Editing Ancient Egyptian conception of the soul

{{Short description|none}}
{{Redirect|Akh|other uses|AKH (disambiguation)}}
{{Ancient Egyptian religion}}
[[File:Book of the Dead Fragment, ROM, 3.jpg|thumb|Fragment from Egyptian Book of the Dead]]

The [[ancient Egypt]]ians believed that a [[soul]] ([[wikt:kꜣ|kꜣ]] and [[wikt:bꜣ|bꜣ]]; [[Egyptian language#Egyptological pronunciation|Egypt. pron.]] ka/ba) was made up of many parts. In addition to these components of the soul, there was the human body (called the ''ḥꜥ'', occasionally a plural ''[[wikt:ḥꜥw|ḥꜥw]]'', meaning approximately "sum of bodily parts").{{Citation needed|date=April 2025}}

According to [[ancient Egyptian creation myths]], the god [[Atum]] created the world out of chaos, utilizing his own magic ([[heka (god)|ḥkꜣ]]).<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pinch |first=Geraldine |title=Egyptian Mythology: A Guide to the Gods, Goddesses, and Traditions of Ancient Egypt |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0195170245}}</ref> Because the earth was created with magic, Egyptians believed that the world was imbued with magic and so was every living thing upon it. When humans were created, that magic took the form of the soul, an eternal force which resided in and with every human. The concept of the soul and the parts which encompass it has varied from the [[Old Kingdom of Egypt|Old Kingdom]] to the [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]], at times changing from one dynasty to another, from five parts to more. Most [[ancient Egyptian funerary texts]] reference numerous parts of the soul:

{{div col |colwidth=18em |content=
* ''Khet'' or the "physical body"
* ''Sah'' or the "spiritual body"
* ''Ren'' or the "name, identity"
* ''Ba'' or the "personality"
* ''Ka'' or the "double" or "vital essence"
* ''Ib'' or the "heart"
* ''Shuyet'' or the "shadow"
* ''Sekhem'' or the "power, form"
}}

Collectively, these spirits of a dead person were called the ''Akh'' after that person had successfully completed its transition to the [[ancient Egyptian afterlife beliefs|afterlife]].<ref name=Budge-1895-EBotD/>{{efn|
The [[Egyptian language|Ancient Egyptian]] terms used are as follows:

* the ''[[wikt:ẖt|ẖt]]'' (Middle Egyptian /ˈçuːwaʔ/, Coptic ϩⲏ) "physical body";
* the ''[[wikt:sꜥḥ|sꜥḥ]]'' "spiritual body";
* the ''[[wikt:rn|rn]]'' (/ɾin/, Coptic [[wikt:ⲣⲁⲛ|ⲣⲁⲛ]] or [[wikt:ⲗⲉⲛ|ⲗⲉⲛ]]) "name, identity";
* the ''[[wikt:bꜣ|bꜣ]]'' "personality";
* the ''[[wikt:kꜣ|kꜣ]]'' (/kuʔ/, Old Egyptian /kuʁ/) "double";
* the ''[[wikt:jb|jb]]'' (/jib/, Coptic [[wikt:ⲉⲡ|ⲉⲡ]]) "heart";
* the ''[[wikt:šwt|šwt]]'' "shadow";
* the ''[[wikt:sḫm|sḫm]]'' (/saːχam/) "power, form";
* the ''[[wikt:ꜣḫ|ꜣḫ]]'' (/ʁi:χu/, Coptic [[wikt:ⲓϧ|ⲓϧ]]) is the combined spirits of a dead person that has successfully completed its transition to the [[ancient Egyptian afterlife beliefs|afterlife]].<ref name=Budge-1895-EBotD/>
}} Egyptologist R. David,<ref name=David-2003-RelMag/> at the University of Manchester, explains the many facets of the soul as follows:

