Editing Amalthea (mythology)

{{Short description|Nurse of Zeus in Greek mythology}}
{{About|the mythological figure|other uses|Amalthea (disambiguation){{!}}Amalthea}}
{{Good article}}
[[File:Relief Amaltheia Adrasteia Zeus.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|alt=Young woman holds out a hollow horn to an infant's mouth|Amalthea holds a [[cornucopia]], out of which the young [[Zeus]] eats. Marble relief from the 2nd century AD, [[Vatican Museum]].{{refn|{{harvnb|''LIMC''|p=582}}; [[Digital LIMC]] [https://app.dasch.swiss/resource/080E/OVuxdjQNVrOl2DghstgDAw 45698 (Amaltheia 1)].}}]]

In [[Greek mythology]], '''Amalthea''' or '''Amaltheia''' ({{langx|grc|Ἀμάλθεια}}) is the figure most commonly identified as the nurse of [[Zeus]] during his infancy. She is described either as a [[nymph]] who raises the child on the milk of a goat, or, in some accounts from the [[Hellenistic period]] onwards, as the goat itself.

As early as the [[archaic Greece|archaic period]], there exist references to the "horn of Amalthea" (known in Latin as the [[cornucopia]]), a magical horn said to be capable of producing endless amounts of any food or drink desired. In a narrative attributed to the mythical poet [[Musaeus of Athens|Musaeus]], and likely dating to the 4th century BC or earlier, Amalthea, a nymph, nurses the infant Zeus and owns a goat which is terrifying in appearance. After Zeus reaches adulthood, he uses the goat's skin as a weapon in his battle against the [[Titans]]. Amalthea is first described as a goat by the 3rd-century BC poet [[Callimachus]], who presents a rationalised version of the myth, in which Zeus is fed on Amalthea's milk. [[Aratus]], also writing in the 3rd century BC, identifies Amalthea with the star [[Capella]], and describes her as "Olenian" (the meaning of which is unclear).

There is disagreement among scholars as to when the tale of Zeus's upbringing was first merged with that of the magical horn. The first author to explicitly combine them is the Roman poet [[Ovid]] (1st century BC/AD), whose story of Zeus's nursing weaves together elements from multiple earlier accounts. A passage from a [[scholia|scholium]] (or commentary) on Aratus's account has been taken as evidence that the two myths may have been connected prior to Ovid. Another version of Zeus's childhood is found in the 2nd-century AD ''[[Fabulae]]'', in which Amalthea hides the infant in a tree and gathers the [[Kouretes]] to dance noisily, so that the child's crying cannot be heard. Other accounts of Zeus's upbringing describe Amalthea as being related to [[Melisseus]], the king of [[Crete]], including an [[Orphism|Orphic]] version of the story.

Among the relatively few surviving representations of Amalthea in ancient art are a 2nd-century AD marble relief which depicts her as a nymph feeding Zeus out of a large cornucopia, and multiple coins and medallions from the [[Roman Empire]]. In modern art, she has been the subject of 17th- and 18th-century works by sculptors such as [[Gian Lorenzo Bernini]] and [[Pierre Julien]] and painters such as [[Jacob Jordaens]].

==Etymology and origins==
The etymology of {{translit|grc|Amáltheia}} ({{lang|grc|Ἀμάλθεια}}) is unknown.{{sfn|Pearson|p=60}} While 19th-century scholars proposed various derivations,{{refn|See, for instance, those collected by {{harvnb|Gruppe|pp=824–825 n. 9}} and {{harvnb|Roscher|p=265}}.}} these were dismissed in the early 20th century by [[Alfred Chilton Pearson]], who suggested that the name may be related to {{translit|grc|amalós}} ({{lang|grc|ἀμαλός}}, {{gloss|soft, tender, weak}}) and {{translit|grc|amálē}} ({{lang|grc|ἀμάλη}}, {{gloss|sheaf, bundle}}).{{refn|{{harvnb|Pearson|p=60}}. For these translations, see {{harvnb|Montanari|loc=s.vv. ἀμάλη, ἀμαλλα, ἀμαλός, p. 101}}.}} The verb {{translit|grc|amaltheúein}} ({{lang|grc|ἀμαλθεύειν}}, {{gloss|to nurture}}),{{sfn|Montanari|loc=s.v. ἀμαλθεύω, p. 83}} previously attested only by the ''Lexicon'' of [[Hesychius of Alexandria]] (5th or 6th century AD) and the ''[[Etymologicum Magnum]]'' (12th century AD), was thought by [[Otto Gruppe]] in 1906 to derive from Amalthea's name; Gruppe's suggestion was refuted by the word's discovery in a [[literary fragment|fragment]], published the following year, from the writings of the 5th-century BC tragedian [[Sophocles]].{{refn|{{harvnb|Pearson|p=60}}; [[Sophocles]], fr. 95 ''TrGF'' {{harv|Radt|p=148}} [{{=}} [[Photius]], ''Lexicon'' s.v. Ἀμαλθεύειν {{harv|Reitzenstein|p=86}}].}} According to Pearson, the two words should instead be understood as having existed alongside each other, with this notion of "abundance" or "plenty" being embodied in certain mythological figures.{{refn|{{harvnb|Pearson|p=60}}. He adds that the association of the horn of Amalthea with various deities suggests that Amalthea was "not a distinctively conceived personality".}}

In [[Hesiod]]'s ''[[Theogony]]'', an 8th-century BC poem which contains the earliest known account of Zeus's birth,{{sfn|Hutchinson|p=201}} there is no mention of Amalthea.{{sfnm|Gantz||1p=28|West|1966|2p=300 on line 484}} Hesiod, does, however, describe the newborn Zeus as being taken to a cave on "the Aegean mountain" in [[Crete]],{{refn|{{harvnb|Hard|2004|p=74}}; [[Hesiod]], ''[[Theogony]]'' 484 {{harv|Most|pp=40, 41}}.}} which some scholars interpret as meaning "Goat's Mountain", seen as a reference to the story of Amalthea;{{sfnm|Willetts||1p=120|Astour||2p=314 n. 18|Hutchinson||3pp=201&ndash;202}} Richard Wyatt Hutchinson takes this term as possible indication that the tradition in which Amalthea is a goat, though only attested from the [[Hellenistic period]], may have existed earlier than that of her as a nymph.{{sfn|Astour|p=314 n. 23}} Other scholars, however, including [[M. L. West]], see no reason to view Hesiod's name for the mountain as a reference to Amalthea.{{sfnm|West|1966|1p=300 on line 484|López-Riuz||2p=45}} According to [[Lewis Richard Farnell]], Amalthea may have been associated, at some point early on, with the Cretan goddess [[Dictynna]], whose name is likely related to [[Mount Dicte]] (sometimes considered the birthplace of Zeus).{{sfn|Farnell|1896b|p=478}}

