Editing American robin

{{Short description|Species of bird}}
{{Good article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2014}}
{{Speciesbox
| fossil_range = {{Fossil range|Late Pleistocene | present}}
| status = LC
| status_system = IUCN3.1
| status_ref = <ref name=IUCN>{{cite iucn |author=BirdLife International | author-link=BirdLife International |year=2021 |title=''Turdus migratorius'' |page=e.T103889499A139392811 |doi=10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-3.RLTS.T103889499A139392811.en |access-date=22 March 2022}}</ref>
| status2 = G5
| status2_system = TNC
| status2_ref = <ref name=NS>{{cite web |title=''Turdus migratorius'' |url=https://explorer.natureserve.org/Taxon/ELEMENT_GLOBAL.2.102179/Turdus_migratorius |website=[[NatureServe]] Explorer |access-date=8 September 2024}}</ref>
| image = American robin (71307).jpg
| image_caption = Nominate ''T. m. migratorius'', male, Brooklyn, New York
| image2 = American Robin (Female) (8234762055).jpg
| image2_caption = ''T. m. achrusterus'', female, Florida
| genus = Turdus
| species = migratorius
| authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1766<!--"in America ''septentrionali''" -->
| range_map = Turdus migratorius map.svg
| range_map_caption = {{leftlegend|#ff9955|Breeding range|outline=gray}}{{leftlegend|#8d5fd3|Year-round range|outline=gray}}{{leftlegend|#87aade|Wintering range|outline=gray}}
| synonyms = *''Merula migratoria''
*''Planesticus migratorius''
}}
[[File:Robin sings.ogv|thumb|Video of a male robin singing]]
[[File:Turdus-migratorius-003.ogg|thumb|American robin song (with a [[Black-capped Chickadee]] in background)]]

The '''American robin''' ('''''Turdus migratorius''''') is a [[Bird migration|migratory bird]] of the [[true thrush]] genus and Turdidae, the wider [[Thrush (bird)|thrush]] family. It is named after the [[European robin]]<ref>{{cite book | last1=McCrum | first1=Robert |last2=Cran |first2=William |last3=MacNeil |first3=Robert |year=1992 |title=The Story of English  |publisher=Faber and Faber |page=123 |isbn=0-571-16443-9}}</ref> because of its reddish-orange breast, though the two species are not closely related, with the European robin belonging to the [[Old World flycatcher]] family. The American robin is widely distributed throughout North America, wintering from southern Canada to central Mexico and along the Pacific coast.

According to the Partners in Flight database (2019), the American robin is the most abundant landbird in North America (with 370{{nbsp}}million individuals), ahead of [[red-winged blackbird]]s, introduced [[Common starling|European starlings]], [[mourning dove]]s and [[house finch]]es.<ref>{{cite web |title=Population Estimates |series=Avian Conservation Assessment and Population Estimates Databases |website=birdconservancy.org |publisher=Partners in Flight Databases |url=https://pif.birdconservancy.org/population-estimate-database-scores/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029222349/https://pif.birdconservancy.org/population-estimate-database-scores/ |archive-date=29 October 2021}}</ref> It has seven subspecies.

The species is active mostly during the day and assembles in large flocks at night. Its diet consists of invertebrates (such as beetle [[Larva|grub]]s, earthworms, and caterpillars), fruits, and berries.<ref>{{cite web |title=American Robin Life History |url=https://www.allaboutbirds.org/guide/American_Robin/lifehistory |website=All About Birds |publisher=Cornell Lab of Ornithology |access-date=9 March 2025}}</ref> It is one of the earliest bird species to lay its eggs, beginning to breed shortly after returning to its summer range from its winter range. The robin's nest consists of long coarse grass, twigs, paper, and feathers, and is smeared with mud and often cushioned with grass or other soft materials. It is among the earliest birds to sing at dawn, and its song consists of several discrete units that are repeated.

The adult's main predator is the domestic cat; other predators include hawks and snakes. When feeding in flocks, it can be vigilant, watching other birds for reactions to predators. [[Brown-headed cowbird]]s (''Molothrus ater'') lay their eggs in robin nests (see [[brood parasite]]), but the robins usually reject the egg.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2021/01/29/science/robin-eggs-nest.html |title=How an Eight-Sided 'Egg' Ended Up in a Robin's Nest |first=Veronique |last=Greenwood |newspaper=The New York Times |date=29 January 2021}}</ref>

== Taxonomy ==

This species was first described in 1766 by [[Carl Linnaeus]] in the [[12th edition of Systema Naturae|twelfth edition]] of his ''[[Systema Naturae]]'' as ''Turdus migratorius''.<ref>{{cite book | last=Linnaeus | first=C | author-link=Carl Linnaeus | title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis. Tomus I. Editio duodecima, reformata. | publisher=Holmiae. (Laurentii Salvii). | year=1766| page=292 |language=la |url=https://archive.org/details/carolialinnequit11linn/page/n295/mode/2up?view=theater}}</ref> The binomial name derives from two [[Latin]] words: ''{{linktext|turdus}}'', "thrush", and ''{{linktext|migratorius}}'' from ''{{linktext|migrare|lang=la}}'' "to migrate". The term ''{{linktext|robin}}'' for this species has been recorded since at least 1703.<ref name="OED"/> 