<blockquote>The Egyptians believed that the human personality had many facets—a concept that was probably developed early in the Old Kingdom. In life, the person was a complete entity, but if he had led a virtuous life, he could also have access to a multiplicity of forms that could be used in the next world. In some instances, these forms could be employed to help those whom the deceased wished to support or, alternately, to take revenge on his enemies.<ref name="David-2003-RelMag">{{cite book |last=David |first=Rosalie |title=Religion and Magic in Ancient Egypt |publisher=Penguin Books |year=2003 |isbn=9780141941387 |pages=116}}</ref></blockquote>

{{Anchor|ẖt_physical_anchor}} <!-- This section is linked from [[Pyramid of Unas]] -->
==''Khet'' (physical body)==
[[File:Ushabti box REM RC 623 2.JPG|thumb|An ushabti box, Ptolemaic Period. On display at the [[Rosicrucian Egyptian Museum]] in San Jose, California. RC 623]]

The ''[[wikt:ẖt|ẖt]]'' (Egyptological spelling: ''khet''), or physical form, had to exist for the soul (''kꜣ''/''bꜣ'') to have intelligence or the chance to be judged by the guardians of the [[underworld]]. Therefore, it was necessary for the body to be preserved as efficiently and completely as possible and for the burial chamber to be as personalized as it could be, with paintings and statuary showing scenes and triumphs from the deceased's life. In the Old Kingdom, only the pharaoh was granted mummification and, thus, a chance at an eternal and fulfilling afterlife. By the Middle Kingdom, all dead were afforded the opportunity.<ref>{{cite book |title=Death and Burial in Ancient Egypt |last=Ikram |first=Salima |publisher=Longman |year=2003 |isbn=978-0582772168}}</ref> [[Herodotus]], an ancient Greek scholar, observed that grieving families were given a choice as to the type and or quality of the [[mummification]] they preferred: "The best and most expensive kind is said to represent [Osiris], the next best is somewhat inferior and cheaper, while the third is cheapest of all."<ref>{{cite book |last=Nardo |first=Don |title=Exploring Cultural History - Living in Ancient Egypt |publisher=Thomson/Gale |year=2004 |isbn=9780737714531 |pages=110}}</ref>

Because the state of the body was tied so closely with the quality of the [[ancient Egyptian afterlife beliefs|afterlife]], by the time of the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]], not only were the burial chambers painted with depictions of favourite pastimes and great accomplishments of the dead, but there were also small figurines (''[[ushabti|ushabtis]]'') of servants, slaves, and guards (and, in some cases beloved pets) included in the tombs, to serve the deceased in the afterlife.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Miniaci |first=Gianluca |date=2014 |title=The case of the third intermediate period 'shabti-maker (?) of the Amun domain' diamun / padiamun and the change in conception of shabti-statuettes |jstor=24644973 |journal=The Journal of Egyptian Archaeology |volume=100 |pages=245–273|doi=10.1177/030751331410000114 |s2cid=194448696 }}</ref>

Before a person could be judged by the gods, they had to be "awakened" through a series of [[ancient Egyptian funerary practices|funerary rites]] designed to reanimate their mummified remains in the afterlife. The main ceremony, the [[opening of the mouth ceremony]], is best depicted within Pharaoh [[Seti I]]'s tomb. All along the walls and statuary inside the tomb are reliefs and paintings of priests performing the sacred rituals and, below the painted images, the text of the liturgy for opening of the mouth can be found.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mojsov |first=Bojana |date=Winter 2002 |title=The ancient Egyptian underworld in the tomb of Sety&nbsp;I: Sacred books of eternal life |jstor=25091798 |journal=The Massachusetts Review |volume=42 |issue=4 |pages=489–506}}</ref> This ritual which, presumably, would have been performed during interment, was meant to reanimate each section of the body: brain, head, limbs, etc. so that the spiritual body would be able to move in the afterlife.

