Editing Anarcho-primitivism

{{short description|Anarchist critique of civilization}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2022}}
{{green anarchism|schools}}
'''Anarcho-primitivism''' is an [[anarchist]] critique of [[civilization]] that advocates a return to non-civilized ways of life through [[deindustrialization]], abolition of the [[division of labor]] or specialization, abandonment of large-scale organization and all [[technology]] other than [[prehistoric technology]], and the dissolution of agriculture. Anarcho-primitivists critique the origins and alleged progress of the [[Industrial Revolution]] and [[industrial society]].{{Sfn|el-Ojeili|Taylor|2020|pp=169-170}} Most anarcho-primitivists advocate for a tribal-like way of life while some see an even simpler lifestyle as beneficial. According to anarcho-primitivists, the shift from [[hunter-gatherer]] to [[agricultural subsistence]] during the [[Neolithic Revolution]] gave rise to [[coercion]], [[social alienation]], and [[social stratification]].{{Sfn|Jeihouni|Maleki|2016|p=67}}

Anarcho-primitivism argues that civilization is at the root of societal and environmental problems.{{Sfn|Aaltola|2010|p=164}} Primitivists also consider domestication, technology and language to cause social alienation from "authentic reality". As a result, they propose the abolition of civilization and a return to a hunter-gatherer lifestyle.{{Sfn|Aaltola|2010|p=166}}

==Roots==
The roots of primitivism lay in [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment philosophy]] and the [[critical theory]] of the [[Frankfurt School]].{{Sfn|Aaltola|2010|pp=166-167}} The early-modern philosopher [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] blamed [[agriculture]] and [[cooperation]] for the development of [[social inequality]] and causing [[habitat destruction]].{{Sfn|Aaltola|2010|pp=166-167}} In his ''[[Discourse on Inequality]]'', Rousseau depicted the [[state of nature]] as a "[[primitive communism|primitivist utopia]]";{{Sfn|Long|2013|pp=218-219}} however, he stopped short of advocating a return to it.{{Sfnm|1a1=Long|1y=2013|1pp=218-219|2a1=Marshall|2y=2008|2p=124}} Instead, he called for political institutions to be recreated anew, in harmony with nature and without the artificiality of modern civilization.{{Sfnm|1a1=Long|1y=2013|1pp=218-219|2a1=Marshall|2y=2008|2p=15}} Later, critical theorist [[Max Horkheimer]] argued that [[environmental degradation]] stemmed directly from [[social oppression]], which had [[Labor theory of value|vested all value in labor]] and consequently caused widespread [[Marx's theory of alienation|alienation]].{{Sfn|Aaltola|2010|pp=166-167}}

==Development==
[[File:John_Zerzan,_2010_(cropped).jpg|thumb|right|[[John Zerzan]], the main theoretical proponent of anarcho-primitivism]]
The modern school of anarcho-primitivism was primarily developed by [[John Zerzan]],{{Sfnm|1a1=Aaltola|1y=2010|1pp=164-165|2a1=Price|2y=2012|2pp=240-241|3a1=Price|3y=2019|3p=289}} whose work was released at a time when [[green anarchism|green anarchist]] theories of [[social ecology (Bookchin)|social]] and [[deep ecology]] were beginning to attract interest. Primitivism, as outlined in Zerzan's work, first gained popularity as enthusiasm in deep ecology began to wane.{{Sfn|Price|2012|pp=240-241}}

Zerzan claimed that pre-civilization societies were inherently superior to modern civilization and that the move towards agriculture and the increasing use of technology had resulted in the alienation and oppression of humankind.{{Sfnm|1a1=Price|1y=2012|1pp=240-241|2a1=Price|2y=2019|2p=289}} Zerzan argued that under civilization, humans and other species have undergone [[domestication]], which stripped them of their agency and subjected them to control by [[capitalism]]. He also claimed that [[language]], [[mathematics]] and [[art]] had caused [[Social alienation|alienation]], as they replaced "authentic reality" with an abstracted representation of reality.{{Sfn|Aaltola|2010|pp=164-165}} In order to counteract such issues, Zerzan proposed that humanity return to a [[state of nature]], which he believed would increase [[social equality]] and individual [[autonomy]] by abolishing [[private property]], [[Monopoly on violence|organized violence]] and the [[division of labour]].{{Sfn|Aaltola|2010|p=165}}