A 2020 genetic study has shown that the American robin is closest to the [[rufous-collared thrush]] (''T. rufitorques'') of Central America,<ref name="Batista">{{cite journal | last=Batista | first=Romina | last2=Olsson | first2=Urban | last3=Andermann | first3=Tobias | last4=Aleixo | first4=Alexandre | last5=Ribas | first5=Camila Cherem | last6=Antonelli | first6=Alexandre | title=Phylogenomics and biogeography of the world's thrushes (Aves, Turdus ): new evidence for a more parsimonious evolutionary history | journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences | volume=287 | issue=1919 | date=2020-01-29 | issn=0962-8452 | pmid=31964299 | pmc=7015335 | doi=10.1098/rspb.2019.2400 | doi-access=free | page=20192400}}</ref> confirming a 2007 study which also placed this as its closest relative.<ref name="Voelker">{{cite journal |vauthors=Voelker G, Rohwer S, Bowie RC, Outlaw DC |year=2007|title=Molecular systematics of a speciose, cosmopolitan songbird genus: Defining the limits of, and relationships among, the ''Turdus'' thrushes |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |volume=42|pages=422–34 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2006.07.016 |pmid=16971142 |issue=2|bibcode=2007MolPE..42..422V }}</ref> Though having distinct plumage, the two species are similar in [[Bird vocalization|vocalization]] and behavior.<ref name= Clement/> Beyond this, it lies in a group of other Central American thrushes, suggesting a recent spread northwards into North America; the 2007 study suggested [[rufous-backed thrush]] (''T. rufopalliatus''; not included in the 2020 study) as the next closest relative,<ref name="Voelker"/> with both studies giving the next-closest relatives beyond this trio as the species pair of [[black thrush]] (''T. infuscatus'') and [[sooty thrush]] (''T. nigrescens''), also of Central America.<ref name="Voelker"/><ref name="Batista"/>

These results contrast markedly with two older studies of the [[Mitochondrion|mitochondrial]] [[cytochrome b]] [[gene]] which had suggested, though only with weak support,<ref name=Klicka/> that the American robin might be more closely related to the [[Kurrichane thrush]] (''T. libonyanus'') and the [[olive thrush]] (''T. olivaceus''), both African species, rather than other American thrushes.<ref name=Ornis>{{cite journal |author=Qiao-Wa Pan |author2=Fu-Min Lei |author3=Zuo-Hua Yin |author4=Anton Kristin |author5=Peter Kaņuch |year=2007 |title=Phylogenetic relationships between ''Turdus'' species: Mitochondrial cytochrome b gene analysis |journal=Ornis Fennica |volume=84 |pages=1–11 |url=https://ornisfennica.journal.fi/article/view/133674/82220 |access-date=8 December 2024 |archive-date=29 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029222334/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235446045_Phylogenetic_Relationships_of_Turdus_species_Mitochondrial_Cytochrome_b_Gene_analysis |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=Klicka>{{cite journal |last=Klicka |first=John |author2=Voelker, Gary |author3=Spellman, Garth M. |year=2005 |title=A molecular phylogenetic analysis of the 'true thrushes' (Aves: Turdinae) |journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution |volume=34 |pages=486–500 |doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2004.10.001 |pmid=15683924 |issue=3 |url=http://faculty.unlv.edu/jrodriguez/Klicka2005.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080216094016/http://faculty.unlv.edu/jrodriguez/Klicka2005.pdf |archive-date=16 February 2008 }}</ref>

===Subspecies===
Seven [[subspecies]] are accepted.<ref name="IOC">{{cite web | title=Thrushes | website=IOC World Bird List – Version 14.2 | date=2024-08-17 | url=https://www.worldbirdnames.org/bow/thrushes/ | access-date=2024-12-08}}</ref> These, except for the isolated ''T. m. confinis'', [[Intergradation|intergrade]] with each other and are only weakly defined.<ref name= Clement >{{cite book |title=Thrushes (Helm Identification Guides) |last=Clement |first=Peter |author2=Hathway, Ren |author3= Wilczur, Jan |publisher=Christopher Helm Publishers |year=2000 |isbn=0-7136-3940-7}}</ref>

* ''T. m. nigrideus'' breeds from coastal northern Quebec to Labrador and [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]] and winters from southern Newfoundland south through most of the eastern U.S. states to southern Louisiana, southern Mississippi, and northern Georgia. It is uniformly darker or blackish on the head, with a dark gray back. The underparts are slightly richer red than those of the nominate subspecies.<ref name = Clement/>
* ''T. m. migratorius'', the nominate subspecies, breeds in the U.S. and Canada, other than down the West Coast, to the edge of the [[tundra]] from Alaska and northern Canada east to New England and then south to Maryland, northwestern Virginia, and North Carolina. It winters in southern coastal Alaska, southern Canada, most of the U.S., Bermuda, the Bahamas and eastern Mexico.<ref name = Clement/>
* ''T. m. achrusterus'' breeds from southern Oklahoma east to Maryland and western Virginia and south to northern Florida and the [[Gulf Coast of the United States|Gulf Coast states]]. It winters through much of the southern part of the breeding range. It is marginally smaller than the eastern subspecies. The black feathers of the forehead and crown have pale gray tips. The underparts are paler than those of the eastern subspecies.<ref name = Clement/>
* ''T. m. caurinus'' breeds in southeastern Alaska through coastal British Columbia to Washington and northwestern Oregon. It winters from southwestern British Columbia south to central and southern California and east to northern Idaho. It is slightly smaller than the eastern subspecies and very dark-headed. The white on the tips of the outer two tail feathers is restricted.<ref name = Clement/>
* ''T. m. propinquus'' breeds from southeastern British Columbia, southern Alberta, and southwestern Saskatchewan south to southern California and northern [[Baja California]]. It winters throughout much of the southern breeding range and south to Baja California. It is the same size as, or slightly larger than, the eastern subspecies, but paler and tinged more heavily brownish-gray. It has very little white on the tip of the outermost tail feathers. Some birds, probably females, lack almost any red below. Males are usually darker and may show pale or whitish sides to the head.<ref name = Clement/>
* ''T. m. phillipsi'' is resident in Mexico south to central [[Oaxaca]]. It is slightly smaller than the western subspecies, but has a larger bill; the male's underparts are less brick-red than the eastern subspecies and have a rustier tone.<ref name = Clement/>
* ''T. m. confinis'' breeds above {{cvt|1000|m}} in the [[Sierra de la Laguna]] mountains of southern Baja California. This isolated [[bird migration|non-migratory]] subspecies is particularly distinctive. It is relatively small, and the palest subspecies, with uniform pale gray-brown on the head, face, and upperparts, and pale buffy orange underparts. It usually lacks any white spots to the tips of the outer tail feathers, which have white edges. It has sometimes been classed as a separate species,<ref name="BLI">{{cite web | title=Sierra de La Laguna (Mexico) IBA | website=BirdLife International | url=https://datazone.birdlife.org/site/factsheet/sierra-de-la-laguna-iba-mexico/text | language=es | access-date=2024-12-08}}</ref> but both the [[American Ornithologists' Union]] and the IOC World Bird List regard it as only a subspecies, albeit in a different group from the other six subspecies.<ref name=AOU>{{cite web|title=The A.O.U. Check-list of North American Birds |edition=Seventh |url=http://www.aou.org/checklist/pdf/AOUchecklistPass-Mimidae.pdf |publisher=AOU |access-date=20 January 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080210193627/http://www.aou.org/checklist/pdf/AOUchecklistPass-Mimidae.pdf |archive-date=10 February 2008 |df=dmy }}</ref><ref name="IOC"/>

