Editing Anatolian languages

{{short description|Extinct branch of Indo-European languages}}
{{other uses of|Anatolian}}
{{Infobox language family
| name = Anatolian
| ethnicity = [[Anatolians]]
| region = Formerly in [[Anatolia]]
| familycolor = Indo-European
| protoname = [[Proto-Anatolian language|Proto-Anatolian]]
| child1 = ''[[Hittite language|Hittite]]''
| child2 = ''[[Palaic]]''
| child3 = ''[[Lydian language|Lydian]]''
| child4 = ''[[Luwic]]''
| glotto = anat1257
| glottorefname = Anatolian
| ancestor = 
| glottoname = 
| notes = 
}}
{{Contains special characters|cuneiform}}
{{Indo-European topics}}
The '''Anatolian languages''' are an [[Extinct language|extinct]] branch of [[Indo-European languages]] that were spoken in [[Anatolia]]. The best known Anatolian language is [[Hittite language|Hittite]], which is considered the earliest-attested Indo-European language.

Undiscovered until the late 19th and early 20th centuries, they are often believed to be the earliest branch to have split from the [[Proto Indo-European]] family. Once discovered, the presence of [[laryngeal consonant]]s ''ḫ'' and ''ḫḫ'' in Hittite and [[Luwian]] provided support for the [[laryngeal theory]] of [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] linguistics. While Hittite attestation ends after the [[Bronze Age]], [[hieroglyphic Luwian]] survived until the conquest of the [[Syro-Hittite states|Neo-Hittite kingdoms]] by the Semitic [[Assyrian Empire]], and [[Alphabets of Anatolia|alphabetic inscriptions in Anatolian languages]] are fragmentarily attested until the early [[1st millennium|first millennium]] AD, eventually succumbing to the [[Hellenization]] of Anatolia as a result of [[Greek colonisation]].

== Origins ==
[[File:Indo-European migrations.jpg|thumb|350px|
Early [[Indo-European migrations]] from the [[Pontic–Caspian steppe]]]]
The Anatolian branch is often considered the earliest to have split from the [[Proto-Indo-European language]], from a stage referred to either as [[Indo-Hittite]] or "Archaic PIE"; typically a date in the [[4th millennium BC|mid-4th millennium BC]] is assumed for the evolution of this branch, followed by a migration into Anatolia in the early 2nd millenium BC. Under the [[Kurgan hypothesis]], there are two possibilities for how the early Anatolian speakers could have reached Anatolia: from the north via the [[Caucasus]], or from the west, via the [[Balkans]];<ref>Models assuming an Anatolian PIE homeland of course do not assume any migration at all, and the model assuming an [[Armenia]]n homeland assumes straightforward immigration from the East.</ref> the latter is considered somewhat more likely by Mallory (1989), Steiner (1990), and Anthony (2007). Statistical research by Quentin Atkinson and others using [[Bayesian inference]] and [[glottochronology|glottochronological]] markers favors an [[Anatolian hypothesis|Indo-European origin in Anatolia]], though the method's validity and accuracy are subject to debate, and this is a minority view concerning the urheimat of PIE.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gray |first1=Russell D. |last2=Atkinson |first2=Quentin D. |date=2003 |title=Language-Tree Divergence Times Support the Anatolian Theory of Indo-European Origin |url=http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/files/gray_and_atkinson2003/grayatkinson2003.pdf |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=426 |issue=6965 |pages=435–439 |doi=10.1038/nature02029 |pmid=14647380 |bibcode=2003Natur.426..435G |s2cid=42340 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110520041256/http://language.psy.auckland.ac.nz/files/gray_and_atkinson2003/grayatkinson2003.pdf |archive-date=2011-05-20}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bouckaert |first1=R. |last2=Lemey |first2=P. |last3=Dunn |first3=M. |last4=Greenhill |first4=S. J. |last5=Alekseyenko |first5=A. V. |last6=Drummond |first6=A. J. |last7=Gray |first7=R. D. |last8=Suchard |first8=M. A. |last9=Atkinson |first9=Q. D. |date=2012 |title=Mapping the Origins and Expansion of the Indo-European Language Family |journal=Science |language=en |volume=337 |issue=6097 |pages=957–960 |bibcode=2012Sci...337..957B |doi=10.1126/science.1219669 |pmc=4112997 |pmid=22923579}}</ref>

It has been theorized that [[Cernavodă culture]], together with the [[Sredny Stog culture]], was the source of Anatolian languages and introduced them to Anatolia through the Balkans after Anatolian split from the Proto-Indo-Anatolian language, which some linguists and archaeologists place in the area of the Sredny Stog culture.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kroonen |first1=Guus |last2=Jakob |first2=Anthony |last3=Palmér |first3=Axel I. |last4=Sluis |first4=Paulus van |last5=Wigman |first5=Andrew |date=2022-10-12 |title=Indo-European cereal terminology suggests a Northwest Pontic homeland for the core Indo-European languages |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=17 |issue=10 |pages=e0275744 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0275744 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=9555676 |pmid=36223379|bibcode=2022PLoSO..1775744K |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>[http://www.randevu-zip.narod.ru/europe/east/ancien.htm Краткая история освоения индоевропейцами Европы] (in Russian)</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Anthony |first=David |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/1102387902 |title=The Horse, the Wheel, and Language |oclc=1102387902}}</ref> Petra Goedegebuure suggests Anatolian separated from PIE in the north by 4500 BC and had arrived in Anatolia by about 2500 -2000 BC, via a migration route through the Caucasus.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://youtube.com/watch?v=Pe4jnBdVxjw | author=Petra Goedegebuure |title=Anatolians on the Move: From Kurgans to Kanesh |publisher=
The Institute for the Study of Ancient Cultures  |via=YouTube |date=2020-02-05}}</ref>

== Classification ==
[[Craig Melchert|Melchert]] (2012) has proposed the following classification:<ref>{{harvnb|Melchert|2012|p=}}</ref>

