquest of South America]]. Although Andean Amerindian peoples crafted ceremonial jewelry of gold and other metals, the [[Mineralization (geology)|mineralizations]] of the Andes were first mined on a large scale after the Spanish arrival. [[Potosí]] in present-day [[Bolivia]] and [[Cerro de Pasco]] in Peru were among the principal mines of the Spanish Empire in the New World. [[Río de la Plata]] and [[Argentina]]<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.argentine-embassy-uk.org/docs_eng/links/links_information_argentina.shtml |title=Information on Argentina |website=Argentine Embassy London}}</ref> derive their names from the silver of Potosí.

Currently, mining in the Andes of [[Chile]] and [[Peru]] places these countries as the first and second major producers of [[copper]] in the world. [[Peru]] also contains the 4th-largest goldmine in the world: the [[Yanacocha]]. The Bolivian Andes principally produce [[tin]], although historically silver mining had a huge impact on the [[Price revolution|economy]] of 17th-century Europe.{{fact|date=May 2025}} In Chile in the higher portions of the Andes there are only mining districs dominated by large-scale mining, while medium and small-scale mining is more common at lower altitudes.<ref>{{Cite report |title=Distritos productivos para el desarrollo de la minería chilena |url=https://www.sonami.cl/v2/publicaciones/distritos-productivos-desarrollo-mineria-chilena/ |trans-title=Productive districts for the development of mining in Chile|language=es |year=2025 |publisher=[[Sociedad Nacional de Minería|Centro de Estudios y Documentación Mineros de SONAMI]].}}</ref>

There is a long history of mining in the Andes, from the Spanish [[silver]] [[Mining|mines]] in [[Potosí]] in the 16th century to the vast current [[porphyry copper deposit]]s of [[Chuquicamata]] and [[Escondida]] in Chile and [[Toquepala mine|Toquepala]] in Peru. Other metals, including iron, gold, and tin, in addition to non-metallic resources are important. The Andes have a vast supply of lithium; Argentina, Bolivia, and Chile have the three largest reserves in the world respectively.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lithium: What Role Does Tesla Play In The Demand For This Precious Metal? - Commodity.com |url=https://commodity.com/precious-metals/lithium/ |access-date=2023-03-09 |website=commodity.com |language=en-US}}</ref>

==Peaks==
{{Main|List of mountains in the Andes}}
This list contains some of the major peaks in the Andes mountain range. The highest peak is Aconcagua of Argentina.

===Argentina===
[[File:Aconcagua_(aerial).jpg|thumb|right|The [[Aconcagua]], Argentina, the highest mountain in [[the Americas]]]]
{{See also|List of mountains in Argentina}}
* [[Aconcagua]], {{convert|6961|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Cerro Bonete]], {{convert|6759|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Galán]], {{convert|5912|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Mercedario]], {{convert|6720|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Monte Pissis|Pissis]], {{convert|6795|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}

===The border between Argentina and Chile===
{{see also|Argentina–Chile border}}
* [[Cerro Bayo Complex|Cerro Bayo]], {{convert|5401|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Cerro Fitz Roy]], {{convert|3375|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} or 3,405&nbsp;m, [[Patagonia]], also known as Cerro Chaltén
* [[Cerro Escorial]], {{convert|5447|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Cordón del Azufre]], {{convert|5463|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Falso Azufre]], {{convert|5890|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Incahuasi]], {{convert|6620|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Lastarria]], {{convert|5697|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Llullaillaco]], {{convert|6739|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Maipo (volcano)|Maipo]], {{convert|5264|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Marmolejo]], {{convert|6110|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Ojos del Salado]], {{convert|6893|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Olca]], {{convert|5407|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Sierra Nevada de Lagunas Bravas]], {{convert|6127|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Socompa]], {{convert|6051|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Nevado Tres Cruces]], {{convert|6749|m|ft|0|abbr=on}} (south summit) (III Region)
* [[Tronador]], {{convert|3491|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Tupungato]], {{convert|6570|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Cerro del Nacimiento|Nacimiento]], {{convert|6492|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
[[File:HUAYNA POTOSÍ.jpg|thumb|Huayna Potosí, Bolivia]]

