Editing Amblycera

{{Short description|Parvorder of lice}}
{{good article}}
{{Automatic taxobox
| image = Ricinus bombycillae (Denny, 1842).JPG
| image_caption = ''[[Ricinus bombycillae]]'' ([[Ricinidae]])<br/>from a [[Bohemian waxwing]]
| image_upright = 0.7
| display_parents = 3
| taxon = Amblycera
| authority = Kellogg, 1896
| subdivision_ranks = Families
| subdivision = 
* [[Menoponidae]] 
* [[Laemobothriidae]]
* [[Ricinidae]]
* [[Boopiidae]]
* [[Gyropidae]]
* [[Trimenoponidae]]
* [[Abrocomophagidae]]
}}

'''Amblycera''' is a [[parvorder]] of chewing lice from the [[infraorder]] [[Phthiraptera]]. The lice are [[Parasitism|ectoparasites]] and spend their entire lives parasitizing off of their hosts. Amblycera tend to mostly feed off of birds, and have specialized anatomy to assist in feeding. The lice undergo a three part process of metamorphosis and survive around thirty days after moulting into an adult. They rely on a combination of skin debris and blood for nutrients to sustain themselves. Amblycera are distributed globally, and are very host{{Ndash}}specific.  

== Classification ==
Amblycera is currently classified as a [[parvorder]], and it was named by Kellogg in 1896.<ref name="PsocodeaSpeciesFile">{{Cite web| website = Psocodea Species File |title = Amblycera Kellogg, 1896 |last1 = Hopkins |first1 = H. |last2 = Johnson |first2 = K. P. |last3 = Smith |first3 = V. S. |url = https://psocodea.speciesfile.org/otus/884594/overview}}</ref> Amblycera belongs to the [[infraorder]] [[Phthiraptera]], which contains all lice, and is part of the larger [[order (biology)|order]] [[Psocodea]], which also contains booklice, barklice and barkflies. Around 30% of all bird lice belong to Amblycera.<ref name=":8">{{Cite web |last=T. Atkinson |first=Carter |last2=J. Thomas |first2=Nancy |year=2008 |title=Parasitic Diseases of Wild Birds |url=https://darwin.biology.utah.edu/PDFs/BC7.pdf |url-status=live |access-date=May 15, 2025 |website=darwin.biology.utah.edu}}</ref> A [[cladogram]] showing the position of Amblycera within [[Phthiraptera]] and [[Psocodea]] is shown below:<ref name="deMoya2021">{{Cite journal|last1=de Moya|first1=Robert S|last2=Yoshizawa|first2=Kazunori|last3=Walden|first3=Kimberly K O|last4=Sweet|first4=Andrew D|last5=Dietrich|first5=Christopher H|last6=Kevin P|first6=Johnson|date=2021-06-16|editor-last=Buckley|editor-first=Thomas|title=Phylogenomics of Parasitic and Nonparasitic Lice (Insecta: Psocodea): Combining Sequence Data and Exploring Compositional Bias Solutions in Next Generation Data Sets|url=https://academic.oup.com/sysbio/article/70/4/719/5912026|journal=Systematic Biology|language=en|volume=70|issue=4|pages=719–738|doi=10.1093/sysbio/syaa075|pmid=32979270|issn=1063-5157|doi-access=free}}</ref>
{{clade| style=font-size:85%; line-height:100%
 |label1='''[[Psocodea]]'''
 |1={{clade
  |1={{clade
   |label1=[[Troctomorpha]]
   |1={{clade
    |1={{clade
     |1={{clade
      |label1='''[[Phthiraptera]]'''
      |1={{clade
       |1={{clade
        |1=[[Philopteridae]]
        |2={{clade
         |1={{clade
          |1=[[Anoplura]]
          |2=[[Rhynchophthirina]] }}
         |2=[[Trichodectidae]] }} }}
       |2='''Amblycera''' }}
      |2=[[Liposcelididae]] }}
     |2={{clade
      |1=[[Pachytroctidae]]
      |2=[[Sphaeropsocidae]] }} }}
    |2=[[Amphientometae]] }}
   |label2=[[Psocomorpha]]
   |2={{clade
    |1={{clade
     |1={{clade
      |1=[[Homilopsocidea]]
      |2=[[Caeciliusetae]] }}
     |2={{clade
      |1={{clade
       |1=[[Psocetae]]
       |2=[[Epipsocetae]] }}
      |2=[[Philotarsetae]] }} }}
    |2=[[Archipsocetae]] }} }}
  |label2=[[Trogiomorpha]]
  |2={{clade
   |1={{clade
    |1=[[Atropetae]]
    |2=[[Psyllipsocetae]] }}
   |2=[[Prionoglaridetae]] ([[paraphyletic]]) }} }} }}
== Characteristics ==
Like all chewing lice, Amblycera are permanent ectoparasites of their hosts, in that they spend their entire life living off of their individual host.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last1=P. Johnson |first1=Kevin |last2=H. Clayton |first2=Dale |title=THE BIOLOGY, ECOLOGY, AND EVOLUTION OF CHEWING LICE |url=https://phthiraptera.myspecies.info/sites/phthiraptera.info/files/41865.pdf |access-date=May 11, 2025 |website=phthiraptera.myspecies.info}}</ref> Almost all Amblycera exclusively parasitize [[Bird|birds]].<ref name=":0" /> In a section of their throat called the [[Crop (anatomy)|crop]], Amblycera contain developed comb structures at the base.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=Louse {{!}} Description, Features, Life Cycle, Species, & Classification {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/animal/louse |access-date=2025-05-11 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> The structures are used to prevent feathers and other debris from progressing further into the digestive system.<ref name=":1" /> All species are wingless, and have a broad head with a pair of mandibles.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |title=Order Phthiraptera – ENT 425 – General Entomology |url=https://genent.cals.ncsu.edu/insect-identification/order-phthiraptera/ |access-date=2025-05-11 |language=en-US}}</ref> The antennae are broken into three to five joints depending on the species, and they do not have any eyes. Anmblycera also have two small segmented claws at the end of their limbs.<ref name=":2" /> Species are small and [[dorsoventrally]] compressed, and are host specific in that a single species will parasitize on a single host.<ref name=":0" /> They can vary between one and five millimeters long, and range in color from white to black.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Chewing louse {{!}} Parasite, Poultry, Livestock {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/animal/chewing-louse |access-date=2025-05-11 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