{{Tree list}}
* [[Proto-Anatolian language|Proto-Anatolian]]
** [[Hittite language|Hittite]]
** Luwic
*** [[Luwian language|Luwian]]
*** [[Carian language|Carian]]
*** [[Milyan language|Milyan]]
*** [[Lycian language|Lycian]]
*** [[Sidetic language|Sidetic]]
*** [[Pisidian language|Pisidian]]
** [[Palaic language|Palaic]]
** [[Lydian language|Lydian]]
{{Tree list/end}}
[[File:Anatolian.svg|thumb|Classification of the Anatolian languages according to [[Alwin Kloekhorst]] (2022).|331x331px]]
[[Alwin Kloekhorst|Kloekhorst]] (2022) has proposed a more detailed classification, with estimated dating for some of the reconstructed stages:{{Sfn|Kloekhorst|2022}}

{{Tree list}}
* Proto-Anatolian (diverged around the 31st century BC)
** Proto-Luwo-Lydian
*** Proto-Luwo-Palaic
**** Proto-Luwic ({{circa|21st}}–20th century BC)
***** Proto-Luwian ({{circa|18th century BC}})
****** Cuneiform Luwian (16th–15th century BC)
****** [[Hieroglyphic Luwian]] (13th–8th century BC)
***** Proto-Lyco-Carian
****** Proto-Carian–Milyan
******* Carian (7th–3rd century BC)
******* Milyan (5th century BC)
****** Proto-Lycian–Sidetic
******* Lycian (5th–4th century BC)
******* Sidetic (5th–2nd century BC)
***** Pisidian (1st–2nd century AD) [unclassified]
**** Proto-Palaic
***** Palaic (16th–15th century BC)
*** Proto-Lydian
**** Lydian (8th–3rd century BC)
** Proto-Hittite ({{circa|2100 BC}})
*** Kanišite Hittite ({{circa|1935}}–1710 BC)
*** Ḫattuša Hittite ({{circa|1650}}–1180 BC)
{{Tree list/end}}

In addition, the recently discovered [[Kalašma language]] is believed to be a Luwic language, though further analysis has yet to be published.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Chrysopoulos |first=Philip |date=2023-09-23 |title=New Indo-European Language Discovered in Ancient City of Hattusa |work=Greek Reporter. |url=https://greekreporter.com/2023/09/23/new-indo-european-language-ancient-hatussa/ |access-date=2023-09-26}}</ref>

== Features ==
{{cleanup lang|date=June 2022}}

=== Phonology ===
The phonology of the Anatolian languages preserves distinctions lost in its sister branches of Indo-European. Famously, the Anatolian languages retain the PIE [[laryngeal theory|laryngeals]] in words such as Hittite {{lang|hit|ḫāran-}} (cf. [[Ancient Greek]] {{lang|grc|ὄρνῑς}}, [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]] {{lang|lt|eręlis}}, [[Old Norse]] {{lang|non|ǫrn}}, PIE '''{{PIE|*h₃éron-}}''') and Lycian {{lang|xlc|𐊜𐊒𐊄𐊀|italic=no}} {{Transliteration|xlc|χuga}} (cf. [[Latin]] {{lang|la|avus}}, [[Old Prussian language|Old Prussian]] {{lang|prg|awis}}, [[Primitive Irish|Archaic Irish]] {{lang|pgl|ᚐᚃᚔ}} ({{Transliteration|pgl|avi}}), PIE '''{{PIE|*h₂éwh₂s}}'''). The three dorsal consonant series of PIE also remained distinct in Proto-Anatolian and have different reflexes in the Luwic languages, e.g. Luwian where '''{{PIE|*kʷ}}''' > {{lang|xlu|ku-}}, '''{{PIE|*k}}''' > {{lang|xlu|k-}}, and '''{{PIE|*ḱ}}''' > ''{{lang|xlu|z-}}.''<ref name=":0" /> The three-way distinction in Proto-Indo-European stops (i.e. '''{{PIE|*p}}, {{PIE|*b}}, {{PIE|*bʰ}}''') collapsed into a [[Fortis and lenis|fortis-lenis]] distinction in Proto-Anatolian, conventionally written as '''{{IPA|/p/}}''' vs. '''{{IPA|/b/}}'''. In Hittite and Luwian cuneiform, the lenis stops were written as single voiceless consonants while the fortis stops were written as doubled voiceless, indicating a [[Gemination|geminated]] pronunciation. By the first millennium, the lenis consonants seem to have been [[Lenition|spirantized]] in Lydian, Lycian, and Carian.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Melchert |first=Harold Craig |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pgQowuFZeLUC&q=anatolian+lenis+spirantized&pg=PA21 |title=Anatolian Historical Phonology |date=1994 |publisher=Rodopi |isbn=9789051836974 |pages=21 |language=en}}</ref>

The Proto-Anatolian laryngeal consonant *H patterned with the stops in fortition and lenition and appears as geminated {{Transliteration|Xsux|-ḫḫ-|italic=no}} or plain {{Transliteration|Xsux|-ḫ-|italic=no}} in cuneiform. Reflexes of *H in Hittite are interpreted as pharyngeal fricatives and those in Luwian as uvular fricatives based on loans in Ugaritic and Egyptian, as well as vowel-coloring effects. The laryngeals were lost in Lydian but became Lycian {{lang|xlc|𐊐|italic=no}} ({{Transliteration|xlc|χ}}) and Carian {{lang|xcr|𐊼|italic=no}} ({{Transliteration|xcr|k}}), both pronounced [k], as well as [[Labialized velar consonant|labiovelars]] —Lycian {{lang|xlc|𐊌|italic=no}} ({{Transliteration|xlc|q}}), Carian {{lang|xcr|𐊴|italic=no}} ({{Transliteration|xcr|q}})—when labialized. Suggestions for their realization in Proto-Anatolian include [[Pharyngeal consonant|pharyngeal fricatives]], uvular fricatives, or [[uvular stop]]s.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Melchert |first=Harold Craig |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pgQowuFZeLUC&q=pharyngeal&pg=PA22 |title=Anatolian Historical Phonology |date=1994 |publisher=Rodopi |isbn=9789051836974 |pages=22 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kloekhorst |first=Alwin |date=2018 |title=Anatolian Evidence Suggests that the Indo-European Laryngeals *h2 and *h3 Were Uvular Stops |url=https://www.academia.edu/37962233 |journal=Indo-European Linguistics |language=en |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=69–94 |doi=10.1163/22125892-00601003 |doi-access=free|hdl=1887/81567 |hdl-access=free }}</ref>

