Editing Algeria

{{short description|Country in North Africa}}
{{About|the country}}
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{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2022}}
{{Use British English|date=January 2025}}
{{Infobox country
| conventional_long_name = People's Democratic Republic of Algeria
| native_name            = {{native name|ar|الجمهورية الجزائرية الديمقراطية الشعبية}}<br />{{resize|80%|{{transliteration|ar|al-Jumhūriyyatu al-Jazāʾiriyyatu ad-Dīmuqrāṭiyyatu ash‑Shaʿbiyyah}}}}
| name                   = 
| common_name            = Algeria
| image_flag             = Flag of Algeria.svg
| flag_border            = yes
| image_coat             = National Emblem of Algeria (bronze effect).svg
| symbol_type            = [[Emblem of Algeria|Emblem]]
| national_motto         = {{lang|ar|بِالشَّعْبِ و لِلشَّعْبِ}}<br />"Biš-šaʿb wa liš-šaʿb"<br />"By the people and for the people"<ref name="CONST-AR">{{cite web|url=http://www.el-mouradia.dz/arabe/symbole/textes/constitution96.htm |title=Constitution of Algeria, Art. 11 |id= language: France and Arabic (government language); people of Algeria speak Arabic and Berber|publisher=El-mouradia.dz |access-date=17 January 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120718124116/http://www.el-mouradia.dz/arabe/symbole/textes/constitution96.htm |archive-date=18 July 2012 }}</ref><ref name="CONST-EN">{{cite web |url= http://www.apn-dz.org/apn/english/constitution96/titre_01.htm |title=Constitution of Algeria; Art. 11 |publisher=Apn-dz.org |date=28 November 1996 |access-date=17 January 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130725130249/http://www.apn-dz.org/apn/english/constitution96/titre_01.htm |archive-date=25 July 2013 }}</ref>
| national_anthem        = {{lang|ar|قَسَمًا}}<br />''[[Kassaman|Qasaman]]''<br />"We Pledge"<br /><div style="display:inline-block;margin-top:0.4em;">{{center|[[File:National anthem of Algeria, by the U.S. Navy Band.oga]]}}</div>
| image_map              = Algeria (centered orthographic projection).svg
| map_caption            = {{Legend|#2d5508|Location of Algeria}}
| image_map2             = 
| capital                = [[Algiers]]
| coordinates            = {{Coord|36|42|N|3|13|E|type:city_region:DZ}}
| largest_city           = capital
| religion               = {{unbulleted list|99% [[Islam in Algeria|Sunni Islam]] ([[State religion|official]]) |<1% others}}
| official_languages     = {{Plainlist|
* [[Modern Standard Arabic|Arabic]] 
* [[Standard Algerian Berber|Berber]]{{efn|The [[Algerian constitutional amendment of 2016]] officialized Berber as Algeria's second "official" language. The revised constitution also created the [[Algerian Academy of Amazigh Language]], which is responsible for promoting Berber "in view of cementing, in the future, its official language status".<ref>{{Cite web |last=Kestler-D'Amours |first=Jillian |title=Algeria's Berbers protest for language rights |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/12/15/algerias-berbers-protest-for-tamazight-language-rights |access-date=2024-09-17 |website=Al Jazeera |language=en}}</ref>}}
}}
| languages_type         = National vernacular
| languages              = [[Algerian Arabic]]{{efn|The official languages are [[Modern Standard Arabic]] and, since 2016, [[Standard Algerian Berber]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-06-13 |title=What Languages Are Spoken In Algeria? |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-languages-are-spoken-in-algeria.html |access-date=2024-07-07 |website=WorldAtlas |language=en-US}}</ref> Algerian Arabic is the [[spoken language]] used by the vast majority of the population. Other [[Languages of Algeria|Arabic dialects and minority languages]] are spoken regionally.}}
| languages2_type        = Foreign languages
| languages2             = [[French language|French]]{{efn|see [[French language in Algeria]]}}<br />[[English language|English]]{{efn|see [[English language in Algeria]]}}
| ethnic_groups          = See [[#Ethnic groups|Ethnic groups]]
| religion_ref           = <ref name="CIA">{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Algeria|access-date=20 March 2021}}</ref>
| demonym                = [[Algerians|Algerian]]