=== Life cycle ===
Amblycera undergo a process of [[metamorphosis]] with three stages: Eggs (also known as "nits"), nymph and adult. The process usually takes around two to three weeks on average.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lice |url=https://capcvet.org/guidelines/lice/#:~:text=Once%20the%20egg%20has%20hatched,canis%20and%20F. |access-date=2025-05-11 |website=Companion Animal Parasite Council |language=en}}</ref> Eggs are usually 0.8 millimeters long and oval shaped. The eggs also small holes called micropyles that allow for respiration.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Lucius |first1=Richard |title=The Biology of Parasites |last2=Loos-Frank |first2=Briggete |publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|Wiley]] |isbn=9783527698561 |publication-date=January 4, 2017 |pages=418 |language=en}}</ref> They range in color from yellow to white.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=Lice-life-cycle |url=https://byjus.com/biology/lice-life-cycle/ |access-date=2025-05-11 |website=BYJUS |language=en}}</ref> The nymphs are also yellow to white in color, and undergo a three part process of [[moulting]] over the course of a week. After the third nymph moult the lice are considered adults, and will live up to thirty days off of their chosen host.<ref name=":3" />

== Feeding method ==
Amblycera feed almost entirely on birds. The lice depend on a combination of skin, hair, feathers and blood for food and nutrients.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Yanjie |last2=Rasnitsyn |first2=Alexandr P. |last3=Zhang |first3=Weiwei |last4=Song |first4=Fan |last5=Shih |first5=Chungkun |last6=Ren |first6=Dong |last7=Wang |first7=Yongjie |last8=Li |first8=Hu |last9=Gao |first9=Taiping |date=2024-02-26 |title=Stem chewing lice on Cretaceous feathers preserved in amber |url=https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(24)00027-7?_returnURL=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0960982224000277?showall=true |journal=Current Biology |language=English |volume=34 |issue=4 |pages=916–922.e1 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2024.01.027 |issn=0960-9822 |pmid=38320551|bibcode=2024CBio...34E.916Z }}</ref> They use their mandibles in a horizontal scraping fashion to separate the skin from the bird so that it can be consumed. They also use their claws to grasp onto the feathers of the host in order to prevent the bird from shaking the lice off.<ref name=":4" /> They feed on both living and dead cells, as opposed to the closely related [[Ischnocera|ischnoceran]] lice that feeds exclusively on dead material.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=J. Weaver |first1=Haylee |last2=Rózsa |first2=Lajos |title=CONCEPTS IN ANIMAL PARASITOLOGY |url=https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1096&context=parasittext |access-date=May 11, 2025 |website=digitalcommons.unl.edu}}</ref> While most ampblyceran lice use mandibles to feed, species in the genus ''Trochiloecete'' use two sharp [[Stylet (zoology)|stylets]] to pierce the skin and consume blood from nearby [[Blood vessel|blood vessels]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Amblycera |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095407300 |access-date=2025-05-11 |website=Oxford Reference |language=en }}</ref> Amblycera lice tend to parasitize one host before quickly moving onto another one, without staying nearby one that is dead.<ref name=":8" />