== Mythology ==
=== Horn of Amalthea ===
[[File:Gold oktadrachm of Ptolemy IV Philopator MET DP139890.jpg|thumb|alt=Gold coin showing a horn, with an inscription around the edge|A [[cornucopia]] on a gold coin from [[Alexandria]], Egypt, produced during the reign of [[Ptolemy IV Philopator]]{{refn|[[Metropolitan Museum of Art]] [https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/253072 30.115.21].}}]]
The "horn of Amalthea", referred to in Latin literature as the [[cornucopia]],{{sfnm|Sevasti||1p=127|Hard|2004|2p=280}} is a magical horn generally described as being able to produce an inexhaustible supply of any food or drink desired.{{sfnm|Fontenrose||1p=350|''LIMC''||2p=582}} The tale of this horn seems to have originated as an independent tradition to the raising of Zeus, though it is uncertain when the two merged.{{refn|{{harvnb|J. F. Miller|p=223}}; {{harvnb|Fowler|2013|pp=323&ndash;324}}; {{harvnb|''Brill's New Pauly'' Vol. 1|loc=s.v. Amalthea (1)}}; {{harvnb|West|1983|p=131}}. On when the tradition of this horn was first integrated with that of Zeus's infancy, see {{section link||Merging of traditions}}.}} The "horn of Amalthea" is mentioned as early as the [[Archaic Greece|archaic period]] by poets such as [[Anacreon]] and [[Phocylides]] (who both date to the 6th century BC),{{refn|{{harvnb|Fowler|2013|p=324}}; {{harvnb|Gantz|p=41}}; [[Anacreon]], fr. 361 ''PMG'' {{harv|Page|p=184}}; [[Phocylides]], fr. 7 {{harvnb|Gerber}} (pp. 396, 397).}} and is commonly referenced in comedies, such as those by [[Cratinus]] (5th century BC) and [[Aristophanes]] (5th to early 4th centuries BC).{{refn|{{harvnb|''Brill's New Pauly'' Vol. 1|loc=s.v. Amalthea (1)}}; {{harvnb|Fowler|2013|p=324}}; [[Aristophanes]], fr. 707 ''PCG'' {{harv|Kassel|Austin|1984|p=362}}; [[Cratinus]], fr. 261 ''PCG'' {{harv|Kassel|Austin|1983|p=255}}; [[Antiphanes (comic poet)|Antiphanes]], fr. 108 ''PCG'' {{harv|Kassel|Austin|1991|p=368}}; [[Philemon (poet)|Philemon]], fr. 68 ''PCG'' {{harv|Kassel|Austin|1989|p=261}}.}} According to the ''[[Bibliotheca (Apollodorus)|Bibliotheca]]'' of Apollodorus, the 5th-century BC mythographer [[Pherecydes of Athens|Pherecydes]] described the horn's ability to provide endless food and drink as desired, and considered it to belong to the nymph Amalthea.{{refn|{{harvnb|Fowler|2013|p=323}}; {{harvnb|Stephens|p=64 on lines 48&ndash;49}}; [[Pherecydes of Athens|Pherecydes]], fr. 42 {{harvtxt|Fowler|2000|p=303}} [{{=}} ''FGrHist'' 3 F42 {{=}} [[Bibliotheca (Apollodorus)|Apollodorus]], 2.7.5 {{harv|Frazer|1921|pp=256, 257}}].}} In a lost poem by the 5th-century BC poet [[Pindar]], [[Heracles]] fought against the river-god [[Achelous]] (who battled him in the form of a bull) for the hand of [[Deianeira]], and during the fight Heracles pulled off one of Achelous's horns; the god then reclaimed his horn by trading it for the magical horn which he obtained from Amalthea, a daughter of [[Oceanus]].{{refn|{{harvnb|Davies|pp=xii&ndash;xiii}}; {{harvnb|Gantz|p=28}}; [[Pindar]], fr. 70b (249a) {{harvnb|Maehler}} (p. 77) [{{=}} Scholia D on [[Homer]]'s ''[[Iliad]]'', 21.194 {{harv|Dindorf|p=218}}].}} In the same passage in which he cites Pherecydes, Apollodorus (1st to 2nd centuries AD) retells this story, and describes the nymph Amalthea as the daughter of Haemonius, whose name, meaning "[[Ancient Thessaly|Thessalian]]", indicates that this Amalthea is separate to the nurse of Zeus.{{refn|{{harvnb|Fowler|2013|p=323}}; [[Bibliotheca (Apollodorus)|Apollodorus]], 2.7.5 {{harv|Frazer|1921|pp=256, 257}}.}} In Apollodorus's account, Amalthea's horn is that of a bull (an element also mentioned by the 4th-to-3rd-century BC poet [[Philemon (poet)|Philemon]]),{{refn|{{harvnb|Gantz|p=42}}; {{harvnb|''LIMC''|p=582}}; [[Bibliotheca (Apollodorus)|Apollodorus]], 2.7.5 {{harv|Frazer|1921|pp=256, 257}}; [[Philemon (poet)|Philemon]], fr. 68 ''PCG'' {{harv|Kassel|Austin|1989|p=261}}. According to Gantz, Apollodorus's source for this may be Pherecydes, whom he cites immediately afterwards.}} seemingly a result of confusion with the bull's horn of Achelous,{{refn|{{harvnb|Hard|2004|p=280}}; cf. {{harvnb|''LIMC''|p=581}}.}} while in other versions of the myth, told by [[Diodorus Siculus]] (1st century BC) and [[Strabo]] (1st century BC/AD), the horn of Amalthea is identified with that of Achelous.{{refn|{{harvnb|''RE''|loc=s.v. Amaltheia (1)}}; [[Diodorus Siculus]], 4.35.3&ndash;4 {{harv|Oldfather|1935|pp=456, 457}}; [[Strabo]], 10.2.19 {{harv|Jones|1928|pp=56, 57}}. For other versions of this myth, including those in which Amalthea is not mentioned, see {{section link|Achelous|Heracles and Deianeira}}.}}