=== Verbs ===
Anatolian morphology is considerably simpler than other early Indo-European (IE) languages. The verbal system distinguishes only two tenses (present-future and preterite), two voices (active and [[Mediopassive voice|mediopassive]]), and two moods ([[Realis mood|indicative]] and [[Imperative mood|imperative]]), lacking the [[Subjunctive mood|subjunctive]] and [[Optative mood|optative]] moods found in other old IE languages like [[Tocharian languages|Tocharian]], [[Sanskrit]], and Ancient Greek. Anatolian verbs are also typically divided into two conjugations: the {{lang|hit|mi}} conjugation and {{lang|hit|ḫi}} conjugation, named for their first-person singular present indicative suffix in Hittite. While the {{lang|hit|mi}} conjugation has clear cognates outside of Anatolia, the {{lang|hit|ḫi}} conjugation is distinctive and appears to be derived from a reduplicated or intensive form in PIE.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last1=Klein |first1=Jared |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QgA3DwAAQBAJ&pg=252 |title=Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics |last2=Joseph |first2=Brian |last3=Fritz |first3=Matthias |date=2017 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=9783110393248 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Gender ===
The Anatolian [[Grammatical gender|gender]] system is based on two classes: animate and inanimate (also termed common and neuter). Proto-Anatolian almost certainly did not inherit a separate feminine agreement class from PIE.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |last=Kim |first=Ronald I. |title=The Feminine Gender in Tocharian and Indo-European |date=January 2009 |url=https://www.academia.edu/23882373 |language=en |via=Academia.edu}}</ref>{{Unreliable source?|date=July 2024}} The two-gender system has been described as a merger of masculine and feminine genders following the phonetic merger of PIE a-stems with o-stems. However the discovery of a group of inherited nouns with suffix '''{{lang|xlc|*-eh<sub>2</sub>}}''' in Lycian and therefore Proto-Anatolian raised doubts about the existence of a feminine gender in PIE. The feminine gender typically marked with {{lang|mis|-ā}} in non-Anatolian Indo-European languages may be connected to a derivational suffix '''{{lang|mis|*-h<sub>2</sub>}}''', attested for abstract nouns and collectives in Anatolian.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Melchert |first=Craig |title=PIE *-eh2 as an "individualizing" Suffix and the Feminine Gender |url=https://linguistics.ucla.edu/people/Melchert/MelchertJena.pdf |via=linguistics.ucla.edu}}</ref> The appurtenance suffix {{lang|mis|*-ih<sub>2</sub>}} is scarce in Anatolian but fully productive as a feminine marker in [[Tocharian languages|Tocharian]].<ref name=":1" /> This suggests the Anatolian gender system is the original for IE, while the [[Grammatical gender#Masculine–feminine–neuter contrast|feminine-masculine-neuter]] classification of Tocharian + Core IE languages may have arisen following a sex-based split within the class of topical nouns to provide more precise reference tracking for male and female humans.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Luraghi |first=Silvia |date=2011 |title=The Origin of the Proto-Indo-European Gender System: Typological Considerations |url=https://allegatifac.unipv.it/silvialuraghi/Gender%20FoL.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141229143242/http://allegatifac.unipv.it/silvialuraghi/Gender%20FoL.pdf |archive-date=2014-12-29 |url-status=live |journal=Folia Linguistica |volume=45 |issue=2 |pages=435–463 |doi=10.1515/flin.2011.016|s2cid=59324940 }}</ref>

=== Case ===
Proto-Anatolian retained the nominal case system of Proto-Indo-European, including the vocative, nominative, accusative, instrumental, dative, genitive, and locative cases, and innovated an additional [[allative case]].<ref name=":0" /> Nouns distinguish singular and plural numbers, as well as a collective plural for inanimates in Old Hittite and remnant dual forms for natural pairs. The Anatolian branch also has a [[Split ergativity|split-ergative]] system based on gender, with inanimate nouns being marked in the ergative case when the subject of a transitive verb. This may be an areal influence from nearby non-IE [[Ergative–absolutive language|ergative languages]] like Hurrian.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Aikhenvald |first1=Alexandra Y. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sPGe7aBSkpkC&q=laryngeal+fortition+anatolian&pg=PA54 |title=Areal Diffusion and Genetic Inheritance: Problems in Comparative Linguistics |last2=Dixon |first2=Robert M. W. |date=2006 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780199283088 |language=en}}</ref>

=== Syntax ===
The basic word order in Anatolian is [[Subject–object–verb|subject-object-verb]] except for Lycian, where verbs typically precede objects. Clause-initial particles are a striking feature of Anatolian syntax; in a given sentence, a connective or the first accented word usually hosts a chain of clitics in [[Clitic#Word order|Wackernagel's position]]. Enclitic pronouns, discourse markers, conjunctions, and local or modal particles appear in rigidly ordered slots. Words fronted before the particle chain are topicalized.<ref name=":0" />

== Languages ==
The list below gives the Anatolian languages in a relatively flat arrangement, following a summary of the Anatolian family tree by [[Robert Beekes]] (2010).<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Beekes |first1=R. S. P. |title=Comparative Indo-European Linguistics: An Introduction |last2=Cor de Vaan |first2=Michiel Arnoud |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing |year=2011 |edition=2nd |location=Amsterdam; Philadelphia |pages=20–22}}</ref> This model recognizes only one clear subgroup, the Luwic languages. Modifications and updates of the branching order continue, however. A second version opposes Hittite to Western Anatolian, and divides the latter node into Lydian, Palaic, and a Luwian group (instead of Luwic).<ref>{{harvnb|Luraghi|1998|p=169}}.</ref>