== Description ==

The eastern subspecies (''T. m. migratorius'') is {{cvt|23|to|28|cm|in}} long with a wingspan ranging from {{convert|31|to|41|cm|in|abbr=on}}, with similar size ranges across all subspecies. The species averages about {{cvt|77|g|oz}} in weight, with males ranging from {{cvt|72|to|94|g|oz}} and females ranging from {{cvt|59|to|91|g|oz}}.<ref name="ADW">{{cite web|last1=Dewey |first1=Tanya |last2=Middleton |first2=Candice |title=''Turdus migratorius'' |url=http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Turdus_migratorius.html |year=2002 |work=Animal Diversity Web |publisher=University of Michigan Museum of Zoology |access-date=19 November 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071124222635/http://animaldiversity.ummz.umich.edu/site/accounts/information/Turdus_migratorius.html |archive-date=24 November 2007 |url-status=live |df=dmy }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=American robin videos, photos and facts – Turdus migratorius |url=http://www.arkive.org/american-robin/turdus-migratorius/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111130024614/http://www.arkive.org/american-robin/turdus-migratorius/ |archive-date=2011-11-30|access-date=2012-08-23}}</ref> Among standard measurements, the [[Wing chord (biology)|wing chord]] is {{cvt|11.5|to|14.5|cm|in}}, the [[Culmen (bird)|culmen]] is {{cvt|1.8|to|2.2|cm|in}} and the [[Tarsus (skeleton)|tarsus]] is {{cvt|2.9|to|3.3|cm|in}}.<ref>Clement, Peter (2001) ''Thrushes''. Princeton University Press. {{ISBN|978-0691088525}}.</ref> The head varies from jet black to gray, with white eye arcs and white [[Supercilium|supercilia]].<ref name=Alderfer>{{cite book |editor-last=Alderfer |editor-first=John |author=Leukering, T. |title=Complete Birds of North America |publisher=National Geographic Society |year=2006 |location=Washington, D.C. |page=492 |isbn=0-7922-4175-4}}</ref> The throat is white with black streaks, and the belly and undertail [[Covert (feather)|covert]]s are white. The adult has a brown back and a reddish-orange breast, varying from a rich red maroon to peachy orange.<ref name="ADW"/> The bill is mainly yellow with a variably dark tip, the dusky area becoming more extensive in winter, and the legs and feet are brown.<ref name=Alderfer/>

The sexes are similar, but females tend to be duller in color than males, with a brown tint to the head, brown upperparts, and less-bright underparts. However, some birds cannot be accurately sexed on the sole basis of [[plumage]].<ref name=Clement/> Juveniles are paler in color than adult males and have dark spots on their breasts<ref name="ADW"/> and whitish wing coverts.<ref name=Alderfer/> First-year birds are not easily distinguishable from adults, but they tend to be duller, with first-year males resembling adult females, and a small percentage retain a few juvenile wing coverts or other feathers.<ref name=Alderfer/>

== Distribution and habitat ==
[[File:Turdus migratorius confinis, Sierra La Laguna, Baja California Sur, Mexico 01.jpg|thumb|left|The most distinctive subspecies is the very pale ''T. m. confinis'', isolated in the Sierra de la Laguna mountains of southern Baja California Sur in Mexico.]]
The species breeds throughout most of North America, from Alaska and Canada southward to northern Florida and Mexico.<ref name="All About Birds">{{cite web|url=http://www.birds.cornell.edu/AllAboutBirds/BirdGuide/American_Robin_dtl.html |author=Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology |title=American Robin |access-date=26 June 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070609170724/http://www.birds.cornell.edu/AllAboutBirds/BirdGuide/American_Robin_dtl.html |archive-date=9 June 2007 |df=dmy }}</ref> While robins occasionally overwinter in the northern part of the United States and southern Canada,<ref name="ADW"/> most migrate to winter south of Canada from Florida and the [[Gulf Coast of the United States|Gulf Coast]] to central Mexico, as well as along the [[Pacific Ocean|Pacific]] Coast.<ref name="All About Birds"/> Most depart south by the end of August and begin to return north in February and March (exact dates vary with latitude and climate). The distance by which they migrate varies significantly depending on their initial habitat; a study found that individual robins tagged in Alaska are known to travel as much as 3.5 times further across seasons than robins tagged in Massachusetts.<ref name="First tracking of individual American Robins (Turdus migratorius)">{{cite web |url=https://apps.webofknowledge.com/full_record.do?product=WOS&search_mode=GeneralSearch&qid=6&SID=7EymeRQ4fvknL4VQBga&page=1&doc=2 |title=Web of Science |author=Wilson Journal of Ornithology |df=dmy |access-date=30 April 2020 |archive-date=29 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029222401/https://access.clarivate.com/login?app=wos&alternative=true&shibShireURL=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.webofknowledge.com%2F%3Fauth%3DShibboleth&shibReturnURL=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.webofknowledge.com%2F&roaming=true}}</ref>