==''Sah'' (spiritual body)==
{{further|Divine embodiment}}
[[File:Frammento di giara iscritta in ieratico che riporta un brano del 'Racconto del fantasma' SA64149.tif|right|thumb|197x197px|[[Ostrakon]] with the beginning of the ''[[Khonsuemheb and the Ghost|Ghost story]]''. Terracotta from [[Deir el-Medina]], 19th–20th Dynasties, [[New Kingdom of Egypt]]. Found by [[Ernesto Schiaparelli]] in 1905. [[Museo Egizio]], S.6619.]]
If all the rites, ceremonies, and preservation rituals for the ''ẖt'' were observed correctly, and the deceased was found worthy (by [[Osiris]] and the gods of the underworld) of passing through into the afterlife, the ''[[wikt:sꜥḥ|sꜥḥ]]'' (''sah''; spiritual representation of the physical body) forms. This spiritual body was then able to interact with the many entities extant in the afterlife. As a part of the larger construct, the ꜣḫ, the ''sꜥḥ'' was sometimes seen as an avenging spirit which would return from the underworld to seek revenge on those who had wronged the spirit in life. A well-known example was found in a tomb from the Middle Kingdom in which a man leaves a letter to his late wife who, it can be supposed, is haunting him:

<blockquote>What wicked thing have I done to thee that I should have come to this evil pass? What have I done to thee? But what thou hast done to me is to have laid hands on me although I had nothing wicked to thee. From the time I lived with thee as thy husband down to today, what have I done to thee that I need hide? When thou didst sicken of the illness which thou hadst, I caused a master-physician to be fetched&nbsp;... I spent eight months without eating and drinking like a man. I wept exceedingly together with my household in front of my street-quarter. I gave linen clothes to wrap thee and left no benefit undone that had to be performed for thee. And now, behold, I have spent three years alone without entering into a house, though it is not right that one like me should have to do it. This have I done for thy sake. But, behold, thou dost not know good from bad.<ref>{{cite book |title=Living in Ancient Egypt |last=Nardo |first=Don |publisher=Thomson/Gale |pages=39}}</ref></blockquote>

==''Ren'' (name, identity)==
A person's name, or ''rn'' (<small>[[𓂋]][[𓈖]]</small> 'name') was an essential aspect of individuality and central to one's survival after death. Most ancient Egyptian names embodied a meaning which was believed to have a direct relationship with its owner.{{sfn | Taylor | 2001 | p=23}} Placing a name on a statue ceded the image to the dead named, providing a second body. The obliteration of a name from an object or monument destroyed this connection and in some cases was done intentionally to hinder one's prospects in the afterlife.{{sfn | Taylor | 2001 | p=24}}

{{Anchor|Ba_personality_anchor}} <!-- This section is linked from [[Pyramid of Unas]] -->
==''Ba'' (personality)==
{{Refimprove|section|date=May 2023|reason=Elaborates mainly upon a single Egyptologist's position, that is not suggested to be universal in his profession - further elaboration, at least, upon Egyptian sources, upon other historians' treatment, or upon both is recommended.}}
[[File:Ba bird.svg|thumb|left|upright|Bꜣ takes the form of a bird with a human head.]]
[[File:Egyptian - Ba Bird - Walters 571472.jpg|thumb|right|This golden bꜣ amulet from the [[Ptolemaic Kingdom]] would have been worn as an [[apotropaic]] device. [[Walters Art Museum]], [[Baltimore]].]]

{{Hiero|1=bꜣ (G29) |2=<hiero>G29</hiero>|align=right|era=egypt}}
{{Hiero|1=bꜣ (G53) |2=<hiero>G53</hiero>|align=right|era=egypt}}

The '''[[wikt:bꜣ|bꜣ]]''' ([[Egyptian language#Egyptological pronunciation|Egyptological pronunciation]]: ''ba'') <span style="font-size: 300%">𓅽</span> was everything that makes an individual unique, similar to the notion of 'personality'. In this sense, inanimate objects could also have a bꜣ, a unique character, and indeed [[Old Kingdom of Egypt|Old Kingdom]] [[Egyptian pyramids|pyramids]] often were called the bꜣ of their owner. The bꜣ is an aspect of a person that the Egyptians believed would live after the body died, and it is sometimes depicted as a human-headed bird flying out of the tomb to join with the kꜣ in the afterlife.<ref name=Allen-2000-MidEgy/>