=== Hittite ===
{{main|Hittite language}}
[[File:Map Hittite rule en.svg|thumb|upright=1.2|The Hittite Empire at its greatest extent under [[Suppiluliuma I]] ({{circa|1350–1322 BC}}) and [[Mursili II]] ({{circa|1321–1295 BC}})]]

[[Hittite language|Hittite]] (''nešili'') was the language of the [[Hittite Empire]], dated approximately 1650–1200 BC, which ruled over nearly all of [[Anatolia]] during that time. The earliest sources of Hittite are the 19th century BC [[Kültepe]] texts, the Semitic  [[Akkadian language]] records of the ''kârum kaneš'', or "port of Kanes," an [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]] trading colony within the city of [[Kanesh]] (Kültepe). This collection records Hittite names and words loaned into Akkadian (Old Assyrian) from Hittite. Other such examples are found in other Assyrian Karums in Southeast Anatolia.<ref>Dercksen, J. G., "On Anatolian Loanwords in Akkadian Texts from Kültepe", Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und Vorderasiatische Archäologie , vol. 97, no. 1, pp. 26-46, 2007</ref> The Hittite name for the city was ''[[Neša]]'', from which the Hittite [[endonym]] for the language, ''Nešili'', was derived. The fact that the enclave was Assyrian, rather than Hittite, and that the city name became the language name, suggest that the Hittite language was already in a position of influence, perhaps dominance, in [[central Anatolia]].

The main cache of Hittite texts is the approximately 30,000 clay tablet fragments, of which only some have been studied, from the records of the royal city of ''[[Hattuša]]'', located on a ridge near what is now Boğazkale, Turkey (formerly named Boğazköy). The records show a gradual rise to power of the Anatolian language speakers over the native [[language isolate]] speaking  [[Hattians]], until at last the kingship became an Anatolian privilege. From then on, little is heard of the Hattians, but the Hittites kept the name. The records include rituals, medical writings, letters, laws and other public documents, making possible an in-depth knowledge of many aspects of the civilization.

Most of the records are dated to the 13th century BC (Late Bronze Age). They are written in [[cuneiform]] script borrowing heavily from the [[Mesopotamian]] system of writing of nearby [[Assyria]]. The script is a [[syllabary]]. This fact, combined with frequent use of Akkadian and [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]] words, as well as [[logograms]], or signs representing whole words, to represent lexical items, often introduces considerable uncertainty as to the form of the original. However, phonetic syllable signs are present also, representing syllables of the form V, CV, VC, CVC, where V is "vowel" and C is "consonant".<ref>{{Cite book |last=Melchert |first=H. Craig |title=Anatolian Historical Phonology |publisher=Rodopi |year=1994 |series=Leiden Studies in Indo-European |volume=3 |location=Amsterdam |pages=11–12}}</ref>

Hittite is divided into Old, Middle, and New (or Neo-). The dates are somewhat variable. They are based on an approximate coincidence of historical periods and variants of the writing system: the Old Kingdom and the Old Script, the Middle Kingdom and the Middle Script, and the New Kingdom and the New Script. Fortson gives the dates, which come from the reigns of the relevant kings, as 1570–1450 BC, 1450–1380 BC, and 1350–1200 BC respectively. These are not [[Glottochronology|glottochronologic]].

All cuneiform Hittite came to an end at the end of the 13th century BC during the [[Bronze Age Collapse]], with the destruction of Hattusas and the end of the empire, much of it having been annexed by the [[Middle Assyrian Empire]] over the preceding century and the capital and its surrounds sacked by the [[Phrygians]] in 1200 BC.<ref>{{harvnb|Fortson|2010|pp=175–176}}.</ref>

=== Palaic ===
{{main|Palaic language}}
[[Palaic language|Palaic]], spoken in the north-central Anatolian region of [[Pala (Anatolia)|Palā]] (later [[Paphlagonia]]), extinct around the 13th century BC, is known only from fragments of quoted prayers in Old Hittite texts. It was extinguished by the replacement of the culture, if not the population, as a result of an invasion by the [[Kaskians|Kaskas]], which the Hittites could not prevent.

=== Luwic branch ===
{{Infobox language family
| name             = Luwic
| altname          = Luvic, Luwoid<ref name="Multitree">{{cite web|title=Luwic|url-status=dead|archive-date=8 September 2012|publisher=[[Linguist List|LINGUIST List]]|access-date=22 February 2025|url=http://multitree.org/codes/luwi.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120908054526/http://multitree.org/codes/luwi.html}}</ref>
| ethnicity        = [[Anatolian peoples|Anatolians]]
| region           = Ancient [[Anatolia]]
| boxsize          = 300px
| familycolor      = Indo-European
| fam2             = Anatolian
| fam3             = Luwo-[[Lydian language|Lydian]]?
| fam4             = Luwo-[[Palaic language|Palaic]]?
| ancestor         = [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]]
| ancestor2        = [[Proto-Anatolian language|Proto-Anatolian]]
| child1           = ''[[Carian language|Carian]]''
| child2           = ''[[Luwian language|Luwian]]''
| child3           = ''[[Lycian language|Lycian]]''
| child4           = ''[[Milyan language|Milyan]]''
| child5           = ''[[Pisidian language|Pisidian]]''
| child6           = ''[[Sidetic language|Sidetic]]''
| child7           = ''[[Kalašma language|Kalasmaic]]?''
| glotto           = luvi1234
| glottorefname    = Luvic
| glottoname       = 
| notes            = 
}}
The term ''Luwic'' was proposed by [[Craig Melchert]] as the node of a branch to include several languages that seem more closely related than the other Anatolian languages.<ref>{{harvnb|Melchert|2012|p=14}}. "I, followed by some others, have adopted the label 'Luvic' for this group instead of the more popular 'Luvian', in order to forestall confusion with Luvian in the narrow sense of just the language represented by Cuneiform and Hieroglyphic Luvian."</ref> This is not a neologism, as ''Luvic'' had been used in the early 20th century to mean the Anatolian language group as a whole, or languages identified as Luvian by the Hittite texts. The name comes from Hittite {{Transliteration|hit|luwili}} ({{lang|hit|{{cuneiform|ana|𒇻𒌑𒄿𒇷}}}}). The earlier use of ''Luvic'' fell into disuse in favour of ''Luvian''. Meanwhile, most of the languages now termed Luvian, or Luvic, were not known to be so until the latter 20th century. Even more fragmentary attestations might be discovered in the future.