The species is a rare [[Vagrancy (biology)|vagrant]] to western Europe, where the majority of records have been in Great Britain, where 29 had been recorded up to the end of 2022.<ref name=Clement/><ref name="BB116">{{cite journal |last1=Bacon |first1=L. |last2=French |first2=P. |author3=The Rarities Committee |title=Report on rare birds in Great Britain in 2022 |journal=British Birds |date=2023 |volume=116 |issue=10 |page=587}}</ref> The species has occurred as a vagrant to Greenland, Sweden, Jamaica, [[Hispaniola]], Puerto Rico and Belize. Vagrants to Europe, where identified to subspecies, are the eastern subspecies (''T. m. migratorius''), but the Greenland birds included the Newfoundland subspecies (''T. m. nigrideus''), and some of the southern overshots may have been the southern subspecies (''T. m. achrusterus'').<ref name=Clement/>

The breeding habitat is woodland and more open farmland and urban areas. It becomes less common as a breeder in the southernmost part of the [[Deep South]] of the United States and there prefers large shade trees on lawns.<ref name="Bull87"/> Its winter habitat is similar but includes more open areas.<ref name =Clement/>

=== Diseases ===

The species is a known reservoir (carrier) for [[West Nile virus]] spread by ''[[Culex]]'' mosquitoes. While crows and [[jay]]s are often the first noticed deaths in an area with West Nile virus, the American robin is suspected to be a key host and holds a larger responsibility for the transmission of the virus to humans. This is because, while crows and jays die quickly from the virus, the American robin survives the virus longer, hence spreading it to more mosquitoes, which then transmit the virus to humans and other species.<ref name =NationalScienceFoundation2009>National Science Foundation: West Nile Virus: The Search for Answers in Chicago's Suburbs</ref><ref name =ScienceNews>[https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/02/090220191318.htm Diversity Of Birds Buffer Against West Nile Virus] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180901044643/https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/02/090220191318.htm |date=1 September 2018 }}. Sciencedaily.com (6 March 2009). Retrieved on 2012-08-23.</ref>

A successful West Nile virus vaccine has been administered to six 3-5 week old American robins. A [[DNA vaccine]] injected [[Intramuscular injection|intramuscularly]] resulted in a 400-fold decrease in average [[viral load]] that would likely make robins noninfectious and unable to spread disease. An oral bait is the preferred method of distribution of the vaccine as it would be easier and cheaper than intramuscular injection, but more research would be needed as the existing formulation did not work orally.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kilpatrick |first1=A. Marm |last2=Dupuis |first2=Alan P. |last3=Chang |first3=Gwong-Jen J. |last4=Kramer |first4=Laura D. |date=May 2010 |title=DNA Vaccination of American Robins (''Turdus migratorius'') Against West Nile Virus |journal=Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases |language=en |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=377–380 |doi=10.1089/vbz.2009.0029 |issn=1530-3667 |pmc=2883478 |pmid=19874192}}</ref>

== Behavior ==

The American robin is active mostly during the day, and on its winter grounds, it assembles in large flocks at night to roost in trees in secluded swamps or dense vegetation. The flocks break up during the day when the birds feed on fruits and berries in smaller groups. During the summer, males defend a breeding territory and are less social.<ref name="ADW"/>

=== Diet ===

The diet generally consists of around 40 percent small invertebrates (mainly insects), such as earthworms, beetle [[Larva|grub]]s, caterpillars, and grasshoppers, and 60 percent wild and cultivated fruits and berries.<ref name="ADW"/> Their ability to switch to berries allows them to winter much farther north than most other North American thrushes. They will flock to fermented ''[[Pyracantha]]'' berries, and after eating sufficient quantities will exhibit intoxicated behavior, such as falling over while walking. Robins forage primarily on the ground for soft-bodied invertebrates, and find worms by sight (and sometimes by hearing),<ref name= montgomerie/>{{rp|149}} pouncing on them and then pulling them up.<ref name="All About Birds"/> Nestlings are fed mainly on earthworms and other soft-bodied animal prey. In some areas, robins, particularly of the northwestern subspecies (''T. m. caurinus''), will feed on beaches, taking insects and small mollusks.<ref name = Clement/> American robins are common [[avian pest|pests]] of [[fruit orchard]]s in North America.<ref name="Rio-et-al-1992">{{cite journal | last1=Martínez del Rio | first1=C. | last2=Baker | first2=H. G. | last3=Baker | first3=I. | title=Ecological and evolutionary implications of digestive processes: Bird preferences and the sugar constituents of floral nectar and fruit pulp | journal=[[Experientia]] | publisher=[[Birkhäuser]] | volume=48 | issue=6 | year=1992 | issn=0014-4754 | doi=10.1007/bf01920237 | pages=544–551 | s2cid=25707787}}</ref> Due to their [[insectivorous]] and [[frugivorous]] diet they have evolved to lose [[sucrase]].<ref name="Rio-et-al-1992" /> [[Sucrose]] is unpalatable to them and can be used by humans as a deterrent.<ref name="Brugger-Nelms-1991">{{cite journal |last1=Brugger |first1=Kristin E. |last2=Nelms |first2=Curtis O. |year=1991 |title=Sucrose avoidance by American robins (''Turdus migratorius''): Implications for control of bird damage in fruit crops |journal=[[Crop Protection (journal)|Crop Protection]] |publisher=[[Butterworth-Heinemann]] |volume=10 |issue=6 |pages=455–460 |doi=10.1016/s0261-2194(91)80110-2 |bibcode=1991CrPro..10..455B |issn=0261-2194 |s2cid=83501487}}</ref><ref name="Rio-et-al-1992" />