== Distribution ==
Like all lice, Amblycera are distributed in the same locations as their preferred host.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |date=2022-02-15 |title=Lice (Phthiraptera) - Factsheet for health professionals |url=https://www.ecdc.europa.eu/en/all-topics-z/disease-vectors/facts/factsheet-lice-phthiraptera#:~:text=All%20lice%20are%20co-distributed,humans%20and%20their%20domesticated%20animals. |access-date=2025-05-11 |website=www.ecdc.europa.eu |language=en}}</ref> The lice were likely spread during the original human [[colonization]] of various continents when host animals were brought along with them.<ref name=":5" /> The most diverse family, [[Menoponidae]], has a high quantity of host-specific species is distributed across multiple continents.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kolencik |first1=Stanislav |last2=Sychra |first2=Oldrich |last3=Johnson |first3=Kevin P. |last4=Weckstein |first4=Jason D. |last5=Sallam |first5=Mohamed F. |last6=Allen |first6=Julie M. |date=2024-05-01 |title=The parasitic louse genus Myrsidea (Amblycera: Menoponidae): a comprehensive review and world checklist |url=https://experts.illinois.edu/en/publications/the-parasitic-louse-genus-myrsidea-amblycera-menoponidae-a-compre |journal=Insect Systematics and Diversity |volume=8 |issue=3 |doi=10.1093/isd/ixae007 |issn=2399-3421}}</ref> Amblycera have shown a positive correlation between the quantity and diversity of host birds in regions and the quantity and diversity of their own species.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Museu de Ciències Naturals de Barcelona: Scientific journals |url=https://museucienciesjournals.cat/en/amz/issue/19-2021-en/checklist-of-chewing-lice-phthiraptera-amblycera-and-ischnocera-of-the-birds-of-peru |access-date=2025-05-12 |website=museucienciesjournals.cat |language=ca}}</ref>

== Effects ==
The lice by themselves are not particularly harmful,<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=Bird louse {{!}} Parasitic, Feather-Feeding, Poultry {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/animal/bird-louse |access-date=2025-05-12 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> however depending on the quantity the presence of Amblycera on birds they can cause [[dermatitis]] and promote itchiness and scratching.<ref name=":7">{{Cite web |last1=Clayton |last2=Gregory |last3=Price |year=1992 |title=Comparative ecology of Neotropical bird lice (Insecta: Phthiraptera) |url=https://darwin.biology.utah.edu/PDFs/14.pdf |access-date=May 11, 2025 |website=darwin.biology.utah.edu}}</ref> In poultry, the lice can significantly reduce the rate of egg production.<ref name=":7" /> Birds with physically damaged bodies are vulnerable to Amblycera infestations due to the reduced ability to remove the lice by themselves.<ref name=":6" /> Birds infested with Amblycera also have a reduced ability to attract mating partners.<ref name=":7" />

== Families ==
Amblycera contain seven individual families of parasitic lice:<ref>{{Cite web |last=K. Marshall |first=Isabel |title=A morphological phylogeny for four families of amblyceran lice |url=https://phthiraptera.myspecies.info/sites/phthiraptera.info/files/41621.pdf |access-date=May 11, 2025 |website=phthiraptera.myspecies.info}}</ref>

* [[Menoponidae]] <small>Mjöberg, 1910</small>
* [[Laemobothriidae]] <small>Mjöberg 1910</small>
* [[Ricinidae]] <small>Neumann 1890</small>
* [[Boopiidae]] <small>Mjöberg, 1910</small>
* [[Gyropidae]] <small>Kellogg, 1896</small>
* [[Trimenoponidae]] <small>Neumann 1890</small>
* [[Abrocomophagidae]] <small>Emerson and Price 1976</small>

==References==
{{reflist}}
*{{Commons category-inline|Amblycera}}
*{{Wikispecies-inline}}

{{Psocodea|2}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q1936744}}
[[Category:Lice]]