''Luvian'' and ''Luvic'' have other meanings in English, so currently ''Luwian'' and ''Luwic'' are preferred. Before the term ''Luwic'' was proposed for Luwian and its closest relatives, scholars used the term ''Luwian'' in the sense of 'Luwic languages'. For example, Silvia Luraghi's Luwian branch begins with a root language she terms the "Luwian group", which logically is in the place of Common Luwian or Proto-Luwian. Its three offsprings, according to her are Milyan, Proto-Luwian, and Lycian, while Proto-Luwian branches into Cuneiform and Hieroglyphic Luwian.<ref name="Luraghi 1998 173">{{harvnb|Luraghi|1998|p=173}}.</ref>

==== Luwian ====
{{main|Luwian language}}
[[File:Luwian language en.svg|thumb|Area where the 2nd millennium BC Luwian language was spoken]]
The Luwian language is attested in two different scripts, [[Cuneiform script|cuneiform]] and [[Anatolian hieroglyph]]s, over more than a millennium. While the earlier scholarship tended to treat these two corpora as separate linguistic entities,<ref name="Luraghi 1998 173" /> the current tendency is to separate genuine dialectal distinctions within Luwian from orthographic differences. Accordingly, one now frequently speaks of Kizzuwatna Luwian (attested in cuneiform transmission), Empire Luwian (cuneiform and hieroglyphic transmission), and Iron Age Luwian / Late Luwian (hieroglyphic transmission), as well as several more Luwian dialects, which are more scarcely attested.<ref>{{harvnb|Yakubovich|2011|pp=539–541}}; {{harvnb|Melchert|2016}}; {{harvnb|Rieken|2017|pp=301–302}};</ref>

The cuneiform corpus (Melchert's CLuwian) is recorded in [[Gloss (annotation)|gloss]]es and short passages in Hittite texts, mainly from Boğazkale. About 200 tablet fragments of the approximately 30,000 contain CLuwian passages. Most of the tablets reflect the Middle and New Script, although some Old Script fragments have also been attested. Benjamin Fortson hypothesizes that "Luvian was employed in rituals adopted by the Hittites."<ref>{{harvnb|Fortson|2010|p=186}}</ref> A large proportion of tablets containing Luwian passages reflect rituals emanating from [[Kizzuwatna]].<ref>{{harvnb|Yakubovich|2011|p=539}}</ref> On the other hand, many Luwian glosses (foreign words) in Hittite texts appear to reflect a different dialect, namely Empire Luwian.<ref>{{harvnb|Rieken|2017|p=302}}</ref> The Hittite language of the respective tablets sometimes displays interference features, which suggests that they were recorded by Luwian native speakers.

The hieroglyphic corpus (Melchert's HLuwian) is recorded in [[Anatolian hieroglyph]]s, reflecting Empire Luwian and its descendant Iron Age Luwian.<ref>{{harvnb|Yakubovich|2011|pp=540–541}}</ref> Some HLuwian texts were found at Boğazkale, so it was formerly thought to have been a "Hieroglyphic Hittite". The contexts in which CLuwian and HLuwian have been found are essentially distinct. Annick Payne asserts: "With the exception of digraphic seals, the two scripts were never used together."<ref>{{harvnb|Payne|2010|p=2}}.</ref>

HLuwian texts are found on clay, shell, potsherds, pottery, metal, natural rock surfaces, building stone and sculpture, mainly carved lions. The images are in [[relief]] or counter-relief that can be carved or painted. There are also [[seal (emblem)|seals]] and sealings. A sealing is a counter-relief impression of hieroglyphic signs carved or cast in relief on a seal. The resulting signature can be stamped or rolled onto a soft material, such as sealing wax. The HLuwian writing system contains about 500 signs, 225 of which are [[logogram]]s, and the rest purely functional [[determinative]]s and [[syllabogram]]s, representing syllables of the form V, CV, or rarely CVCV.<ref>{{harvnb|Payne|2010|p=6}}.</ref>

HLuwian texts appear as early as the 14th century BC in names and titles on seals and sealings at Hattusa. Longer texts first appear in the 13th century BC. Payne refers to the Bronze Age HLuwian as Empire Luwian. All Hittite and CLuwian came to an end at 1200 BC as part of the [[Late Bronze Age collapse]], but the concept of a "fall" of the Hittite Empire must be tempered in regard to the south, where the civilization of a number of [[Syro-Hittite states]] went on uninterrupted, using HLuwian, which Payne calls Iron-Age Luwian and dates 1000–700 BC. Presumably these autonomous "Neo-Hittite" heads of state no longer needed to report to Hattusa. HLuwian caches come from ten city states in northern Syria and southern Anatolia: [[Cilicia]], [[Charchamesh]], [[Til Barsip|Tell Akhmar]], [[Kahramanmaraş|Maras]], [[Malatya]], [[Commagene]], [[Amuq]], [[Aleppo]], [[Hama]], and [[Tabal (state)|Tabal]].<ref>{{harvnb|Payne|2010|p=3}}.</ref>

==== Lycian ====
{{main|Lycian language}}
[[File:Anatolian 03.png|thumb|upright=1|Luwic branch of Anatolian languages attested in the mid-1st millennium BC]]

Lycian (called "Lycian A" when Milyan was a "Lycian B") was spoken in classical [[Lycia]], in southwestern Anatolia. It is attested from 172 inscriptions,<ref>{{harvnb|Keen|1998|p=7}}.</ref> mainly on stone, from about 150 funerary monuments, and 32 public documents. The writing system is the [[Lycian alphabet]], which the Lycians modified from the [[Greek alphabet]]. In addition to the inscriptions are 200 or more coins stamped with Lycian names. Of the texts, some are bilingual in Lycian and Greek, and one, the [[Letoon trilingual|Létôon trilingual]], is in Lycian, Greek, and Aramaic. The longest text, the [[Xanthian Obelisk|Xanthus stele]], with about 250 lines, was originally believed to be bilingual in Greek and Lycian; however the identification of a verse in another, closely related language, a "Lycian B" identified now as [[Milyan language|Milyan]], renders the stele trilingual. The earliest of the coins date before 500 BC;<ref>{{harvnb|Keen|1998|p=11}}.</ref> however, the writing system must have required time for its development and implementation.