In the [[Coffin Texts]], one form of the bꜣ that comes into existence after death is corporeal—eating, drinking and copulating. Egyptologist [[Louis Vico Žabkar]] argues that the bꜣ is not merely a part of the person ''but is the person himself'', unlike the soul in Greek, or late Judaic, Christian or Muslim thought.{{Clarify|date=May 2023}} The idea of a purely immaterial existence was so foreign to Egyptian thought that when Christianity spread in Egypt, they borrowed the Greek word {{lang|grc|ψυχή}} ''psychē'' to describe the concept of soul instead of the term bꜣ. Žabkar concludes that so particular was the concept of the bꜣ to ancient Egyptian thought that it ought not to be translated but instead the concept be footnoted or parenthetically explained as one of the modes of existence for a person.<ref>{{cite book|title=A Study of the Ba Concept In Ancient Egyptian Texts.|pages=162–163|first=Louis V.|last=Žabkar|publisher=University of Chicago Press|year=1968|lccn=68-55393|url=https://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/saoc34.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100618110817/http://oi.uchicago.edu/pdf/saoc34.pdf |archive-date=2010-06-18 |url-status=live}}</ref>

In another mode of existence the bꜣ of the deceased is depicted in the ''[[Book of the Dead]]'' returning to the mummy and participating in life outside the tomb in non-corporeal form, echoing the solar theology of [[Ra]] uniting with [[Osiris]] each night.<ref>''Oxford Guide: The Essential Guide to Egyptian Mythology'', [[James Peter Allen|James P. Allen]], p. 28, Berkley, 2003, {{ISBN|0-425-19096-X}}</ref>

The word ''bꜣw'' (''baw''), plural of the word bꜣ, meant something similar to "impressiveness", "power", and "reputation", particularly of a deity. When a deity intervened in human affairs, it was said that the bꜣw of the deity were at work.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Borghouts|first=Joris Frans|date=1982|title=Divine Intervention in Ancient Egypt and Its Manifestation (bꜣw) In Gleanings from Deir el-Medîna |editor1-first=Robert Johannes |editor1-last=Demarée |editor2-first=Jacobus Johannes |editor2-last=Janssen|journal=Egyptologische Uitgaven, Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor Het Nabije Oosten|pages=1–70}}</ref>

{{Anchor|kꜣ_double_anchor|Ka (vital spark)|Ka (life force)|Ka (vital essence)|Ka (spirit)}}<!-- This section is linked from [[Pyramid of Unas]] -->
==''Ka'' (vital essence)==
[[File:ka arms.svg|thumb|left|the Ka takes the form of 2 upright arms]]
[[File:Ka of Pharaoh.svg|thumb|left|Drawing of a Ka in the form of a man with 2 upright arms and the [[Serekh]] of the pharaoh (empty to not represent any specific pharaoh) on top of his head]]

{{Hiero|1=kꜣ (D28) |2=<hiero>D28</hiero>|align=right|era=egypt}}
[[File:Tumba_de_Tutankamón,_Valle_de_las_Reyes,_Luxor,_Egipto,_2022-04-03,_DD_75.jpg|thumb|335x335px|Scenes from the north wall of the [[Tomb of Tutankhamun|burial chamber of Tutankhamun]]. On the left side, [[Tutankhamun]], followed by his ''[[#Ka (vital essence)|ka]]'', embraces the god of the dead [[Osiris]].]]
The ''kꜣ'' (''ka''), <span style="font-size: 120%">𓂓</span>, was the Egyptian concept of vital essence, which distinguishes the difference between a living and a dead person, with death occurring when the kꜣ left the body. The Egyptians believed that [[Khnum]] created the bodies of children on a [[potter's wheel]] and inserted them into their mothers' bodies. Depending on the region, Egyptians believed that [[Heqet]] or [[Meskhenet]] was the creator of each person's kꜣ, breathing it into them at the instant of their [[birth]] as the part of their soul that made them be ''alive''.