The species uses auditory, visual, olfactory and possibly vibrotactile cues to find prey, but vision is the predominant mode of prey detection.<ref name= montgomerie>{{cite journal |last1=Montgomerie |first1=Robert |last2=Weatherhead |first2=Patrick J. |year=1997 |title=How robins find worms |journal=Animal Behaviour |volume=54 |pages=143–151 |url=http://web2.uwindsor.ca/courses/biology/dmennill/360/article.pdf |doi=10.1006/anbe.1996.0411 |pmid=9268444 |issue=1 |s2cid=6044211 |access-date=28 July 2012 |archive-date=25 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201025002030/http://web2.uwindsor.ca/courses/biology/dmennill/360/article.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> It is frequently seen running across lawns picking up earthworms, and its ''running and stopping'' behavior is a distinguishing characteristic. In addition to hunting visually, it also has the ability to hunt by hearing. Experiments have shown that it can find earthworms underground by simply using its listening skills.<ref name= montgomerie/>{{rp|149}} It typically will take several short hops and then cock its head left, right or forward to detect movement of its prey. In urban areas, robins will gather in numbers soon after lawns are mowed or where sprinklers are in use.<ref name="All About Birds"/>

=== Threats ===

Juveniles and eggs are preyed upon by squirrels, snakes, and some birds.<ref name="ADW"/> Adults are primarily taken by ''[[Accipiter]]'' hawks, cats, and larger snakes such as [[rat snake]]s and [[gopher snake]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Cox, T. M. |year=1986|title=More on the bird-eating activities of the black rat snake, ''Elaphe obsoleta obsoleta'' (Say)|journal= North. Ohio Assoc. Herpetol. Notes |volume=14|pages=18–19}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rodríguez-Robles |first1=J. A. |year=2002 |title=Feeding ecology of North American gopher snakes (''Pituophis catenifer'', Colubridae) |journal=Biological Journal of the Linnean Society |volume=77 |issue=2|pages=165–183 |doi=10.1046/j.1095-8312.2002.00098.x |doi-access=free }}</ref> Canids such as [[Red fox|foxes]]<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lavin |first1=S. R. |last2=Van Deelen |first2=T. R. |last3=Brown |first3=P. W. |last4=Warner |first4=R. E. |last5=Ambrose |first5=S. H. |year=2003 |title=Prey use by red foxes (''Vulpes vulpes'') in urban and rural areas of Illinois |journal=Canadian Journal of Zoology |volume=81 |issue=6|pages=1070–1082 |doi=10.1139/z03-088 }}</ref> and dogs take fledglings from the ground. [[Raccoon]]s often prey upon nests, while small agile carnivores such as [[American marten]]s,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Nagorsen |first1=D. W. |last2=Morrison |first2=K. F. |last3=Forsberg |first3=J. E. |year=1989 |title=Winter diet of Vancouver Island marten (''Martes americana'') |journal=Canadian Journal of Zoology |volume=67 |issue=6| pages=1394–1400 |doi=10.1139/z89-198 }}</ref> [[ring-tailed cat]]s<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Taylor |first1=W. P. |year=1954 |title=Food habits and notes on life history of the ring-tailed cat in Texas |journal=Journal of Mammalogy |volume=35 |issue=1|pages=55–63 |doi=10.2307/1376073 |jstor=1376073 }}</ref> and [[long-tailed weasel]]s hunt adults.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Yen |first1=C. F. |last2=Klaas |first2=E. E. |last3=Kam |first3=Y. C. |year=1996 |title=Variation in nesting success of the American Robin, ''Turdus migratorius'' |url=http://zoolstud.sinica.edu.tw/Journals/35.3/220.pdf |journal=Zoological Studies |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=220–226 |access-date=3 September 2020 |archive-date=25 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201025162939/https://zoolstud.sinica.edu.tw/Journals/35.3/220.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pettingill |first1=O. S. Jr. |year=1976 |title=Observed acts of predation on birds in northern Lower Michigan |journal=Living Bird |volume=15 |pages=33–41 }}</ref> The greatest predatory impact is probably from raptorial birds.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sherrod |first1=S. K. |year=1978 |title=Diets of North American Falconiformes |url=https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/ee72/0f222c174911490ba78f5a8969817c6f4d57.pdf |journal=Raptor Research |volume=12 |issue=3/4 |pages=49–121 |s2cid=127093159 |access-date=3 September 2020 |archive-date=29 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029222314/https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/DIETS-OF-NORTH-AMERICAN-FALCONIFORMES-Sherrod/ee720f222c174911490ba78f5a8969817c6f4d57?p2df |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Morneau |first1=F. |last2=Lépine |first2=C. |last3=Décarie |first3=R. |last4=Villard |first4=M. A. |last5=DesGranges |first5=J. L. |year=1995 |title=Reproduction of American robin (''Turdus migratorius'') in a suburban environment |journal=Landscape and Urban Planning |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=55–62 |doi=10.1016/0169-2046(94)00177-5 |bibcode=1995LUrbP..32...55M }}</ref> 28 raptorial bird species hunt American robins.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Storer, R. W. |year=1966 |title=Sexual dimorphism and food habits in three North American accipiters |journal=The Auk |volume=83|issue=3|pages=423–436 |jstor=4083053 |url=http://sora.unm.edu/node/21529 |doi=10.2307/4083053 |access-date=13 October 2013 |archive-date=7 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107214411/https://sora.unm.edu/node/21529|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>Bent, A. C. (1938). ''Life histories of North American birds of prey, pt. 2''. U.S. Natl. Mus. Bull. no. 170.</ref> Adult robins are most vulnerable while breeding activities, whereas feeding flocks are vigilant for predators.<ref name="ADW"/>