Primitivist thinker [[Paul Shepard]] also criticized domestication, which he believed had devalued non-human life and reduced human life to their labor and property. Other primitivist authors have drawn different conclusions to Zerzan on the origins of alienation, with John Fillis blaming [[technology]] and [[Richard Heinberg]] claiming it to be a result of [[addiction psychology]].{{Sfn|Aaltola|2010|p=166}}

==Adoption and practice==
Primitivist ideas were taken up by the [[eco-terrorism|eco-terrorist]] [[Ted Kaczynski]], although he has been repeatedly criticised for his violent means by more pacifistic anarcho-primitivists, who instead advocate for non-violent forms of [[direct action]].{{Sfn|Aaltola|2010|p=167}} Primitivist concepts have also taken root within the philosophy of [[deep ecology]], inspiring the direct actions of groups such as [[Earth First!]].{{Sfn|Aaltola|2010|pp=167-170}} Another radical environmentalist group, the [[Earth Liberation Front]] (ELF), was directly influenced by anarcho-primitivism and its calls for rewilding.{{Sfn|Humphrey|2013|p=298}}

Primitivists and green anarchists have adopted the concept of ecological [[rewilding]] as part of their practice, i.e., using reclaimed skills and methods to work towards a sustainable future while undoing institutions of civilization.{{sfn|Etherington|2024|p=246}}

Anarcho-primitivist periodicals include ''Green Anarchy'' and ''Species Traitor''. The former, self-described as an "anti-civilization journal of theory and action" and printed in [[Eugene, Oregon]], was first published in 2000 and expanded from a 16-page newsprint tabloid to a 76-page magazine covering [[monkeywrenching]] topics such as pipeline sabotage and animal liberation. ''Species Traitor'', edited by Kevin Tucker, is self-described as "an insurrectionary anarcho-primitivist journal", with essays against literacy and for hunter gatherer societies. Adjacent periodicals include the radical environmental journal ''Earth First!''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dodge |first=Chris |title=Apocalypse Soon? |url=https://www.utne.com/community/streetlibrarianapocalypsesoon/ |work=[[Utne Reader|Utne]] |issue=136 |pages=38–39 |date=July 2006 |id={{ProQuest|217426998}} |issn=1544-2225 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Politics|Socialism|Anarchism}}

{{div col|colwidth=16em}}
* [[Abecedarians]], religious sect supposedly opposed to learning
* [[Agrarian socialism]]
* [[Anti-modernization]]
* [[Back-to-the-land movement]]
* [[Degrowth]]
* [[Doomer]]
* [[Earth liberation]]
* [[Ecofeminism]]
* [[Ecofascism]]
* [[Eco-socialism]]
* [[Ecoterrorism]]
* [[Environmental ethics]]
* [[Evolutionary psychology]]
* [[Freedomites]]
* [[Individualists Tending to the Wild]]
* [[Jacques Camatte]]
* [[National Anarchism]]
* [[Neo-Luddism]]
* [[Neo-tribalism]]
* [[Noble savage]]
* [[Primitive communism]]
* [[Romanticism]]
* [[Solarpunk]]
* [[Survivalism]]
{{div col end}}