The Egyptians also believed that the kꜣ was sustained through food and drink. For this reason food and drink offerings were presented to the dead, although it was the kꜣ within the offerings that was consumed, not the physical aspect. In the Middle kingdom a form of offering tray known as a [[soul house]] was developed to facilitate this.<ref name=BMspout>{{cite web |url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=111623&partId=1&object=230535&page=1 |title=soul house |website=British Museum Collection online |publisher= British Museum |access-date=30 November 2018 }}</ref><ref name=UCL>{{cite web |url=https://www.ucl.ac.uk/museums-static/digitalegypt/burialcustoms/soulhouse.html |title=Soul-houses |date=2002 |website=Digital Egypt for Universities |publisher=University College London. |access-date= 21 October 2018}}</ref> The kꜣ was often represented in Egyptian iconography as a second image of the king, leading earlier works to attempt to translate kꜣ as ''double''.

In the Old Kingdom private tombs, artwork depicted a "doubleworld" with essential people and objects for the owner of the ka. As Ancient Orient Curator Andrey Bolshakov explains:
"The notion of the ka was a dominating concept of the next life in the Old Kingdom. In a less pure form, it lived into the Middle Kingdom, and lost much of its importance in the New Kingdom, although the ka always remained the recipient of offerings."<ref name=Bolshakov-2002-gods-speak>{{cite book |author=Andrey O. Bolshakov |title=The ancient gods speak: a guide to Egyptian religion |date=2002 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford, New York |isbn=019515401-0 |page=181}}</ref>{{rp|style=ama|page= 181}}

==''Ib'' (heart)==
{{Hiero|1=''jb'' (F34) "heart" |2=<hiero>F34</hiero>|align=left|era=egypt}}
[[File:Hatnofer's heart scarab.jpg|thumb|This exquisite gold and green stone heart scarab belonged to Hatnofer, the mother of the prominent 18th dynasty state official Senenmut, who served under the female king and pharaoh Hatshepsut. The tomb of Ramose and Hatnofer was found intact by archaeologists at Sheikh Abd el-Qurna, in Thebes. The scarab is today on display at the Metropolitan Museum of Art.]]
[[File:Egyptian heart.svg|thumb|left|drawing of a heart similar to how the Egyptians drew it]] 
An important part of the Egyptian soul was thought to be the ''[[wikt:jb|jb]]'' (''ib''), or [[heart (symbolism)|heart]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Ib |series=ancient Egyptian religion |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/280503/ib |access-date=2018-03-17}}</ref> In the Egyptian religion, the heart was the key to the afterlife. 

It was essential to surviving death in the nether world, where it gave evidence for, or against, its possessor. Like the physical body (''ẖt''), the heart was a necessary part of judgement in the afterlife and it was to be carefully preserved and stored within the mummified body with a heart scarab carefully secured to the body above it to prevent it from telling tales. According to the text of the ''[[Books of Breathing]]'':
:[[File:The Weighing of the Heart.svg|thumb|This detail scene based from the [[Papyrus of Ani]] ({{circa}} 1375 B.C.) shows a heart being weighed on the scale of [[Maat]] against the [[feather of truth]], by the [[jackal]]-headed [[Anubis]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Egyptian Book of the Dead |url=https://www.egyptartsite.com/hall1.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120926051942/http://www.egyptartsite.com/hall1.html |archive-date=2012-09-26 |access-date=2012-08-18 |publisher=Egyptartsite.com}}</ref>|left]]They drag Osiris into the Pool of Khonsu, ... and likewise [the Osirism Hor, justified] born of Taikhebyt, justified ... after he has grasped his heart. They bury ... the Book of Breathings which [Isis] made, which ... is written on both its inside and outside, (wrapped) in royal linen, and it is placed [under] the ... left arm near his heart.<ref>{{cite book |last=Rhodes |first=Michael |url=http://www.pseudepigrapha.com/egyptian/BookOfBreathings.htm |title=Translation of the Book of Breathings |publisher=Brigham young University |year=2015}}</ref>