The American robin rejects [[cowbird]] eggs, so [[Brood parasite|brood parasitism]] by the [[brown-headed cowbird]] is rare, and the parasite's chick does not often survive to [[fledging]].<ref name= Wolfe>{{cite journal |last=Wolfe |first=Donald H. |date=December 1994 |title=Brown-headed Cowbirds fledged from Barn Swallow and American Robin nests |journal=The Wilson Bulletin |jstor=4163497 |volume=106 |issue=4 |pages=764–766 |url=http://sora.unm.edu/node/131255 |access-date= 13 October 2013 |archive-date=7 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210107214425/https://sora.unm.edu/node/131255 |url-status=live }}</ref> In a study of 105 juvenile robins, 77.1% were infected with  [[Parasite|endoparasites]], ''[[Syngamus]]'' sp. being the most commonly encountered, in 57.1% of the birds.<ref name= Welt>{{cite journal |last1=Welte |first1=S. C. |last2=Kirkpatrick |first2=C. E. |year=1986 |title=Syngamiasis in juvenile American Robins (''Turdus migratorius''), with a note on the prevalence of other fecal parasites |journal=Avian Diseases |volume=30 |issue=4 |pages=736–9 |doi=10.2307/1590578 |jstor=1590578 |pmid=2949729}}</ref>

=== Breeding ===

[[File:Robin with nest-making materials.jpg|thumb|With nest-making materials]]

Breeding begins shortly after the returning to the summer range. The species is one of the first North American birds to lay eggs, and normally has two to three broods per breeding season, which lasts from April to July.<ref name="ADW"/>

The nest is most commonly located {{Convert|1.5|-|4.5|m|ft|abbr = on}} above the ground in a dense bush or in a fork between two tree branches, and is built by the female alone. The outer foundation consists of long coarse grass, twigs, paper, and feathers. This is lined with smeared mud and cushioned with fine grass or other soft materials. The American robin builds a new nest for each brood; in northern areas the nest for the first clutch will usually be located in an [[evergreen]] tree or shrub, while later broods are raised in [[deciduous]] trees.<ref name="ADW"/> The species is not shy about nesting close to human habitations.<ref>{{cite web |title=Backyard Birding Information – How to Attract Robins |publisher=The Ornate Bird Garden |url=http://www.ornatebirdgarden.com/html/robins.html |access-date=27 November 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071201150341/http://www.ornatebirdgarden.com/html/robins.html |archive-date=1 December 2007 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

A clutch consists of three to five cyan-colored [[Bird egg|eggs]], and is [[Egg incubation#Avian incubation|incubated]] by the female alone. The eggs hatch after 14&nbsp;days, and the chicks leave the nest a further two weeks later. The [[altricial]] chicks are naked and have their eyes closed for the first few days after hatching.<ref name = IWRC>{{cite web |title=American Robin (''Turdus migratorius'') |url=http://www.iwrc-online.org/kids/Facts/Birds/robin.htm |publisher=International Wildlife Rehabilitation Council |access-date=21 January 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071031214806/http://www.iwrc-online.org/kids/Facts/Birds/robin.htm |archive-date=31 October 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

The chicks are fed earthworms, insects, and berries. Waste accumulation does not occur in the nest because the adults collect and take it away. Chicks are fed, and then raise tails for elimination of waste, a solid white clump that is collected by a parent prior to flying off. All chicks in the brood leave the nest within two days of each other. Juveniles become capable of sustained flight two weeks after fledging. Chicks become sexually mature at one year of age. Bird banders have found that only 25% of young robins survive their first year. The longest known lifespan of an American robin in the wild is 14&nbsp;years; the average lifespan is about two years.<ref name="ADW"/>

=== Vocalization ===

[[File:American Robin.ogg|right|thumb|Calls: 'scold' call at beginning & 'alarm' call at 42{{sup|s}} (very end)]]
[[File:American robin squeaking (30126).jpg|thumb|An adult while making an alarm call]]

The male, as with many thrushes, has a complex and almost continuous song. It is commonly described as a ''cheery'' carol, made up of discrete units, often repeated, and spliced together into a string with brief pauses in between.<ref name=Bull87>{{cite book |author=Bull, J. |author2=Farrand, J. Jr. |year=1987 |title=Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Birds |edition=Eastern Region |location=New York, NY |publisher=[[Audubon Society]] / Alfred A. Knopf |isbn=0-394-41405-5 |page=[https://archive.org/details/audubonsocietyfi0000bull/page/469 469] |url=https://archive.org/details/audubonsocietyfi0000bull/page/469 }}</ref> The song varies regionally, and its style varies by the time of day. The song period is from late February or early March to late July or early August; some birds, particularly in the east, sing occasionally into September or later. They are often among the first songbirds to sing as dawn rises or hours before, and last as evening sets in. It usually sings from a high perch in a tree.<ref name=ADW/> The song of the San Lucas subspecies {{nobr|(''T. m. confinis'')}} is weaker than that of the eastern subspecies {{nobr|(''T. m. migratorius''),}} and lacks any clear notes.<ref name=Clement/>

In addition to its song, the species has a number of calls used for communicating specific information, such as when a ground predator approaches and when a nest or another American robin is being directly threatened. Even during nesting season, when they exhibit mostly competitive and territorial behavior, they may still band together to drive away a predator.<ref name=Clement/>