===Bolivia===
[[File:Sajama 04223.jpg|thumb|[[Nevado Sajama|Sajama]], Bolivia]]
* [[Janq'u Uma]], {{convert|6427|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Cabaray]]a, {{convert|5860|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Chacaltaya]], {{convert|5422|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Chachacomani]], {{convert|6074|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Chaupi Orco (mountain)|Chaupi Orco]], {{convert|6044|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Huayna Potosí]], {{convert|6088|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Illampu]], {{convert|6368|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Illimani]], {{convert|6438|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Macizo de Larancagua|Laram Q'awa]], {{convert|5182|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Macizo de Pacuni]], {{convert|5400|m|ft|-1|abbr=on}}
* [[Mururata]], {{convert|5871|m|ft|-1|abbr=on}}
* [[Nevado Anallajsi]], {{convert|5750|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Nevado Charquini]], {{convert|5392|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Nevado Sajama]], {{convert|6542|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Patilla Pata]], {{convert|5300|m|ft|-1|abbr=on}}
* [[Tata Sabaya]], {{convert|5430|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Tunari (Bolivia)|Tunari]], {{convert|5035|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Uturuncu]], {{convert|6008|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Wayna Potosí (Oruro)|Wayna Potosí]], {{convert|4969|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}

===Border between Bolivia and Chile===
[[File:Sopka Cerro Parinacota 6342 m.n.m. - panoramio.jpg|thumb|[[Parinacota Volcano|Parinacota]], Bolivia/Chile]]
* [[Acotango]], {{convert|6052|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Aucanquilcha]], {{convert|6176|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Cerro Minchincha|Michincha]], {{convert|5305|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Iru Phutunqu (Chile-Nor Lípez)|Iru Phutunqu]], {{convert|5163|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Licancabur]], {{convert|5920|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Olca]], {{convert|5407|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Parinacota Volcano|Parinacota]], {{convert|6348|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Paruma]], {{convert|5420|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Pomerape]], {{convert|6282|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}

===Chile===
[[File:Massif Reflected.jpg|thumb|right|View of Cuernos del Paine in [[Torres del Paine National Park]], Chile]]
{{Main|List of mountains in Chile}}
* [[Monte San Valentin]], {{convert|4058|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Cordillera del Paine|Cerro Paine Grande]], {{convert|2884|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Cerro Macá]], c.{{convert|2300|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Monte Darwin]], c.{{convert|2500|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Volcan Hudson]], c.{{convert|1900|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Cerro Castillo Dynevor]], c.{{convert|1100|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Mount Tarn]], c.{{convert|825|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Polleras]], c.{{convert|5993|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Acamarachi]], c.{{convert|6046|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}

===Colombia===
[[File:Volcan Huila 9-12-2008 (1).jpg|thumb|right|[[Nevado del Huila]], Colombia]]
* [[Nevado del Huila]], {{convert|5365|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Nevado del Ruiz]], {{convert|5321|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Nevado del Tolima]], {{convert|5205|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Sierra Nevada del Cocuy|Pico Pan de Azúcar]], {{convert|5200|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Sierra Nevada del Cocuy|Ritacuba Negro]], {{convert|5320|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Cumbal Volcano|Nevado del Cumbal]], {{convert|4764|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Cerro Negro de Mayasquer]], {{convert|4445|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Sierra Nevada del Cocuy|Ritacuba Blanco]], {{convert|5410|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Nevado del Quindío]], {{convert|5215|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Puracé]], {{convert|4655|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Santa Isabel (volcano)|Santa Isabel]], {{convert|4955|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Doña Juana]], {{convert|4150|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Galeras]], {{convert|4276|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Azufral]], {{convert|4070|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}

===Ecuador===
[[File:Volcán Chimborazo, "El Taita Chimborazo".jpg|thumb|right|[[Chimborazo (volcano)|Chimborazo]] near [[Riobamba]], Ecuador]]
* [[Antisana]], {{convert|5752|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Cayambe (volcano)|Cayambe]], {{convert|5790|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Chiles (volcano)|Chiles]], {{convert|4723|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Chimborazo (volcano)|Chimborazo]], {{convert|6268|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Corazón (volcano)|Corazón]], {{convert|4790|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Cotopaxi]], {{convert|5897|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[El Altar]], {{convert|5320|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Illiniza]], {{convert|5248|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Pichincha Volcano|Pichincha]], {{convert|4784|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Quilotoa]], {{convert|3914|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Reventador]], {{convert|3562|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Sangay]], {{convert|5230|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Tungurahua]], {{convert|5023|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}