=== Nurse of Zeus ===
Amalthea is the figure most commonly described as the nurse of Zeus during his infancy,{{sfn|Kerényi|p=93}} and in this role is often considered to be a nymph.{{refn|{{harvnb|Grimal|loc=s.v. Amalthea, p. 35}} describes it as "most usual form of the story".}} In the account of Zeus's upbringing from the now-lost work ''Eumolpia'' (likely composed in or before the 4th century BC),{{refn|{{harvnb|West|1983|p=5}} suggests a date in the latter part of the 4th century BC, though {{harvnb|Betegh|pp=346&ndash;347}}, disagrees with West's assessment that the work was composed this late, and argues that content from the text was referenced in the work of the 4th-century BC [[Eudemus of Rhodes]].}} which was attributed in antiquity to the mythical poet [[Musaeus of Athens|Musaeus]], Amalthea was the nurse of the young Zeus, and a nymph.{{sfnm|West|1983|1pp=41&ndash;43, 132|Gantz||2p=41}} According to a summary of the ''[[Catasterismi]]'' of [[Eratosthenes]] (written by an author referred to as "Pseudo-Eratosthenes"),{{refn|[[Musaeus of Athens|Musaeus]] fr. 8 {{harvtxt|Diels}} (pp. 181&ndash;182) [{{=}} [[Eratosthenes]], ''[[Catasterismi]]'' {{harv|Hard|2015|p=44}}]. The ''Catasterismi'' are a lost work, and survive only through the epitome of the text written by Pseudo-Eratosthenes.}} in the account attributed to Musaeus, Zeus's mother [[Rhea (mythology)|Rhea]] gave him as a newborn child to [[Themis]], who handed him over to the nymph Amalthea, who had the infant nursed by a she-goat.{{sfnm|Gee||1pp=131&ndash;132|Gantz||2p=41|Frazer|2015a|3p=120}} Pseudo-Eratosthenes goes on to relate that this goat was the daughter of [[Helios]], and was so terrifying in appearance that the [[Titans]], out of fear, asked [[Gaia]] to hide her in a cave on Crete; Gaia complied, entrusting the goat to Amalthea.{{sfnm|Gee||1p=132|Gantz||2p=41}} After Zeus reaches adulthood, he receives an oracle advising him to use the goat's skin as a weapon in his war against the Titans (due to its terrifying nature).{{sfn|Gantz|p=41}} According to the ''[[De astronomia]]'' (a work of astral mythology likely composed in the 2nd-century AD),{{refn|The work was attributed in antiquity to the Roman author [[Gaius Julius Hyginus]]; for this dating and attribution, see {{harvnb|Hard|2004|p=13}}.}} which similarly recounts the narrative from Musaeus,{{refn|{{harvnb|Frazer|2015b|p=12}}; [[Musaeus of Athens|Musaeus]], fr. 84 III {{harvtxt|Bernabé|2007|p=43}} [{{=}} [[Gaius Julius Hyginus|Hyginus]], ''[[De astronomia]]'' 2.13.6&ndash;7 {{harv|Hard|2015|pp=44&ndash;45}}].}} this weapon which Zeus uses against the Titans is the [[aegis]].{{refn|{{harvnb|Gantz|p=41}}. According to Gantz, this conclusion is "clearly intended" in Pseudo-Eratosthenes' account.}}

Various accounts of Zeus's upbringing rationalise Amalthea as a goat;{{sfn|''Brill's New Pauly'' Vol. 1|loc=s.v. Amalthea (1)}} these versions start appearing in the [[Hellenistic period]].{{sfn|Fowler|2013|p=324}} The first author to describe her as a goat seems to have been the 3rd-century BC poet [[Callimachus]],{{sfnm|Hard|2004|1p=75|Gantz||2p=41}} who relates that, after Zeus's birth, the god is taken by the [[Arcadia (region)|Arcadian]] nymph [[Neda (mythology)|Neda]] to a hidden location in Crete, where he is reared by the nymph [[Adrasteia]], and fed the milk of Amalthea.{{refn|{{harvnb|Boyd|p=73}}; [[Callimachus]], ''Hymn to Zeus'' (1) 1.33&ndash;49 {{harv|Clayman|pp=186, 187}}.}} In his description of Zeus suckling Amalthea's breast, Callimachus employs the word {{translit|grc|mazón}} ({{lang|grc|μαζόν}}), which typically denotes the breast of a human (rather than the teat of a goat), thereby, according to Susan Stephens, "call[ing] attention to his own rationalizing variant of the myth".{{refn|{{harvnb|Stephens|p=64 on lines 48&ndash;49}}; cf. {{harvnb|McLennan|pp=81&ndash;82}}.}} According to a [[scholium]] (or commentary) on Callimachus's account, from one of Amalthea's horns flows [[ambrosia]], and from the other comes nectar.{{refn|{{harvnb|Campbell|p=322}}; {{harvnb|J. F. Miller|p=223}}; {{harvnb|Hansen|p=325}}; Scholia on [[Callimachus]]' ''Hymn to Zeus'' (1), 1.49 {{harv|J. F. Miller|p=223 n. 9}}.}} In the version of Zeus's infancy from Diodorus Siculus (1st century BC), the child is reared by nymphs (who are not named) on the milk of the goat Amalthea, as well as honey,{{refn|{{harvnb|Larson|p=185}}; [[Diodorus Siculus]], 5.70.2&ndash;3 {{harv|Oldfather|1939|pp=284&ndash;287}}.}} and adds that Amalthea is the source of Zeus's epithet {{translit|grc|aigíokhos}} ({{lang|grc|αἰγίοχος}}, {{gloss|aegis-bearing}}).{{refn|{{harvnb|Farnell|1896a|p=97}}; {{harvnb|Oldfather|1939|p=289 n. 1}}; [[Diodorus Siculus]], 5.70.6 {{harv|Oldfather|1939|pp=286&ndash;289}}.}} An account which is largely the same as that given by Pseudo-Eratosthenes is found in a scholium on the ''[[Iliad]]'', though the scholiast describes Amalthea herself as the goat which terrifies the Titans (rather than the owner of the goat).{{refn|{{harvnb|Gantz|p=41}}; Scholia D on [[Homer]]'s ''[[Iliad]]'', 15.229 {{harv|Dindorf|p=72}}. This version also specifies that it is Themis who provides the oracle, directing Zeus to use the goat's skin. Part of the scholium's account also seems to have been preserved in ''[[Oxyrhynchus Papyri|P. Oxy.]]'' 3003 col. ii.15&ndash;19 {{harv|Parsons|p=17}}; see {{harvnb|Parsons|p=19}}.}}