== Conservation status ==

The species has an extensive range, estimated at {{Convert|16000000|km2|abbr = on}}, and a large population of about 370&nbsp;million individuals. The western subspecies (''T. m. propinquus'') in central California is considered to be expanding its range, as is likely the case elsewhere in the United States.<ref name = Clement/> It is threatened by [[climate change]] and severe weather, but the population trend appears to be stable, and the species does not approach the [[vulnerable species]] thresholds under the population trend criterion (>30% decline over ten years or three generations), and therefore [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] evaluated it as [[least concern]].<ref name=IUCN/> At one point, the bird was killed for its meat, but it is now protected throughout its range in the United States by the [[Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918|Migratory Bird Treaty Act]].<ref name="ADW"/>

== In culture ==

The American robin is the [[List of U.S. state birds|state bird]] of [[Connecticut]], [[Michigan]], and [[Wisconsin]].<ref name=50States>{{cite web |title=Official U.S. state birds |website=50 States
 |url=http://www.50states.com/bird/ |access-date=25 July 2007  |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070711032534/http://www.50states.com/bird/
 |archive-date=11 July 2007}}</ref> It was depicted on the 1986 [[Birds of Canada (banknotes)|Birds of Canada]] series [[Canadian dollar|Canadian $2 note]] (this note was subsequently withdrawn.)<ref name="cpm">{{cite web |url=http://www.cdnpapermoney.com/English/BoC/1986_2.htm |title=Canadian Paper Money |author=Canadian Paper Money Society |access-date=18 January 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080103221320/http://www.cdnpapermoney.com/English/BoC/1986_2.htm |archive-date=3 January 2008 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref name="CNbank">{{cite web|url=http://www.bankofcanada.ca/en/banknotes/general/character/1986_2.html |author=Bank of Canada |title=1986 Birds of Canada Series |access-date=18 January 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071027063440/http://www.bankofcanada.ca/en/banknotes/general/character/1986_2.html |archive-date=27 October 2007 |url-status=live |df=dmy }}</ref> It has a place in [[Mythologies of the indigenous peoples of the Americas|Native American mythology]]. The story of how the robin got its red breast by fanning the dying flames of a campfire to save a Native American man and a boy is similar to those that surround the European robin.<ref>{{cite book | last = Fox | first = Florence C. | year = 1906 | title = The Indian Primer (Fox's Indian Primer) | publisher = American Book Company | pages = 88–95 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=gb4AAAAAYAAJ | access-date = 22 May 2011 | archive-date = 29 October 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211029222352/https://books.google.com/books?id=gb4AAAAAYAAJ | url-status = live }}</ref> The [[Tlingit]] people of northwestern North America held it to be a [[culture hero]] created by [[Cultural depictions of ravens#North American Pacific Northwest|Raven]] to please the people with its song.<ref name = "Cooper92">{{cite book |last=Cooper |first=JC |title=Symbolic and Mythological Animals |page=194 |year=1992 |publisher= Aquarian Press |location=London |isbn=1-85538-118-4}}</ref> The [[Peace Bridge robins]] were a family of American robins that attracted minor publicity in the mid-1930s for their prominent nest on the Canadian side of the [[Peace Bridge]] connecting [[Buffalo, New York]], to [[Fort Erie, Ontario]].<ref>The Canadian Press. [https://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FB0B13FF3D5E167B93C0A8178FD85F428385F9&scp=1&sq=Famous+robins+return&st=p "Famous robins return to nest at Peace Bridge"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140521153649/http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FB0B13FF3D5E167B93C0A8178FD85F428385F9&scp=1&sq=Famous+robins+return&st=p |date=21 May 2014 }}, ''The New York Times''. 12 April 1936. Page 6.</ref>

American popular songs featuring this bird include "[[When the Red, Red Robin (Comes Bob, Bob, Bobbin' Along)]]", written by [[Harry M. Woods]].<ref>{{cite web | title = Cover of sheet music for 'When the Red, Red Robin Comes Bob, Bob, Bobbing Along' – Ruth Etting | work = The Ruth Etting Web Site | orig-year = 1997 | date = 2007 | url = http://ruthetting.com/when-the-red-red-robin/ | access-date = 15 April 2012 | archive-date = 19 December 2020 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20201219094003/http://ruthetting.com/when-the-red-red-robin/ | url-status = live }}</ref> Although the [[Comics|comic book]] superhero [[Robin (character)|Robin]] was inspired by an [[N. C. Wyeth]] illustration of [[Robin Hood]],<ref>{{cite journal|last=Groth |first=Gary |date=15 October 2005 |title=Jerry Robinson |journal=The Comics Journal |issue=#271 |url=http://www.tcj.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=350&Itemid=48 |access-date=7 February 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080111224537/http://www.tcj.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=350&Itemid=48 |archive-date=11 January 2008 |url-status=live |quote=I had a vision of Robin Hood just as Wyeth drew him in his costume, and that's what I quickly sketched out when I suggested [the name] Robin, which they seemed to like, and then showed them the costume. |df=dmy }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | last=Ringgenberg | first=Steven | title=Jerry Robinson: January 1st, 1922 – December 7th, 2011 | url=http://www.tcj.com/jerry-robinson-january-1st-1922-december-7th-2011/ | work=tcj.com | access-date=18 April 2013 | date=13 December 2011 | quote=Robinson added much to the luster of the Batman legend, including coming up with the name Robin the Boy Wonder (inspired by Robin Hood), and designing his costume (inspired by the N.C. Wyeth painting Robin Meets Maid Marian). | archive-date=12 February 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210212001557/http://www.tcj.com/jerry-robinson-january-1st-1922-december-7th-2011/ | url-status=live }}</ref> a later version had his mother nicknaming him Robin because he was born on the first day of spring.<ref>{{Cite comic | writer=[[E. Nelson Bridwell|Bridwell, E. Nelson]] | penciller=[[Ross Andru|Andru, Ross]] | inker=[[Mike Esposito (comics)|Esposito, Mike]] | story=The Origin of Robin | title=[[Batman]] | volume= 1 | issue = #213 | date=July–August 1969 | publisher=[[DC Comics]]}}</ref>