The name of Lycia appears in [[Homer]]<ref>"[[Sarpedon (Trojan War hero)|Sarpedon]], king of Lycia", in ''[[Iliad]]'' 5.471f.</ref> but more historically, in Hittite and in Egyptian documents among the "[[Sea Peoples]]", as the Lukka, dwelling in the [[Lukka lands]]. No Lycian text survives from Late Bronze Age times, but the names offer a basis for postulating its continued existence.

Lycia was completely Hellenized by the end of the 4th century BC,<ref>{{harvnb|Keen|1998|p=175}}.</ref> after which Lycian is not to be found. Stephen Colvin goes so far as to term this, and the other scantily attested Luwic languages, "Late Luwian",<ref>{{Cite book |last=Colvin |first=Stephen |title=The Greco-Roman East: Politics, Culture, Society |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2004 |series=Yale Classical Studies |volume=31 |location=Cambridge; New York |page=45}}</ref> although they probably did not begin late. Analogously, [[Ivo Hajnal]] calls them – using an equivalent German term – {{lang|de|Jungluwisch}}.<ref>Hajnal, Ivo. 2003. “Jungluwisch” – eine Bestandsaufnahme. In M. Giorgieri et al.(eds.): ''Licia e Lidia prima dell’ ellenizzazione'', 187-205. Rome: CNR.  [https://www.academia.edu/2400834 Online]</ref>

==== Milyan ====
{{main|Milyan language}}
Milyan was previously considered a variety of Lycian, as "Lycian B", but it is now classified as a separate language.

==== Carian ====
{{main|Carian language}}
Carian was spoken in [[Caria]]. It is fragmentarily attested from graffiti by [[Carian]] mercenaries and other members of an ethnic enclave in [[Memphis, Egypt]] (and other places in Egypt), personal names in Greek records, twenty inscriptions from [[Caria]] (including four [[bilingual inscription]]s), scattered inscriptions elsewhere in the Aegean world and words stated as Carian by ancient authors.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Adiego |first=I. J. |title=A History of Ancient Greek from the Beginning to Late Antiquity |publisher=Cambridge University Press |translator-first=Chris |translator-last=Markham |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-521-83307-3 |editor-last=Christidis |editor-first=A. F. |pages=759, 761 |chapter=Greek and Carian |editor2-last=Arapopoulou |editor2-first=Maria |editor3-last=Chriti |editor3-first=Maria}}</ref> Inscriptions first appeared in the 7th century BC.

==== Sidetic ====
{{main|Sidetic language}}
[[File:Sidetic language inscriptions.jpg|right|thumb|upright=1.6|Inscriptions in Sidetic language, exhibits of the Museum of Side, Turkey]]
Sidetic was spoken in the city of [[Side, Turkey|Side]]. It is known from coin legends and bilingual inscriptions that date from the 5th to the 2nd centuries BC.

==== Pisidian ====
{{main|Pisidian language}}
The Pisidic language was spoken in [[Pisidia]]. Known from some thirty short inscriptions from the first to second centuries AD, it appears to be closely related to Lycian and Sidetic.

==== Kalašma ====

{{Main|Kalašma language}}

Kalašma was spoken in the [[Kalašma]] region, likely near the modern city of [[Bolu]]. It is known from a single inscription found in Hattusa.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-09-21 |title=New Indo-European Language Discovered |url=https://www.uni-wuerzburg.de/en/news-and-events/news/detail/news/new-indo-european-language-discovered/ |access-date=2023-09-26 |website=Julius-Maximilians-Universität of Würzburg. |language=en}}</ref>

=== Lydian ===
{{main|Lydian language}}
Lydian was spoken in [[Lydia]]. Within the Anatolian group, Lydian occupies a unique and problematic position due, first, to the still very limited evidence and understanding of the language and, second, to a number of features not shared with any other Anatolian language.<ref>{{Cite web |first=Craig |last=Melchert |author-link=Craig Melchert |year=2004 |title=Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages |url=http://www.unc.edu/~melchert/lydian.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091008065624/http://www.unc.edu/~melchert/lydian.pdf |archive-date=2009-10-08 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |pages=601–607}}</ref> The Lydian language is attested in graffiti and in coin legends from the end of the 8th or the beginning of the 7th century BC down to the 3rd century BC, but well-preserved inscriptions of significant length are presently limited to the 5th–4th centuries BC, during the period of [[Greater Iran|Persian]] domination. Extant Lydian texts now number slightly over one hundred but are mostly fragmentary.

=== Other possible languages ===
It has been proposed that other languages of the family existed that have left no records, including the pre-Greek languages of [[Lycaonia]] and [[Isaurian language|Isauria]] unattested in the alphabetic era.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Pilling |first=James Constantine |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MffmodlcdlIC&q=lycaonian+isaurian+pamphylian+language&pg=RA1-PA21 |title=Bibliography of the Siouan Languages |date=1887 |publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office}}</ref> In these regions, only Hittite, [[Hurrian language|Hurrian]], and Luwian are attested in the [[Bronze Age]]. {{Citation needed span|Languages of the region such as [[Mysian language|Mysian]] and [[Phrygian language|Phrygian]] are Indo-European but not Anatolian, and are thought to have entered Anatolia from the Balkan peninsula at a later date than the Anatolian languages.|date=January 2025}}

== Extinction ==
Anatolia was heavily [[Hellenization|Hellenized]] following the conquests of [[Alexander the Great]], as well as the previous [[Greek colonisation]], and the native languages of the area ceased to be spoken as a result of assimilation in the subsequent centuries, making Anatolian the first well-attested branch of Indo-European to become extinct. The only other well-known major branch with no living descendants is [[Tocharian languages|Tocharian]], whose attestation ceases in the 8th century AD.