It was thought that the heart was examined by [[Anubis]] and the deities during the [[Ancient Egyptian afterlife beliefs#Judgment of the dead|Weighing of the Heart]] ceremony. If the heart weighed more than the feather of [[Maat]], it was immediately eaten by the monster [[Ammit]], and the soul became eternally restless.

==''Shut'' (shadow)==
A person's [[shadow]] or silhouette, ''šwt'' (''shut''), is always present. Because of this, Egyptians surmised that a shadow contains something of the person it represents. Through this association, statues of people and deities were sometimes referred to as shadows.

In a commentary to ''The Egyptian Book of the Dead'' (''BD''), Egyptologist Ogden Goelet, Jr. discusses the forms of the shadow:

<blockquote>In many ''BD'' papyri and tombs the deceased is depicted emerging from the tomb by day in shadow form, a thin, black, featureless silhouette of a person. The person in this form is, as we would put it, a mere shadow of his former existence, yet nonetheless still existing. Another form the shadow assumes in the ''BD'', especially in connection with gods, is an ostrich-feather sun-shade, an object which would create a shadow.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Goelet | first1=Ogden Jr. |title=The Egyptian Book of the dead: the Book of going forth by day: being the Papyrus of Ani (royal scribe of the divine offerings), written and illustrated circa 1250 B.C.E., by scribes and artists unknown, including the balance of chapters of the books of the dead known as the Theban recension, compiled from ancient texts, dating back to the roots of Egyptian civilization |date=1994 |publisher=Chronicle Books |isbn=0811807673 |page=152 |edition=1st |ref=Commentary}}</ref></blockquote>

==''Sekhem'' (power, form)==
Little is known about the Egyptian interpretation of this portion of the soul. Many scholars define ''sḫm'' (''sekhem'') as the living force or life-force of the soul which exists in the afterlife after all judgement has been passed. It is defined in a ''[[Book of the Dead]]'' as the "power" and as a place within which Horus and Osiris dwell in the underworld.<ref name=Budge-1895-EBotD/>

{{Anchor|ꜣḫ_intellect_anchor}}<!-- This section is linked from [[Pyramid of Unas]] -->
==''Akh'' (intellect)==
[[File:Gardiner G25 Glyph.svg|thumb|ꜣḫ glyph]]

The [[wikt:ꜣḫ|ꜣḫ]] "(magically) effective one"<ref name=Allen-2000-MidEgy/> was a concept of the dead that varied over the long history of ancient Egyptian belief. Relative to the afterlife, akh represented the deceased, who was transfigured and often identified with light.<ref name=Bolshakov-2002-gods-speak/>{{rp|style=ama|page= 7}}

It was associated with thought, but not as an action of the mind; rather, it was intellect as a living entity. The ꜣḫ also played a role in the afterlife. Following the death of the ẖt (physical body), the bꜣ and kꜣ were reunited to reanimate the ꜣḫ.<ref>{{cite web|last = Egyptology online|title = The concept of the afterlife|year = 2001|url=https://www.egyptologyonline.com/the_afterlife.htm|access-date = 2009-01-01|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080421124839/https://www.egyptologyonline.com/the_afterlife.htm|archive-date=2008-04-21}}</ref> The reanimation of the ꜣḫ was only possible if the proper funeral rites were executed and followed by constant offerings. The ritual was termed s-ꜣḫ "make (a dead person) into an (living) ꜣḫ". In this sense, it developed into a sort of roaming [[ghost]] (when the tomb was not in order any more) during the [[Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt|Twentieth Dynasty]]. An ꜣḫ could do either harm or good to persons still living, depending on the circumstances, causing, e.g., nightmares, feelings of guilt, sickness, etc. It could be invoked by prayers or written letters left in the tomb's offering chapel also in order to help living family members, e.g., by intervening in disputes, by making an appeal to other dead persons or deities with any authority to influence things on earth for the better, but also to inflict punishments.