== Notes ==
{{reflist|2}}

== Bibliography ==
{{refbegin|2}}
* {{cite book|last=Aaltola|first=Elisa|year=2010|chapter=Green Anarchy: Deep Ecology and Primitivism|editor-first1=Benjamin|editor-last1=Franks|editor-first2=Matthew|editor-last2=Wilson|title=Anarchism and Moral Philosophy|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|pages=161–185|doi=10.1057/9780230289680_9|isbn=978-0-230-28968-0}}
* {{Cite thesis|last=Becker|first=Michael|year=2010|title=Anarcho-Primitivism: The Green Scare in Green Political Theory|url=https://ssrn.com/abstract=1580329|type=Annual Meeting Paper|publisher=Western Political Science Association|pages=1–16}}
* {{cite book |author-last=Cudworth |author-first=Erika |year=2019 |chapter=Farming and Food |editor1-last=Adams |editor1-first=Matthew S. |editor2-last=Levy |editor2-first=Carl |title=The Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism |location=[[Cham, Switzerland]] |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |pages=641–658 |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-75620-2_36 |isbn=978-3-319-75620-2|s2cid=242090793 }}
* {{cite journal|last=Eddebo|first=Johan|year=2017|title=Babylon Will Be Found No More: On Affinities Between Christianity and Anarcho-Primitivism|url=https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/record.jsf?pid=diva2%3A1205588&dswid=-7478|journal=Journal of Religion and Society|issn=1522-5658|volume=19|pages=1–17}}
* {{Cite journal|last1=el-Ojeili|first1=Chamsy|last2=Taylor|first2=Dylan|date=2 April 2020|title="The Future in the Past": Anarcho-primitivism and the Critique of Civilization Today|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/08935696.2020.1727256|journal=Rethinking Marxism|language=en|volume=32|issue=2|pages=168–186|doi=10.1080/08935696.2020.1727256|s2cid=219015323|issn=0893-5696}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Etherington |first1=Ben |title=Is Rewilding Twenty-First-Century Primitivism? |journal=Comparative Literature |volume=76 |issue=2 |pages=240–259 |date=June 2024 |doi=10.1215/00104124-11052901 |issn=0010-4124 |df=mdy-all }}
* {{Cite journal|last=Gardenier|first=Matthijs|date=2016|title= The "anti-tech" movement, between anarcho-primitivism and the neo-luddite|url=https://www.cairn-int.info/journal-societes-2016-1-page-97.htm|journal=Sociétés|volume=131|issue=1|pages=97–106|doi=10.3917/soc.131.0097|issn=0765-3697|url-access=subscription}}
* {{Cite book |last=Humphrey |first=Matthew |title=The Routledge Companion to Social and Political Philosophy |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-415-87456-4 |lccn=2012013795 |editor-last=Gaus |editor-first=Gerald F. |pages=291–302 |chapter=Environmentalism |editor-last2=D'Agostino |editor-first2=Fred}}
* {{Cite journal|last1=Jeihouni|first1=Mojtaba|last2=Maleki|first2=Nasser|date=12 December 2016|title=Far from the madding civilization: Anarcho-primitivism and revolt against disintegration in Eugene O'Neill's The Hairy Ape|url=http://revistas.um.es/ijes/article/view/238911|journal=International Journal of English Studies|volume=16|issue=2|pages=61–80|doi=10.6018/ijes/2016/2/238911|issn=1989-6131|doi-access=free|hdl=10201/51564|hdl-access=free}}
* {{Cite book |last=Long |first=Roderick T. |title=The Routledge Companion to Social and Political Philosophy |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2013 |isbn=978-0-415-87456-4 |lccn=2012013795 |editor-last=Gaus |editor-first=Gerald F. |pages=217–230 |chapter=Anarchism |editor-last2=D'Agostino |editor-first2=Fred}}
* {{cite book|first=Peter H.|last = Marshall|author-link=Peter Marshall (author, born 1946)|title=[[Demanding the Impossible|Demanding the Impossible: A History of Anarchism]]|year=2008|orig-year=1992|location=[[London]]|publisher=[[Harper Perennial]]|isbn=978-0-00-686245-1|oclc=218212571}}
* {{cite book|chapter=Anarchism and Environmental Philosophy|first=Brian|last=Morris|author-link=Brian Morris (anthropologist)|year=2017|location=[[Leiden]]|publisher=[[Brill Publishers|Brill]]|editor-first=Nathan|editor-last=Jun|title=Brill's Companion to Anarchism and Philosophy|isbn=978-90-04-35689-4|pages=369–400|doi=10.1163/9789004356894_015|url=https://brill.com/view/title/35861}} 
* {{cite journal|last=Moore|first=John|author-link=John Moore (American author)|year=1995|title=An Archaeology of the Future: Ursula Le Guin and Anarcho-Primitivism|journal=[[Foundation (journal)|Foundation]]|url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/1312027489|issn=0306-4964|pages=32|id={{ProQuest|1312027489}} }}
* {{cite book|last=Parson|first=Sean |chapter=Ecocentrism |editor-last1=Franks |editor-first1=Benjamin |editor-last2=Jun |editor-first2=Nathan |editor-last3=Williams |editor-first3=Leonard |year=2018 |title=Anarchism: A Conceptual Approach |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-138-92565-6 |lccn=2017044519 |pages=219–233}} 