| government_type        = Unitary [[semi-presidential republic]]
| leader_title1          = [[President of Algeria|President]]
| leader_name1           = [[Abdelmadjid Tebboune]]
| leader_title2          = [[Prime Minister of Algeria|Prime Minister]]
| leader_name2           = [[Nadir Larbaoui]]
| leader_title3          = [[List of presidents of the Council of the Nation (Algeria)|Council President]]
| leader_name3           = [[Salah Goudjil]]
| leader_title4          = [[List of presidents of the People's National Assembly (Algeria)|Assembly President]]
| leader_name4           = [[Ibrahim Boughali]]
| legislature            = [[Parliament of Algeria|Parliament]]
| upper_house            = [[Council of the Nation]]
| lower_house            = [[People's National Assembly]]
| sovereignty_type       = [[History of Algeria|Formation]]
| established_event1     = [[Numidia]]
| established_date1      = 202 BC
| established_event2     = [[Kingdom of Tlemcen]]
| established_date2      = 1235
| established_event3     = [[Regency of Algiers]]
| established_date3      = 1516
| established_event4     = [[French Algeria]]
| established_date4      = 5 July 1830
| established_event5     = [[Algerian War|Independence]]
| established_date5      = 5 July 1962
| area_km2               = 2381741
| area_rank              = 10th
| area_sq_mi             = 919595
| percent_water          = 
| population_estimate    = 46,700,000<ref>{{cite web |title=Demographie Algerienne 2020 à 2023 |url=https://www.ons.dz/IMG/pdf/Demographie_Algerienne2020_2023.pdf |website=[[National Office of Statistics|Office National des Statistiques]] |access-date=5 September 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://elwatan-dz.com/demographie-plus-de-47-millions-dalgeriens-dici-2025 | title=Démographie : Plus de 47 millions d'Algériens d'ici 2025 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Aït Saâda |first1=Farid |title=L'espérance de vie moyenne des Algériens est de 79,6 ans : Une qualité de vie nettement meilleure |url=https://www.elmoudjahid.dz/fr/economie/l-esperance-de-vie-moyenne-des-algeriens-est-de-79-6-ans-une-qualite-de-vie-nettement-meilleure-220929 |website=[[El Moudjahid]] |access-date=5 September 2024 |language=fr }}{{Dead link|date=January 2025 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
| population_estimate_year = 2024
| population_estimate_rank = 33rd
| population_census_year = 
| population_density_km2 = 19
| population_density_sq_mi = 49
| population_density_rank = 171th
| GDP_PPP                = {{increase}} $768.52 billion<ref name="IMFWEODZ"/>
| GDP_PPP_year           = 2024
| GDP_PPP_rank           = 39th
| GDP_PPP_per_capita     = {{increase}} $16,483<ref name="IMFWEODZ"/>
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 99th
| GDP_nominal            = {{increase}} $266.78 billion<ref name="IMFWEODZ">{{cite web |url= https://www.imf.org/external/datamapper/profile/DZA|title= World Economic Outlook Database, April 2024|publisher=[[International Monetary Fund]] |website=IMF.org |access-date=April 16, 2024}}</ref>
| GDP_nominal_year       = 2024
| GDP_nominal_rank       = 50th
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = {{increase}} $5,722<ref name="IMFWEODZ"/>
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 109th
| Gini                   = 27.6
| Gini_year              = 2011
| Gini_ref               = <ref>{{cite web|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2172.html |title=Distribution of Family Income&nbsp;– Gini Index |work=[[The World Factbook]] |publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]] |access-date=1 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070613005439/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2172.html |archive-date=13 June 2007 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=DZ |title=GINI index (World Bank estimate) |publisher=World Bank |access-date=24 February 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181118143415/https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SI.POV.GINI?locations=DZ |archive-date=18 November 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref>
| HDI                    = 0.763
| HDI_year               = 2023<!-- Please use the year to which the data refers, not the publication year -->