The separation of ꜣḫ and the unification of kꜣ and bꜣ were brought about after death by having the proper offerings made and knowing the proper, efficacious spell, but there was an attendant risk of dying again. Egyptian funerary literature (such as the [[Coffin Texts]] and the ''[[Book of the Dead]]'') were intended to aid the deceased in "not dying a second time" and to aid in becoming an ꜣḫ.

==Relationships==
Ancient Egyptians believed that [[death]] occurs when a person's kꜣ leaves the body. Ceremonies conducted by priests after death, including the "[[Opening of the mouth ceremony|opening of the mouth (''wp r'')]]", aimed not only to restore a person's physical abilities in death, but also to release a ''ba''{{'}}s attachment to the body. This allowed the bꜣ to be united with the kꜣ in the afterlife, creating an entity known as an ꜣḫ.

Egyptians conceived of an afterlife as quite similar to normal physical existence – but with a difference. The model for this new existence was the journey of the Sun. At night the Sun descended into the [[Duat]] or "underworld". Eventually the Sun meets the body of the mummified [[Osiris]]. Osiris and the Sun, re-energized by each other, rise to new life for another day. For the deceased, their body and their tomb were their personal Osiris and a personal Duat. For this reason they are often addressed as "Osiris". For this process to work, some sort of bodily preservation was required, to allow the bꜣ to return during the night, and to rise to new life in the morning. The complete ''ꜣḫ''s were also thought to appear as stars.<ref name="Frankfort2011">{{cite book|last=Frankfort|first=Henri|author-link=Henri Frankfort|title=Ancient Egyptian Religion: An Interpretation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vYhfazYeAnUC&pg=PA100|year=2011|publisher=Courier Corporation|isbn=978-0-486-41138-5|page=100}}</ref> Until the [[Late Period of ancient Egypt|Late Period]], non-royal Egyptians did not expect to unite with the Sun deity; this was reserved for royals.<ref>[https://www.wagenburg.at/staticE/page161.html 26th Dynasty stela description] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929025515/https://www.wagenburg.at/staticE/page161.html |date=2007-09-29 }} from Kunsthistorisches Museum Vienna</ref>

The ''[[Book of the Dead]]'', the collection of spells which aided a person in the afterlife, had the Egyptian name of the ''Book of going forth by day''. They helped people avoid the perils of the afterlife and also aided their existence, containing spells to ensure "not dying a second time in the underworld", and to "grant memory always" to a person. In the Egyptian religion it was possible to die in the afterlife and this death was permanent.

The tomb of Paheri, an Eighteenth Dynasty [[nomarch]] of [[Nekhen]], has an eloquent description of this existence, and is translated by [[James Peter Allen]] as:

{{blockquote|Your life happening again, without your ''ba'' being kept away from your divine corpse, with your ''ba'' being together with the ''akh'' ... You shall emerge each day and return each evening. A lamp will be lit for you in the night until the sunlight shines forth on your breast. You shall be told: "Welcome, welcome, into this your house of the living!"<ref name=Allen-2000-MidEgy/>}}

==See also==
* [[Hun and po]]—the types of souls in Chinese philosophy and traditional religion. Within this ancient soul dualism tradition, every living human has both a hun spiritual, ethereal, yang soul which leaves the body after death, and also a po corporeal, substantive, yin soul which remains with the corpse of the deceased.
* [[Medjed]] 
* [[Mitama]]
* [[Soul dualism]], similar beliefs in other animistic beliefs
* ''[[Haitian Vodou#Soul|The ''Ti bon ange'' and the ''Gros bon ange'' in Haitian Vodou]]''; ''Soul dualism'' in ''Haitian Vodou''.