In Greek works of astral mythology, the tale of the goat who nurses the young Zeus is adapted to provide an [[origin myth|aition]] (or origin myth) for certain stars.{{sfn|Hard|2015|p=46}} The 3rd-century BC poet [[Aratus]], in his description of the constellation of the Charioteer ([[Auriga]]) and the surrounding stars, explains that the star of the Goat ([[Capella]]) sits above the Charioteer's left shoulder.{{refn|{{harvnb|Kidd|pp=239, 240 on line 156}}; [[Aratus]], ''Phaenomena'' 155&ndash;61 {{harv|Mair|Mair|pp=218, 219}}], with Mair's [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/aratus-phaenomena/1921/pb_LCL129.219.xml#note_LCL129_219_g n. g] and [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/aratus-phaenomena/1921/pb_LCL129.219.xml#note_LCL129_219_h n. h].}} He identifies this goat with Amalthea,{{refn|{{harvnb|Chrysanthou|p=166}}; {{harvnb|Mair|Mair|p=221 n. a}}.}} describing it as the goat who suckled the young Zeus;{{refn|{{harvnb|Hard|2015|pp=46&ndash;47}}; [[Aratus]], ''Phaenomena'' [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/aratus-phaenomena/1921/pb_LCL129.221.xml 163].}} in this passage, he employs the word {{translit|grc|mazón}} for the goat's breast, similarly to Callimachus,{{sfn|McLennan|p=81}} who may be his source for this information.{{sfn|Kidd|p=242 on line 163}} He also states that the "interpreters of Zeus" refer to her as the Olenian goat, which may be an allusion to a version in which Zeus is reared, by a goat, near [[Olenus (Achaea)|Olenos]] in [[Achaea]], or to the location of the star, on the arm ({{translit|grc|ōlénē}}, {{lang|grc|ὠλένη}}) of Auriga;{{refn|{{harvnb|Hard|2015|p=47}}; {{harvnb|Mair|Mair|p=221 n. a}}; [[Aratus]], ''Phaenomena'' [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/aratus-phaenomena/1921/pb_LCL129.219.xml 164]. For the first interpretation, see [[Strabo]], 8.7.5 {{harv|Jones|1927|pp=222, 223}}].}} alternatively, it may indicate that the Goat's father is [[Olenus]] (the son of [[Hephaestus]]),{{sfnm|Fowler|2013|1p=323 n. 212|Boyd||2p=73 n. 28}} an interpretation given by a scholium on the passage.{{refn|{{harvnb|''LIMC''|p=582}}; Scholia on [[Aratus]], 164 {{harv|Kidd|p=243 on line 164}}. Cf. [[Gaius Julius Hyginus|Hyginus]], ''[[De astronomia]]'' 2.13.5 {{harv|Hard|2015|p=44}}, who describes Aix and [[Helice (mythology)|Helice]], nurses of Zeus, as daughters of Olenus.{{sfn|Fowler|2013|p=323 n. 212}} For a more detailed discussion of possible explanations for this word, see {{harvnb|Bömer|pp=298&ndash;299 on line 113}}; {{harvnb|Frazer|2015b|pp=11&ndash;12}}; {{harvnb|Boyd|p=73 with n. 28}}.}} At the end of the account given by Pseudo-Eratosthenes, the text contains a [[lacuna (manuscript)|lacuna]] (or gap), where he would have described Zeus placing the goat among the stars;{{refn|{{harvnb|Olivieri|p=17 with n. 22&ndash;3}}; {{harvnb|Hard|2015|p=42}}; {{harvnb|Santoni|p=190 n. 118}}; cf. [[Gaius Julius Hyginus|Hyginus]], ''[[De astronomia]]'' 2.13.7 {{harv|Hard|2015|pp=44&ndash;45}}.}} in the ''Catasterismi'', the god would have performed this action for her role in his defeat of the Titans, and her nursing of him during his youth.{{sfn|Gee|p=132 with n. 20}}