While [[Pisidian language|Pisidian]] inscriptions date until the second century AD, the poorly-attested [[Isaurian language]], which was probably a late [[Luwic]] dialect, appears to have been the last of the Anatolian languages to become extinct.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Frank R. Trombley |title=The Chronicle of Pseudo-Joshua the Stylite |last2=John W. Watt |publisher=Liverpool University Press |year=2000 |page=12}}</ref><ref name="Isaurian incident">{{Cite book |last=Linda Honey |title=Violence in Late Antiquity: Perceptions and practices |publisher=Ashgate |year=2006 |page=50 |chapter=Justifiably Outraged or Simply Outrageous? The Isaurian incident of Ammianus Marcellinus 14.2}}</ref> Epigraphic evidence, including funerary inscriptions dating from as late as the 5th century, has been found by archaeologists.<ref name="Isaurian incident" />

Personal names with Anatolian etymologies are known from the Hellenistic and Roman era and may have outlasted the languages they came from. Examples include [[Cilicia]]n Ταρκυνδβερρας ''Tarku-ndberras'' "assistance of [[Tarḫunz]]", [[Isauria]]n Ουαξαμοας ''Ouaxamoas < *Waksa-muwa'' "power of blessing(?)", and [[Lycaonian language|Lycaonian]] Πιγραμος ''Pigramos'' "resplendent, mighty" (cf. [[Carian language|Carian]] 𐊷𐊹𐊼𐊥𐊪𐊸 ''Pikrmś,'' [[Luwian language|Luwian]] ''pīhramma/i-'').<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Valério |first=Miguel |date=2015 |title=Linear A du-pu2-re, Hittite Tabarna and Their Alleged Relatives Revisited |url=https://www.academia.edu/4985252 |journal=Journal of Language Relationship |language=en |volume=13 |issue=3–4 |pages=329–354 |doi=10.31826/jlr-2016-133-409 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Melchert |first=H. Craig |title=Naming Practices in Second and First Millennium Western Anatolia |url=https://linguistics.ucla.edu/people/Melchert/Naming%20Practices%20in%20Second%20and%20First%20Millennium%20Western%20Anatolia%20adjusted.pdf |via=linguistics.ucla.edu}}</ref>

Several [[Ancient Greek]] words are suggested to be [[Pre-Greek substrate#Anatolian loanwords|Anatolian borrowings]], for example:
*''Apóllōn'' (Doric: ''Apéllōn'', Cypriot: ''Apeílōn''), from *''Apeljōn'', as in [[Hittite language|Hittite]] ''Appaliunaš'';<ref>{{Cite web |last=Beekes |first=Roberts S. P. |year=2010 |title=Etymological Dictionary of Greek: The Pre-Greek Loanwords in Greek |url=http://dictionaries.brillonline.com/greek |publisher=Brill |pages=1–21}}</ref>
* ''dépas'' 'cup; pot, vessel', Mycenaean ''di-pa'', from [[Hieroglyphic Luwian]] ''ti-pa-s'' 'sky; bowl, cup' (cf. Hittite ''nēpis'' 'sky; cup');
* ''eléphās'' 'ivory', from Hittite ''laḫpa'' (itself from Mesopotamia; cf. [[Phoenician language|Phoenician]] ''ʾlp'', [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] ''ꜣbw'');
* ''kýanos'' 'dark blue glaze; enamel', from Hittite ''kuwannan-'' 'copper ore; azurite' (ultimately from [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]] ''kù-an'');
* ''kýmbachos'' 'helmet', from Hittite ''kupaḫi'' 'headgear';
* ''kýmbalon'' 'cymbal', from Hittite ''ḫuḫupal'' 'wooden percussion instrument';
* ''mólybdos'' 'lead', Mycenaean ''mo-ri-wo-do'', from *''mork<sup>w</sup>-io-'' 'dark', as in [[Lydian language|Lydian]] ''mariwda(ś)-k'' 'the dark ones';
* ''óbryza'' 'vessel for refining gold', from Hittite ''ḫuprušḫi'' 'vessel';
* ''tolýpē'' 'ball of wool', from Hittite ''taluppa'' 'lump'/'clod' (or [[Cuneiform Luwian]] ''taluppa/i'').<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hajnal |first1=Ivo |last2=Posch |first2=Claudia |year=2009 |title=Graeco-Anatolian Contacts in the Mycenaean Period |url=https://www.academia.edu/1822403 |website=Sprachwissenschaft Innsbruck Institut für Sprachen und Literaturen}}</ref>

A few words in the [[Armenian language]] have been also suggested as possible borrowings from Hittite or Luwian, such as Arm. զուռնա ''zuṙna'' (compare Luwian ''zurni'' "horn").<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Greppin |first=John A. C. |date=1991 |title=The Survival of Ancient Anatolian and Mesopotamian Vocabulary until the Present |journal=Journal of Near Eastern Studies |volume=50 |issue=3 |pages=203–207 |doi=10.1086/373501 |jstor=546019|s2cid=162282522 }}</ref><ref>Martirosyan, Hrach (2017). "Notes on Anatolian loanwords in Armenian." In Pavel S. Avetisyan, Yervand H. Grekyan (eds.), ''Bridging times and spaces: papers in ancient Near Eastern, Mediterranean and Armenian studies: Honouring Gregory E. Areshian on the occasion of his sixty-fifth birthday.'' Oxford: Archaeopress, 293–306.</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Asia}}
* [[Armenian hypothesis]]
* [[Tree model]]
* [[Urheimat]]
* [[Galatian language|Galatian]], a Celtic language spoken in Anatolia