The species is considered a symbol of spring.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Durant |first1=Alan |last2=Fabb |first2=Nigel |year=1990 |title=Literary Studies in Action |publisher=Routledge |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZqAOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA75 |access-date=1 February 2008 |isbn=978-0-415-02945-2 |page=75 |archive-date=29 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211029222334/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZqAOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA75 |url-status=live }}</ref> A well-known example is a poem by [[Emily Dickinson]] titled "I Dreaded That First Robin So". Among other 19th-century poems about the first robin of spring is "The First Robin" by [[William Henry Drummond]], which, according to the author's wife, is based on a [[Quebec]] superstition that whoever sees the first robin of spring will have good luck.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Drummond |first1=William Henry |others=Preface by May Harvey Drummond |year=1908 |title=The Great Fight |publisher=G. P. Putnam's Sons |pages=xi, 81–86 |url=https://archive.org/details/greatfightpoems00drumgoog |access-date=1 February 2008}}</ref> The association has continued down to the present day, as, for example, in one ''[[Calvin and Hobbes]]'' cartoon from 1990 that had Calvin celebrating his inevitable wealth and fame after seeing the first robin of spring.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.gocomics.com/calvinandhobbes/1990/03/21 | title=Calvin and Hobbes, March 21, 1990 | date=21 March 1990 | access-date=15 November 2017 | archive-date=16 November 2017 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171116021608/http://www.gocomics.com/calvinandhobbes/1990/03/21 | url-status=live }}</ref> The harbinger of spring sobriquet is borne out by the fact that American robins tend to follow the {{convert|37|F|order=flip}} isotherm north in spring, but also south in fall.<ref>{{Cite news | first=Meghan McCarthy | last=McPhaul | title=Robins don't necessarily mean spring | newspaper=The Chronicle | location=Barton, Vermont | pages= 9A | date=11 May 2016}}</ref> In a study of 209 psychology students at the [[University of California, Berkeley]], [[Eleanor Rosch]] found that the robin was, in the students' minds, the most [[prototype theory|prototypical]] example of a bird (though the students did not have the opportunity to specify the species of robin).<ref>Eleanor Rosch, 'Cognitive Representations of Semantic Categories', ''Journal of Experimental Psychology: General'', 104.3 (1975), 192–233 (pp. 198, 232).</ref> ''[[Robin egg blue]]'' is a color named after the color of the bird's eggs.<ref name=OED>{{Cite encyclopedia| title=Robin|encyclopedia=Oxford English Dictionary|editor=Simpson, J. |editor2=Weiner, E.| year=1989 |edition= 2nd| location=Oxford |publisher=Clarendon Press|isbn= 0-19-861186-2}}</ref>

==Gallery==
<gallery class="center" widths="200" heights="200">
File:American-Robin-New-York-April-2022.png|alt=A fluffed up American Robin standing by a tree surrounded by dandelions and grass|Fluffed-up American robin
File:Robin eating a worm in spring.jpg|Eating an earthworm
File:American Robin with a worm.jpg|Male carrying an earthworm
File:American Robin 20140512.jpg|Perching in a tree
File:American Robin Eating Crabapples Durango CO 2-19-2019.jpg|Feeding on [[Malus|crab apples]]
File:Robin's Nest - Charlotte NC.jpg|Newly hatched chick among unhatched young
File:Turdus migratorius MWNH 1784.JPG|Eggs, Collection [[Museum Wiesbaden]]
File:Juvenile robin (12336).jpg|Juvenile in New York
File:Robin eggs flying in 3 weeks - by Volkan Yuksel.jpg|Sequence of dated images showing the progress from eggs to fledging in three weeks
File:Robin chick 2 Galawebdesign.jpg|Chick
File:American Robin Nest.jpg|Nest amidst human habitat
</gallery>

== See also ==
* Australasian robins of the genus ''[[Petroica]]''

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Turdus migratorius}}
{{Wikispecies|Turdus migratorius}}
{{Wiktionary|American robin}}
{{Collier's poster|year=1921|Robin, American|American robin}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20140521145247/http://enature.com/fieldguides/detail.asp?allSpecies=y&searchText=american+RObin&cmdSubmit.x=-652&cmdSubmit.y=-256&curGroupID=1&lgfromWhere=&curPageNum=1 FieldGuide] – eNature.com
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050913124722/http://www.learner.org/jnorth/tm/robin/AlbinoRobins.html "Robins of a Different Feather"] – albinism in robins
* [http://naturemappingfoundation.org/natmap/facts/american_robin_712.html Animal Facts] – natural history, maps, and photos at the Washington Nature Mapping Program
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20050406074716/http://www.learner.org/jnorth/tm/robin/Dictionary.html Vocalizations] – Journey North
* {{InternetBirdCollection|american-robin-turdus-migratorius|American robin}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120131161733/http://www.vivanatura.org/sounds/American%20Robin%20(Turdus%20migratorius).wav Sound file] – vivanatura.org
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070619231552/http://www.learner.org/jnorth/images/graphics/n-r/RobinNestBoxPlans_Henderson.jpg Plans for nesting shelves] – Journey North
* [http://www.websterswobbins.blogspot.com Nesting journal] – Photo blog following the process from nest building to leaving the nest – Webster's Wobbins
* [http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/birds/florida-bird-sounds/ Florida bird sounds including the American robin] – Florida Museum of Natural History
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110706212431/http://www.visitnewfoundland.ca/birds/bnf01.html American robin subspecies ''Turdus migratorius nigrideus'' (Aldrich and Nutt)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20170622131413/http://www.panoramio.com/photo/25371082 American robin growth progress with date stamp]
* {{VIREO|American+Robin|American robin}}

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