* {{cite book|last=Price|first=Andy|year=2012|chapter=Social Ecology|editor-first=Ruth|editor-last=Kinna|editor-link=Ruth Kinna|title=The Continuum Companion to Anarchism|publisher=[[Continuum International Publishing Group]]|isbn=978-1-4411-4270-2|pages=231–249}}
* {{cite book |author-last=Price |author-first=Andy |year=2019 |chapter=Green Anarchism |editor1-last=Adams |editor1-first=Matthew S. |editor2-last=Levy |editor2-first=Carl |title=The Palgrave Handbook of Anarchism |location=[[Cham, Switzerland]] |publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]] |pages=281–291 |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-75620-2_16 |isbn=978-3-319-75620-2|s2cid=242090793 |chapter-url=https://www.palgrave.com/us/book/9783319756196 }}
* {{cite book|last=Purkis|first=Johnathan|year=2012|chapter=The Hitchhiker as Theorist: Rethinking Sociology and Anthropology from an Anarchist Perspective|editor-first=Ruth|editor-last=Kinna|editor-link=Ruth Kinna|title=The Continuum Companion to Anarchism|publisher=[[Continuum International Publishing Group]]|isbn=978-1-4411-4270-2|pages=140–161}}
* {{cite journal|last1=Shakoor|first1=Abdul|last2=Ahmad|first2=Mustanir|year=2022|title=Anarcho-Primitivism in D.H. Lawrence's Post War Fiction: An Eco-Critical Analysis|url=https://pjsr.com.pk/ojs/index.php/PJSR/article/view/782|journal=Pakistan Journal of Social Research|volume=4|issue=4|doi=10.52567/pjsr.v4i04.782|issn=2710-3137|pages=10–17|s2cid=254323210 |doi-access=free}}
* {{cite journal|last=Smith|first=Mick|year=2002|title=The State of Nature: The Political Philosophy of Primitivism and the Culture of Contamination|url=https://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/whp/ev/2002/00000011/00000004/art00002|journal=[[Environmental Values]]|volume=11|issue=4|pages=407–425|doi=10.3197/096327102129341154|bibcode=2002EnvV...11..407S |issn=1752-7015}}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
<!-- Comment with which reliable source cited this work -->
{{refbegin|2}}
* {{cite web|last=Filiss|first=John|year=2002|title=What is Primitivism?|url=http://www.primitivism.com/what-is-primitivism.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190730185307/http://www.primitivism.com/what-is-primitivism.htm|archive-date=30 July 2019|website=Primitivism}} <!-- Cited by Aaltola 2010 -->
* {{cite book|last=Sheppard|first=Brian Oliver|year=2008|orig-year=2003|title=Anarchism vs Primitivism|location=[[London]]|publisher=Active Distribution|oclc=1291401071}} <!-- Cited by Aaltola 2010 -->
* {{cite book|editor1-link=John Zerzan|editor-last1=Zerzan|editor-first1=John|editor-last2=Carnes|editor-first2=Alice|title=Questioning Technology|url=https://archive.org/details/questioningtechnologyacriticalanthology|isbn=0-86571-205-0|publisher=New Society Publishers|year=1991}} <!-- Cited by Price 2012 and Price 2019. -->
* {{cite book|author-link=John Zerzan|last=Zerzan|first=John|year=1994|title=Future Primitive and Other Essays|title-link=Future Primitive and Other Essays|publisher=[[Autonomedia]]|isbn=1-57027-000-7}} <!-- Cited by Cudworth 2019, Long 2013, Parson 2018, Price 2012 and Price 2019. -->
* {{cite book|author-link=John Zerzan|last=Zerzan|first=John|title=Elements of Refusal|url=https://archive.org/details/ElementsofRefusal/|orig-year=1988|edition=Revised|publisher=Columbia Alternative Library Press|year=1999|isbn=1-890532-01-0}} <!-- Cited by Parson 2018, Price 2012 and Price 2019. -->
* {{cite web|last=Zerzan|first=John|author-link=John Zerzan|year=2001|title=Language: Origin and Meaning|website=Primitivism|url=http://www.primitivism.com/language.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190913185221/http://www.primitivism.com/language.htm|archive-date=13 September 2019}} <!-- Cited by Aaltola 2010 -->
* {{cite book|last=Zerzan|first=John|author-link=John Zerzan|year=2002|title=Running on Emptiness: The Pathology of Civilization|location=[[Los Angeles]]|publisher=[[Feral House]]}} <!-- Cited by Aaltola 2010 -->
* {{cite book|editor-last=Zerzan|editor-first=John|editor-link=John Zerzan|year=2005|title=Against Civilization|location=[[Los Angeles]]|publisher=[[Feral House]]}} <!-- Cited by Aaltola 2010 and Humphrey 2013. -->
*{{cite book|last=Zerzan|first=John|author-link=John Zerzan|year=2008|title=Twilight of the Machines|location=[[Los Angeles]]|publisher=[[Feral House]]|isbn=978-1-932595-31-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xi-ePQopZAgC}} <!-- Cited by D'Amato 2021 -->
{{refend}}

==External links==
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