===Peru===
[[File:Beauty of mount Huandoy, Cordillera Blanca, Ancash, Peru.jpg|thumb|right|[[Huandoy]], Peru]]
[[File:Alpamayo 12.jpg|thumb|right|[[Alpamayo]], Peru]]
* [[Alpamayo]], {{convert|5947|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Artesonraju]], {{convert|6025|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Carnicero]], {{convert|5960|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Chumpe]], {{convert|6106|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Coropuna]], {{convert|6377|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[El Misti]], {{convert|5822|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[El Toro (Andes)|El Toro]], {{convert|5830|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Huandoy]], {{convert|6395|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Huascarán]], {{convert|6768|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Jirishanca]], {{convert|6094|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Pumasillo]], {{convert|5991|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Rasac]], {{convert|6040|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Rondoy]], {{convert|5870|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Sarapo]], {{convert|6127|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Salcantay]], {{convert|6271|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Seria Norte]], {{convert|5860|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Siula Grande]], {{convert|6344|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Huaytapallana]], {{convert|5557|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Yerupaja]], {{convert|6635|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Yerupaja Chico]], {{convert|6089|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}

===Venezuela===
[[File:PicoHumboldt.png|thumb|Pico Humboldt at sunset]]
* [[Pico Bolívar]], {{convert|4978|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Pico Humboldt]], {{convert|4940|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Pico Bonpland]], {{convert|4880|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Pico La Concha]], {{convert|4920|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Pico Piedras Blancas]], {{convert|4740|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Pico El Águila]], {{convert|4180|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Pico El Toro]] {{convert|4729|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Pico El León]] {{convert|4740|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}
* [[Pico Mucuñuque]] {{convert|4609|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}

==See also==
{{portal|Andes|Mountains|World}}
* ''[[Andean Geology]]''—a [[scientific journal]]
* [[Andesite line]]
* [[Apu (god)]]
* [[Template:Mountain Passes of the Andes|Mountain passes of the Andes]]
* [[List of mountain ranges]]
* [[Sutter Buttes]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book |display-authors=1 |doi=10.1007/978-3-540-48684-8 |title=The Andes |series=Frontiers in Earth Sciences |year=2006 |isbn=978-3-540-24329-8 |last1=Oncken |first1=Onno |last2=Chong |first2=Guillermo |last3=Franz |first3=Gerhard |last4=Giese |first4=Peter |last5=Götze |first5=Hans-Jürgen |last6=Ramos |first6=Victor A. |last7=Strecker |first7=M.R |last8=Wigger |first8=Peter}}
* Biggar, J. (2005). ''The Andes: A Guide For Climbers''. 3rd. edition. Andes: Kirkcudbrightshire. {{ISBN|0-9536087-2-7}}
* de Roy, T. (2005). ''The Andes: As the Condor Flies.'' Firefly books: Richmond Hill. {{ISBN|1-55407-070-8}}
* Fjeldså, J. & N. Krabbe (1990). ''The Birds of the High Andes.'' Zoological Museum, University of Copenhagen: {{ISBN|87-88757-16-1}}
* Fjeldså, J. & M. Kessler (1996). ''Conserving the biological diversity of Polylepis woodlands of the highlands on Peru and Bolivia, a contribution to sustainable natural resource management in the Andes.'' NORDECO: Copenhagen. {{ISBN|978-87-986168-0-1}}
{{Refend}}

==Bibliography==
* {{cite book |last=Biggar |first=John |title=The Andes: A Guide for Climbers |edition=3 |publisher=Andes Publishing |location=Scotland |year=2005 |url=http://www.andes.org.uk/andes-guidebooks.asp |isbn=978-0-9536087-2-0}}
* {{cite book |first=Ed |last=Darack |title=Wild Winds: Adventures in the Highest Andes |publisher=Cordee / DPP |year=2001 |isbn=978-1-884980-81-7 |language=en}}

==External links==
* {{cite EB9 |wstitle= Andes |volume= II |page=15–18 |short= 1}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050922180841/http://www.geo.arizona.edu/geo5xx/geo527/Andes/intro.html University of Arizona: Andes geology]
* [http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/andes_climate_page.htm Blueplanetbiomes.org: Climate and animal life of the Andes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071214073114/http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/andes_climate_page.htm |date=14 December 2007 }}
* [http://www.discover-peru.org/peru-geography-regions-and-microclimates-andes/ Discover-peru.org: Regions and Microclimates in the Andes]
* [http://www.peaklist.org/WWlists/ultras/southamerica.html Peaklist.org: Complete list of mountains in South America with an elevation at/above {{convert|1500|m|ft|-1|abbr=on}}]

{{sister bar|s=y|auto=1}}
{{Mountain Passes of the Andes|state=collapsed}}
{{Regions of the world|state=collapsed}}
{{Regions of South America}}
{{Physiographic regions}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Andes| ]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of South America]]
[[Category:Ecology of the Andes|*]]
[[Category:Regions of South America]]
[[Category:Physiographic divisions]]