=== Merging of traditions ===
According to [[Robert Fowler (academic)|Robert Fowler]], the nursing of Zeus by a goat and the originally independent tradition of the magical horn had become "entangled" by the time of Pherecydes;{{sfn|Fowler|2013|pp=323&ndash;324}} [[Jan N. Bremmer]], however, states that it was not until [[Ovid]] (who was active around the beginning of the 1st century AD) that the two tales were brought together.{{sfn|''Brill's New Pauly'' Vol. 1|loc=s.v. Amalthea (1)}} In Ovid's account, presented in his ''[[Fasti (poem)|Fasti]]'',{{refn|[[Ovid]], ''[[Fasti (poem)|Fasti]]'' 5.111&ndash;28 {{harv|Frazer|1931|pp=268, 269}}.}} Amalthea is once again the owner of the goat,{{sfnm|Gantz||1p=41|Campbell||2p=322}} and is described as a [[naiad]] who lives on [[Mount Ida]].{{sfnm|Gee||1p=131|Hard|2015|2p=47}} She hides the young Zeus in Crete (away from his father, [[Cronus]]), where he is suckled by the she-goat.{{sfn|Boyle|Woodard|p=258 on lines 5.111&ndash;114}} On one occasion, the goat snaps off one of its horns on a tree, and Amalthea, filling the broken horn with fruit, brings it back to the young Zeus;{{refn|{{harvnb|Gantz|p=41}}; {{harvnb|Hard|2004|p=280}}; cf. [[Ovid]], ''[[Metamorphoses]]'' 9.87&ndash;88 {{harv|F. J. Miller|pp=8, 9}}, where a similar scene is described for the horn of Achelous.}} this tale, an aition for the cornucopia, appears to be the earliest attempt at providing an origin for the object.{{sfn|Gantz|p=41}} Zeus later places the goat (and perhaps her broken-off horn){{refn|On the ambiguity of Ovid's Latin as to this detail, see {{harvnb|Gee|p=131 n. 17}}.}} in the heavens, with the goat becoming the star Capella.{{refn|{{harvnb|Gee|p=131}}; {{harvnb|Boyle|Woodard|pp=258 on lines 1.111&ndash;114, 259 on lines 5.127&ndash;128}}. According to Boyle and Woodard, the horn may become the constellation [[Capricornus]].}} Ovid's narrative brings together elements from multiple earlier accounts, which he intertwines in an episode characterised by John Miller as a "miniature masterpiece".{{sfn|J. F. Miller|pp=218, 225}} His source for the narrative's overall outline appears to be Eratosthenes: he describes Amalthea as a nymph,{{sfnm|J. F. Miller||1pp=219&ndash;220, 222|Frazer|2015b|2p=12}} and seemingly alludes to Zeus's war with the Titans,{{sfn|Gee|p=132}} though he notably departs from the Eratosthenic story by describing the goat as 'beautiful' ({{lang|la|formosa}}) and possessing majestic horns.{{sfn|J. F. Miller|p=220}} Ovid harks back to Aratus's account in the first words of his narrative, which mirror the opening phrase of the Aratean story,{{refn|The initial phrase of Ovid's narrative is {{lang|la|Ab Iove surgat opus}} (rendered as "Begin the work with Jupiter" in [https://www.loebclassics.com/view/ovid-fasti/1931/pb_LCL253.269.xml Frazer's translation]), while Aratus begins with {{lang|grc|Ἐκ Διὸς ἀρχώμεσθα}} ("Let us begin from Zeus").}} as well as through his description of the goat as "Olenian".{{refn|{{harvnb|J. F. Miller|pp=221&ndash;222}}. Miller also points to Ovid's choice to describe the goat as having two kids, which hints at the constellation of the Kids, mentioned by Aratus as sitting beside that of the goat (and as being her offspring).}} Barbara Boyd also sees in Ovid's narrative significant influence from the Callimachean account of Zeus's infancy.{{refn|{{harvnb|Boyd|p=72}}. According to Boyd, in Ovid "makes Callimachus both the primary model and the focus of his narrative". In response, {{harvnb|J. F. Miller|p=218}}, argues that Boyd "downplays the extent of Ovid's engagement with Aratus here, and correspondingly somewhat overemphasizes the admittedly important Callimachean background".}}

Though Ovid's ''Fasti'' is the first known source to clearly narratively merge the tradition of Zeus's upbringing with that of Amalthea's magical horn, Miller points to a (somewhat garbled) scholium on Aratus as evidence that the two tales may have already been connected by the time of Ovid.{{refn|{{harvnb|J. F. Miller|p=223}}; Scholia on [[Aratus]], 156 {{harv|Martin|pp=158&ndash;159}}.}} The scholiast, who appears to mix two differing versions, one in which Zeus's nurse is an Arcadian woman,{{refn|On the scholiast's apparent placement of the myth in Arcardia, see {{harvnb|Gee|p=134 n. 27}}.}} and another in which she is a goat, describes the horn of this nurse as being Amalthea's horn, which he associates with the constellation of the Goat; Amalthea's horn here would seem to be the magical horn of plenty, though the two are not explicitly identified.{{refn|{{harvnb|Gee|p=134}}. According to Gee, "we can surmise this from our knowledge of the tradition recorded by Pherecydes" (though the horn is there part of a different story).}} Miller also points, as possible further evidence of a tradition in which the two tales were connected, to the scholium on Callimachus, whose mention of ambrosia and nectar flowing from the goat's horns may have been related to the young Zeus's nourishment, and a 2nd-century AD marble relief, which seems to show Amalthea feeding the young Zeus from a large cornucopia.{{refn|{{harvnb|J. F. Miller|p=223}}. On this marble relief, see {{section link||Iconography}}. For Miller's discussion of this representation, and its apparent parallels to Ovid's account, see {{harvnb|J. F. Miller|pp=223&ndash;225}}.}}