==Footnotes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|25em|refs=

<ref name=Allen-2000-MidEgy>
{{cite book
 |last=Allen |first=James W.
 |title=Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of Hieroglyphs
 |publisher=Cambridge University Press
 |location=Cambridge, UK
 |year= 2000
 |isbn=978-0-521-77483-3
}}
</ref>

<ref name=Budge-1895-EBotD>
{{Cite book
 |last=Budge |first=E.A. Wallis   |author-link=E.A. Wallis Budge
 |year=1895
 |title=The Book of the Dead: The Papyrus of Ani in the British Museum
 |publisher=British Museum
 |url=https://www.sacred-texts.com/egy/ebod/index.htm
}}
</ref>

}} <!-- end "refs=" -->

==Further reading==
{{div col |colwidth=25em |content=

* {{cite encyclopedia
 |last=Allen |first=James Paul
 |year=2001
 |title=Ba
 |encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt
 |editor-first=Donald Bruce |editor-last=Redford
 |volume=1 |pages=161–162
 |place=Oxford, UK / New York, NY / Cairo, EG
 |publisher=Oxford University Press / The American University in Cairo Press
}}
* {{cite book
 |last=Allen  |first=James P.
 |year=2000
 |title=Middle Egyptian: An introduction to the language and culture of hieroglyphs
 |publisher=Cambridge University Press
 |isbn=978-0521741446
}}
* {{cite book
 |last=Borghouts  |first=Joris Frans |author-link=Joris Borghouts
 |year=1982
 |section=Divine intervention in ancient Egypt and its manifestation (''b3w'')
 |title=Gleanings from Deir el-Medîna 
 |volume=1 |pages=1–70
 |editor1-first=Robert Johannes |editor1-last=Demarée
 |editor2-first=Jacobus Johannes |editor2-last=Janssen
 |series=Egyptologische Uitgaven
 |place=Leiden, NL
 |publisher=Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten
}}
* {{cite book
 |last=Borioni |first=Giacomo C.
 |year=2005
 |title=Der Ka aus religionswissenschaftlicher Sicht
 |series=Veröffentlichungen der Institute für Afrikanistik und Ägyptologie der Universität Wien
 |publisher=Universität Wien
}}
* {{cite book
 |last=Burroughs |first=William S.
 |year=1987
 |title=The Western Lands
 |publisher=Viking Press
 |type=fiction
}}
* {{cite thesis
 |last=Friedman |first=Florence Margaret Dunn
 |year=1981
 |title=On the Meaning of Akh (''3ḫ'') in Egyptian Mortuary Texts
 |degree=doctoral dissertation
 |place=Waltham, MA
 |publisher=[[Brandeis University]]
 |department=Department of Classical and Oriental Studies
}}
* {{cite encyclopedia
 |last=Friedman |first=Florence Margaret Dunn
 |year=2001
 |title=Akh
 |encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Egypt
 |editor-first=Donald Bruce |editor-last=Redford
 |volume=1 |pages=47–48
 |place=Oxford, UK / New York, NY / Cairo, EG
 |publisher=Oxford University Press / The American University in Cairo Press
}}
* {{cite book
 |last=Žabkar |first=Louis Vico
 |year=1968
 |title=A Study of the ''Ba'' Concept in Ancient Egyptian Texts
 |series=Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization
 |volume=34
 |place=Chicago, IL
 |publisher=University of Chicago Press
}}
* {{cite book | last=Taylor | first=John H. | title=Death and the afterlife in ancient Egypt | publisher=University of Chicago Press | publication-place=Chicago | date=2001 | isbn=0-226-79163-7 | oclc=45195698}}
}} <!-- end "content=" -->

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[[Category:Ancient Egyptian philosophy|Soul]]
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