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

=== Sources ===
* {{Cite book |last=Fortson |first=Benjamin W |title=Indo-European Language and Culture: An introduction |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |year=2010 |edition=2nd |series=Blackwell textbooks in linguistics |location=Chichester, U.K.; Malden, MA |id=19}}
* {{Cite book |last=Keen |first=Anthony G. |title=Dynastic Lycia: A political history of the Lycians & their relations with foreign powers, c. 545–362 BC |publisher=Brill |year=1998 |series=Mnemosyne: bibliotheca classica Batavia. Supplementum |location=Leiden; Boston; Köln |orig-year=1992}}
*{{Cite book |last=Kloekhorst |first=Alwin |title=The Indo-European Language Family: A Phylogenetic Perspective |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2022 |isbn=978-1-108-49979-8 |editor-last=Olander |editor-first=Thomas |location=Cambridge |chapter=Anatolian |doi=10.1017/9781108758666 |s2cid=161016819 |author-link=Alwin Kloekhorst}}
* {{Citation |last=Luraghi |first=Silvia |title=The Indo-European Languages |year=1998 |editor-last=Ramat |editor-first=Anna Giacalone |orig-year=1993 |series=Routledge Language Family Descriptions |contribution=The Anatolian Languages |place=London; New York |publisher=Routledge |editor2-last=Ramat |editor2-first=Paolo}}. Originally published as ''Le Lingue Indoeuropee''.
* {{Cite web |last=Melchert |first=H. Craig |year=2012 |title=The Position of Anatolian |url=http://www.linguistics.ucla.edu/people/Melchert/The%20Position%20of%20AnatolianRevised3.pdf}}
* {{Cite web |last=Melchert |first=H. Craig |year=2016 |title=Luwian |url=http://linguistics.ucla.edu/people/Melchert/melchertChapter14Luwian.pdf}}
* {{Cite book |last=Rieken |first=Elisabeth |title=Comparative Indo-European Linguistics |pages=298–308 |year=2017 |editor-last=Fritz |editor-first=Mathias |series=Handbooks of Linguistics and Communication Science |contribution=The dialectology of Anatolian |place=Berlin; New York |publisher=de Gruyter Mouton |editor2-last=Joseph |editor2-first=Brian |editor3-last=Klein |editor3-first=Jared}}
* {{Cite book |last=Payne |first=Annick |title=Hieroglyphic Luwian: An Introduction with original Texts |publisher=Harrassowitz |year=2010 |edition=2nd revised |series=SILO: Subsidia et Instrumenta Linguarum Orientis |location=Wiesbaden}}
* {{Cite book |last=Yakubovich |first=Ilya |title=The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Anatolia |pages=534–547 |year=2011 |editor-last=Steadman |editor-first=Sharon R. |contribution=Luwian and the Luwians |place=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |editor2-last=McMahon |editor2-first=Gregory}}

== Further reading ==
* {{Cite web |last=Kroonen |first=Guus |author2=Gojko Barjamovic |author3=Michaël Peyrot |date=2018 |title=Linguistic supplement to Damgaard et al. 2018: Early Indo-European languages, Anatolian, Tocharian and Indo-Iranian |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1240524 |pages=3–7|doi=10.5281/zenodo.1240524 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Mallory |first=J.P. |url=https://archive.org/details/insearchofindoeu00jpma |title=In Search of the Indo-Europeans |publisher=Thames and Hudson |year=1989 |location=London |url-access=registration}}
* {{Cite book |last=Patri |first=Sylvain |title=L'alignement syntaxique dans les langues indo-européennes d'Anatolie |publisher=Otto Harrassowitz |year=2007 |isbn=978-3-447-05612-0 |series=[[Studien zu den Bogazkoy-Texten]] 49 |location=Wiesbaden}}
* {{Cite journal |last=Steiner |first=G. |year=1990 |title=The immigration of the first Indo-Europeans into Anatolia reconsidered |journal=Journal of Indo-European Studies |volume=18 |pages=185–214}}

== External links ==
* {{Cite web |title=Digital etymological-philological Dictionary of the Ancient Anatolian Corpus Languages (eDiAna) |url=http://www.ediana.gwi.uni-muenchen.de |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170225141334/https://www.ediana.gwi.uni-muenchen.de/ |archive-date=25 February 2017 |access-date=18 February 2017 |publisher=[[Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München]]}}
* {{Cite web |title=Luwian |url=http://www.ancientscripts.com/luwian.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120204033540/http://www.ancientscripts.com/luwian.html |archive-date=2012-02-04 |access-date=7 February 2012 |publisher=ancientscripts.com}}
* {{Cite web |last1=Justus |first1=Carol |last2=Slocum |first2=Jonathan |title=Indo-European Languages: Anatolian Family |url=http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/iedocctr/ie-lg/Anatolian.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120205215306/http://www.utexas.edu/cola/centers/lrc/iedocctr/ie-lg/Anatolian.html |archive-date=5 February 2012 |access-date=7 February 2012 |publisher=[[University of Texas at Austin]]}}
* {{Cite web |last=Melchert |first=H. Craig |title=Anatolian Databases |url=http://www.linguistics.ucla.edu/people/Melchert/webpage/AnatolianDatabases.htm |access-date=7 February 2012 |publisher=[[UCLA]]}} [[Luwian]], [[Lycian language|Lycian]] and [[Lydian language|Lydian]].
* {{Cite web |last=Lauffenburger |first=Olivier |year=2006 |title=The Hittite Grammar Homepage |url=http://www.premiumwanadoo.com/cuneiform.languages/index_en.php?page=accueil |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110520043043/http://www.premiumwanadoo.com/cuneiform.languages/index_en.php?page=accueil |archive-date=2011-05-20}}

{{Indo-European languages}}
{{Anatolian languages}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Anatolian Languages}}
[[Category:Indo-European languages]]
[[Category:Anatolian languages| ]]