=== Later versions ===
In the account of Zeus's infancy in the ''[[Fabulae]]'' (a mythological handbook attributed to [[Gaius Julius Hyginus|Hyginus]], and likely composed in the 2nd century AD),{{refn|[[Gaius Julius Hyginus|Hyginus]], ''[[Fabulae]]'' 139 {{harv|Smith|Trzaskoma|p=146}}; {{harvnb|Marshall|pp=122&ndash;123}}. For this dating, see {{harvnb|Hard|2004|p=13}}.}} his elder siblings are seemingly not swallowed (as they are in Hesiod's ''Theogony''), though Rhea still gives Cronus a stone in place of Zeus, which he consumes.{{refn|{{harvnb|Gantz|p=41}}. In Hesiod's ''Theogony'', the [[Titans|Titan]] [[Cronus]] swallows the first five of his children&mdash;[[Hestia]], [[Demeter]], [[Hera]], [[Hades]], and [[Poseidon]]&mdash;once each is born, and so, their mother, [[Rhea (mythology)|Rhea]], gives Cronus a stone to swallow in place of their sixth child, Zeus. In the ''Fabulae'', instead of swallowing his children, Cronus hurls Poseidon below the seas, and casts Hades into the [[Greek underworld|underworld]]. Hera is also not swallowed, as she transports the newborn Zeus.}} Upon realising the deception, Cronus scours the earth for his son, while Hera carries the infant to Crete, where she entrusts him to Amalthea,{{sfn|Kerényi|pp=93&ndash;94}} who appears to be a nymph in this account.{{refn|This is the interpretation of {{harvnb|''LIMC''|p=582}}.}} To keep Zeus from his father, Amalthea hides him in a cradle, which she places in a tree, such that he "could not be found in the sky, on earth, or on the sea".{{refn|{{harvnb|Hard|2004|p=75}}; {{harvnb|Kerényi|pp=93&ndash;94}}; {{harvnb|''LIMC''|p=582}}. The quoted translation is that given by {{harvnb|Smith|Trzaskoma|p=146}}.}} To prevent Cronus from hearing the cries of the young child, Amalthea brings together the [[Kouretes]], and hands them shields and spears, which she instructs them to clang noisily around where the child lies.{{refn|{{harvnb|Kerényi|p=94}}. The Kouretes (also referred to as the Corybantes) are included in accounts of Zeus's infancy from as early as Callimachus, and are commonly described as performing their clangorous dance around the entrance to the cave in which the infant is nursed.{{sfn|Hard|2004|p=75}}}} According to [[Martin P. Nilsson|Martin Nilsson]], this account is likely not the creation of Hyginus himself, and probably has some basis in an association of the young Zeus with tree worship.{{sfn|Nilsson|p=480 n. 6}} Later in the work, Hyginus mentions {{lang|la|Althaea}},{{refn|[[Gaius Julius Hyginus|Hyginus]], ''[[Fabulae]]'' 182 {{harv|Smith|Trzaskoma|p=158}}; {{harvnb|Marshall|p=152}}. Marshall gives the names of the three daughters as {{lang|la|Idyia}}, {{lang|la|Althaea}}, and {{lang|la|Adrasta}}; cf. {{harvnb|Smith|Trzaskoma|p=191 on line 182}}.}} which [[M. L. West]] interprets as referring to Amalthea,{{refn|{{harvnb|West|1983|p=133 n. 40}}; so too {{harvnb|Smith|Trzaskoma|p=191 on line 182}}.}} and describes her as one of the daughters of Ocean (here seemingly meaning [[Oceanus]]),{{refn|This is the interpretation of {{harvnb|Fowler|2013|p=323}}.}} alongside Adrasteia and Ida.{{sfn|Smith|Trzaskoma|pp=158, 191 to line 182}} He adds that these three are alternatively considered daughters of [[Melisseus]], the king of Crete, and nurses of Zeus.{{refn|{{harvnb|Fowler|2013|p=323 n. 212}}; {{harvnb|''Brill's New Pauly'' Vol. 8|loc=s.v. Melisseus}}. Hyginus also states that these three are "the ones that are called Dodonian Nymphs (others call them the Naiads)".{{sfn|Smith|Trzaskoma|p=158}}}}

[[File:Base with reliefs of the birth of Zeus (Rome Mus Cap 1944) 04 crop.jpg|thumb|alt=Two men holding shields stand in front of a baby drinking the milk of a goat|The goat Amalthea suckles the infant Zeus, behind two [[Kouretes]] who dance raucously. Marble relief from the 2nd century AD, [[Capitoline Museum]].{{refn|1={{harvnb|''LIMC''|p=583}}; [[Digital LIMC]] [https://app.dasch.swiss/resource/080E/VDtVGGc0Ul20YSRJ57gZbg 1942 (Amaltheia 6)].}}]]
Other versions of Zeus's upbringing also describe Amalthea as being related to Melisseus, the king of Crete.{{refn|On this figure, see {{harvnb|''Brill's New Pauly'' Vol. 8|loc=s.v. Melisseus}}. According to Frazer's note 1 to [[Bibliotheca (Apollodorus)|Apollodorus]], 1.1.7 {{harv|Frazer|1921|pp=6&ndash;9}}, "his name is probably due to an attempt to rationalize the story that the infant Zeus was fed by bees".}} In the account given by the late-1st-century BC writer [[Didymus Chalcenterus|Didymus]], the infant Zeus is raised by the nymphs Amalthea and [[Melissa (mythology)|Melissa]], the daughters of Melisseus, who feed him honey and the milk of a goat.{{refn|{{harvnb|''Brill's New Pauly'' Vol. 8|loc=s.v. Melisseus}}; {{harvnb|Braswell|p=158}}; [[Didymus Chalcenterus|Didymus]] on [[Pindar]], fr. 14b {{harvnb|Braswell}} (pp. 155&ndash;157)] [{{=}} [[Lactantius]], ''[[Divine Institutes]]'' {{harv|Bowen|Garnsey|p=114}}].}} In Apollodorus's version of Zeus's infancy, the god is born in a cave on Cretan [[Mount Dicte]], where he is fed on the milk of Amalthea; he is raised by the nymphs Adrasteia and [[Ida (mythology)|Ida]], the daughters of Melisseus, and protected by the Kouretes, who noisily clang their spears and shields.{{refn|{{harvnb|West|1983|pp=122&ndash;123}}; [[Bibliotheca (Apollodorus)|Apollodorus]], 1.1.6&ndash;7 {{harv|Frazer|1921|pp=6, 7}}.}} Similarly, in the ''De astronomia'', Amalthea is the she-goat who suckles [[Jupiter]] (the [[interpretatio romana|Roman equivalent]] of Zeus), and she is owned by his nurses, the daughters of Melisseus.{{refn|{{harvnb|Breithaupt|p=48}}; [[Gaius Julius Hyginus|Hyginus]], ''[[De astronomia]]'' 2.13.5 {{harv|Hard|2015|p=44}}. Hyginus attributes this account to the 2nd- or 1st-century BC Greek writer [[Parmeniscus]]; on this author, see {{harvnb|''Brill's New Pauly'' Vol. 10|loc=s.v. Parmeniscus}}.}} Amalthea also seems to have been associated with Melisseus in the now-lost [[Rhapsodies (Orphic literature)|Orphic Rhapsodies]], a 1st-century BC or 1st-century AD [[wikt:theogony|theogonic]] poem which was attributed to the mythical poet [[Orpheus]] in antiquity.{{refn|For this dating, see {{harvnb|Meisner|p=1}}.}} [[Luc Brisson]] and M. L. West write that, in the poem, Amalthea was the wife of Melisseus (a detail transmitted by the 5th-century AD [[Neoplatonist]] philosopher [[Hermias (philosopher)|Hermias]]),{{refn|{{harvnb|West|1983|p=133 n. 37}}; Orphic frr. 209 I {{harvtxt|Bernabé|2005|pp=181&ndash;182}}, 209 II {{harvtxt|Bernabé|2005|pp=182&ndash;183}}.}} and that her daughters by him, the nymphs Adrasteia and Ida, raised the young Zeus in the cave of [[Nyx|Night]], while the Kouretes guarded the entrance of the cave.{{sfnm|Brisson||1loc=V p. 61|West|1983|2pp=72, 122&ndash;123}} In {{ill|Alberto Bernabé|es}}'s reconstruction of the poem, however, Zeus is raised by the nymphs Adrasteia and Ida (still the daughters of Melisseus), and is fed on the milk of Amalthea, whom Bernabé describes as a "goat-nymph" ({{lang|es|ninfa-cabra}}).{{refn|{{harvnb|Bernabé|2008|p=315}}. Compare with {{harvnb|Meisner|p=219}}, who states that in the Rhapsodies Zeus is "nursed by a triad of nymphs: Ida, Adrasteia, and Amaltheia", and {{harvnb|Chrysanthou|p=363}}, whose reconstruction of the poem, drawing here from Hermias, states that "Ide and Adrasteia protected Zeus who was hidden in Night's cave where he was also nurtured by Amaltheia".}} An Orphic work may have been the source for the version of Zeus's upbringing told by Apollodorus.{{refn|{{harvnb|Gantz|p=42}}; cf. {{harvnb|West|1983|pp=125&ndash;126}}.}}

Diodorus Siculus, in a [[Euhemerism|euhemerist]] reworking of Amalthea's myth,{{sfn|Bernabé|2005|p=182}} describes her as an especially beautiful young woman, who is wed to Ammon, the king of [[Libya]]; Ammon gifts to her a region of great fertility, which is the shape of a bull's horn, and which, taking its name from her, comes to be known as "Amalthea's Horn".{{refn|{{harvnb|Smith|loc=s.v. Amalthea}}; [[Diodorus Siculus]], 3.68.1 {{harv|Oldfather|1935|pp=308, 309}}.}} In this version, Amalthea and Ammon are also described as the parents of [[Dionysus]].{{refn|{{harvnb|Winiarczyk|p=127}}; [[Diodorus Siculus]], 3.74.1 {{harv|Oldfather|1935|pp=328, 329}}.}} The 1st-century BC Roman writer [[Cicero]], in a [[Epistulae ad Atticum|letter]] to his friend [[Titus Pomponius Atticus|Atticus]],{{refn|[[Cicero]], ''[[Letters to Atticus]]'' 1.16.18 {{harv|Bailey|pp=90&ndash;93}}.}} mentions an {{lang|la|amaltheum}}, which was likely some form of shrine to Amalthea;{{sfn|Petersson|p=27}} on his estate, Atticus had such a shrine, within which were illustrations of Amalthea's mythology, and Cicero, seeking to erect a similar structure on his land in [[Arpinum]], requests that Atticus provide him details of his own shrine and of Amalthea's mythology.{{sfnm|Hejduk||1p=41|Petersson||2p=27}} In a version from the 2nd-century AD Greek writer [[Zenobius]], when Zeus places the goat from his childhood among the stars (as the constellation known as the "heavenly goat"), he sets aside one of her horns, which he gifts to the nymphs who raised him.{{refn|{{harvnb|''Brill's New Pauly'' Vol. 1|loc=s.v. Amalthea (1)}}; [[Zenobius]], 2.48 {{harv|Schneidewin|pp=44, 45}}.}} The ''De astronomia'', after its account of Jupiter's upbringing, states that, alongside Jupiter, the goat Amalthea also raises [[Aegipan]] ({{gloss|Goat-Pan}}),{{refn|{{harvnb|Vian|p=309}}; [[Gaius Julius Hyginus|Hyginus]], ''[[De astronomia]]'' 2.28.1 {{harv|Hard|2015|p=79}}. For the translation of Aegipan's name, see {{harvnb|Tripp|loc=s.v. Aegipan, p. 20}}.}} and [[Nonnus]], a 5th-century AD Greek writer, describes [[Pan (god)|Pan]] as the shepherd of the goat Amalthea.{{refn|{{harvnb|Vian|p=309}}; [[Nonnus]], ''[[Dionysiaca]]'' 27.298 {{harv|Rouse|pp=340, 341}}].}}

== Iconography ==
There are relatively few surviving depictions of Amalthea in [[ancient Greek art|ancient Greek]] and [[Roman art]].{{sfn|Reeder|p=38}} On a marble relief, which likely dates to the 2nd century AD, she is shown as a nymph, holding a large cornucopia out to the young Zeus, from which the infant eats.{{refn|{{harvnb|''LIMC''|p=582}}; [[Digital LIMC]] [https://app.dasch.swiss/resource/080E/OVuxdjQNVrOl2DghstgDAw 45698 (Amaltheia 1)].}} The scene also includes a young Pan playing a [[syrinx]], two goats, and an eagle and a snake sitting in a tree.{{sfn|J. F. Miller|p=223}} In this representation, Miller sees a number of parallels with Ovid's narrative, and he points to the relief as evidence that Amalthea's horn may have been part of the myth of Zeus's upbringing prior to Ovid, suggesting that Ovid and the artist who produced the relief may have been working from a shared source.{{sfn|J. F. Miller|pp=223&ndash;224}} There exist several other representations of Amalthea as a nymph, though she is more commonly depicted as a goat.{{refn|{{harvnb|''LIMC''|p=583}}; {{harvnb|Preimesberger|p=60}}. In some cases representations of a goat identified as Amalthea may instead be depictions of the goat she owns.}} As a goat, she is often shown suckling the young Zeus, or with the child mounted upon her back.{{sfn|''LIMC''|p=583}} Amalthea is also found on coins and medallions from the [[Roman Empire]], including those from the reigns of [[Titus]] and [[Gallienus]].{{sfnm|Preimesberger||1pp=63&ndash;64|Woods||2pp=189&ndash;190}}

== Other representations ==
{{multiple image | direction = horizontal | total_width = 400 | image1 = The Childhood of Zeus (Louvre) by Jakob Jordaens.jpg | alt1 = Painting showing a woman milking a goat, beside an infant and a satyr | image2 = Amalthea Julien Louvre CC230.jpg | alt2 = Sculpture of a woman draped in cloth, with her hand on a goat | footer = Pictured are [[Jacques Jordaens]]' ''Jupiter and Amalthea'' (left), dating to around 1625–1650,{{refn|{{harvnb|Sutton|p=148}}; [[Louvre]] [https://collections.louvre.fr/en/ark:/53355/cl010064899 1405].}} and [[Pierre Julien]]'s ''Amalthea'' (right), dating to around 1786&ndash;1787.{{sfn|Worley|p=178}}}}

The [[Septuagint]] (dated to around the 2nd century BC) version of the [[Book of Job]] gives the name of the youngest daughter of [[Job (biblical figure)|Job]], [[Keren-happuch]], as {{translit|grc|Amaltheías Kéras}} ({{lang|grc|Ἀμαλθείας Κέρας}}, {{gloss|horn of Amalthea}}), a name the Roman author [[Pliny the Elder]] explicitly identifies with the cornucopia.{{sfn|''DDD''|loc=s.v. Amaltheia Ἀμάλθεια}} In the 4th-century AD, the Christian bishop [[Gregory of Nyssa]] writes that the text's usage of this term should not be taken as reason to believe in the mythical Greek tale of Amalthea, but that it is the text's way of emphasising the virtuous character and beautiful appearance of Job's daughter.{{sfn|''Lexicon Gregorianum''|loc=s.v. Ἀμάλθεια, ἡ}}

In modern art, Amalthea was the subject of [[The Goat Amalthea with the Infant Jupiter and a Faun|a sculpture]] by the [[Baroque sculpture|Baroque]] sculptor [[Gian Lorenzo Bernini]], which was among his first works, having been produced in 1615 or earlier.{{sfn|Preimesberger|p=59}} The work depicts Amalthea as a goat, and shows the infant Jupiter drinking her milk, accompanied by a young [[satyr]],{{sfn|Preimesberger|pp=60&ndash;61}} and was for some time thought to have been produced in antiquity.{{sfn|Zirpolo|p=90}} The work, which was acquired by [[Scipione Borghese]] in 1615, may have served a political purpose; it may have been used by the [[House of Borghese|Borghese family]] as a way of portraying the appointment of [[Pope Paul V]] as ushering in a "new Golden Age", represented by the mythical figure of Amalthea, who personified abundance.{{sfn|Preimesberger|pp=53, 62}} The myth of the goat Amalthea was a common subject for the Flemish painter [[Jacob Jordaens]],{{sfn|Sutton|p=147}} whose paintings of the scene in some cases included elements such as a satyr playing a flute or tambourine, or a nymph holding a milk pitcher looking while at the audience.{{sfnm|Auwera|Schaudies|1p=116|Sutton|2pp=147&ndash;148}} A print by [[Schelte a Bolswert]], after one of Jordaens' paintings of Amalthea, is accompanied by an inscription which presents a moral interpretation of the myth, explaining that Jupiter's adulterous ways are unsurprising, given he is raised by a goat and satyrs, an upbringing which leads him to emulate a "goat's nature".{{sfn|Preimesberger|pp=64&ndash;65}} Around 1786 to 1787, the French sculptor [[Pierre Julien]] produced a work depicting Amalthea as a nymph, covered in drapery and accompanied by a goat;{{sfn|Worley|pp=87, 90}} when the sculpture was exhibited in 1791, it received high praise, attracting comparison from one critic with the classical Greek sculptures of [[Praxiteles]] and [[Phidias]].{{sfn|Worley|p=89}} Julien also produced a relief in which Amalthea is a she-goat, which depicts, in addition to the young Jupiter and several nymphs, a number of Corybantes shown dancing raucously.{{sfn|Worley|p=91}}

==See also==
* [[Heiðrún]], cosmic goat in Norse mythology

==Notes==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==References==
{{refbegin|30em}}
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* {{wikicite | ref = {{sfnref|Auwera|Schaudies}} | reference = Auwera, Joost Vander, and Irene Schaudies, ''Jordaens and the Antique'', Brussels, Mercatorfonds, 2012. {{ISBN|9789061536758}}. }}
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* {{wikicite | ref = {{sfnref|Bernabé|2008}} | reference = Bernabé, Alberto (2008), "Teogonías Órficas", in ''Orfeo y la tradición órfica'', pp. 291–324, edited by Alberto Bernabé and Fransec Casadesús, Madrid, Akal, 2008. {{ISBN|9788446018964}}. }}
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* {{wikicite | ref = {{sfnref|Bowen|Garnsey}} | reference = Bowen, Anthony, and Peter Garnsey, ''Lactantius: Divine Institutes'', Liverpool, Liverpool University Press, 2003. {{ISBN|0853239886}}. [https://archive.org/details/lactantiusdivine0000lact/page/n7/mode/2up Internet Archive]. }}
* {{wikicite | ref = {{sfnref|Boyd}} | reference = Boyd, Barbara Weiden, "''Celabitur Auctor'': The Crisis of Authority and Narrative Patterning in Ovid ''Fasti'' 5", in ''Phoenix'', Vol. 54, No. 1/2, pp.&nbsp;64–98, 2000. {{JSTOR|1089091}}. }}
* {{wikicite | ref = {{sfnref|Boyle|Woodard}} | reference = Boyle, A. J., and R. D. Woodard, ''Ovid: Fasti'', London and New York, Penguin Books, 2000. {{ISBN|0140446907}}. }}
* {{wikicite | ref = {{sfnref|Braswell}} | reference = Braswell, Bruce Karl, ''Didymos of Alexandria: Commentary on Pindar'', Basel, Schwabe, 2017. {{ISBN|9783796534935}}. }}
* {{wikicite | ref = {{sfnref|Breithaupt}} | reference = Breithaupt, Maximilianus, ''De Parmenisco Grammatico'', Leipzig and Berlin, Teubner, 1915. {{OCLC|247240766}}. }}
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{{refend}}

==External links==
* {{Commons category-inline|Amalthea (mythology)}}

{{Greek mythology (deities)}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Oceanids]]
[[Category:Nymphs]]
[[Category:Mythological caprids]]
[[Category:Mythological Cretans]]
[[Category:Cretan mythology]]
[[Category:Deeds of Zeus]]