| HDI_change             = increase<!-- increase/decrease/steady -->
| HDI_ref                = <ref name="UNHDR">{{Cite web |date=6 May 2025 |title=Human Development Report 2025 |url=https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2025reporten.pdf|url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20250506051232/https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents/global-report-document/hdr2025reporten.pdf |archive-date=6 May 2025 |access-date=6 May 2025 |publisher=[[United Nations Development Programme]] |language=en}}</ref>
| HDI_rank               = 96th
| currency               = [[Algerian dinar]]
| currency_code          = DZD
| time_zone              = [[Central European Time|CET]]
| utc_offset             = +1
| calling_code           = [[Telephone numbers in Algeria|+213]]
| cctld                  = {{ublist |[[.dz]] |{{lang|ar|[[Internationalized country code top-level domain|.الجزائر]]}} 
| today                  = 
}}
| religion_year          = 2012
}}

'''Algeria''',{{efn|{{IPAc-en|audio=En-Algeria-pronunciation.ogg|æ|l|ˈ|dʒ|ɪər|i|ə}} {{respell|al|JEER|ee|ə}}; {{Langx|ar|الجزائر|al-Jazāʾir}}, {{IPA|ar|al.d͡ʒazaːʔir|lang|LL-Q13955 (ara)-Reda Kerbouche-الجزائر.wav}}; {{Langx|fr|link=no|Algérie}} {{IPA|fr|alʒɛʁi|}}}} officially the '''People's Democratic Republic of Algeria''',{{efn|{{Langx|ar|الجمهورية الجزائرية الديمقراطية الشعبية|al-Jumhūriyyah al-Jazāʾiriyyah ad-Dīmuqrāṭiyyah ash‑Shaʿbiyyah}}; {{Langx|fr|link=no|République algérienne démocratique et populaire}}. Formerly also rendered as the '''Democratic and Popular Republic of Algeria''' in English, as seen on the [[Algiers Accords|1981 Algiers Accords]].}} is a country in the [[Maghreb]] region of [[North Africa]]. It is bordered to [[Algeria–Tunisia border|the northeast]] by [[Tunisia]]; to [[Algeria–Libya border|the east]] by [[Libya]]; to [[Algeria–Niger border|the southeast]] by [[Niger]]; to [[Algeria–Western Sahara border|the southwest]] by [[Mali]], [[Mauritania]], and [[Western Sahara]]; to [[Algeria–Morocco border|the west]] by [[Morocco]]; and to the north by the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. The capital and [[List of cities in Algeria|largest city]] is [[Algiers]], located in the far north on the Mediterranean coast.

Inhabited since [[prehistory]], Algeria has been at the crossroads of numerous cultures and civilisations, including the [[Phoenicians]], [[Numidia]]ns, [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], [[Vandals]], and [[Byzantine Greeks]]. Its modern identity is rooted in centuries of [[Arab migrations to the Maghreb|Arab Muslim migration waves]] since [[Muslim conquest of the Maghreb|the seventh century]] and the subsequent [[Arabization|Arabisation]] of the indigenous populations. Following a succession of [[List of Muslim states and dynasties#North Africa (Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco, Tunisia)|Islamic Arab and Berber dynasties]] between the eighth and 15th centuries, the [[Regency of Algiers]] was established in 1516 as a largely independent [[tributary state]] of the [[Ottoman Empire]]. After nearly three centuries as a major power in the Mediterranean, the country was [[Invasion of Algiers in 1830|invaded by France]] in 1830 and [[French Algeria|formally annexed]] in 1848, though it was not fully [[French conquest of Algeria|conquered]] and [[pacification of Algeria|pacified]] until 1903. French rule brought [[Pied-Noir|mass European settlement]] that displaced the local population, which was reduced by up to one-third due to warfare, disease, and starvation.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Algeria/Colonial-rule |title=Algeria – Colonial rule |website=Britannica|access-date=19 December 2023 |archive-date=16 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240116111049/https://www.britannica.com/place/Algeria/Colonial-rule |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Sétif and Guelma massacre]] in 1945 catalysed local resistance that culminated in the outbreak of the [[Algerian War]] in 1954. Algeria [[Independence Day (Algeria)|gained its independence]] in 1962. The country descended into a [[Algerian Civil War|bloody civil war]] from 1992 to 2002.

Spanning {{convert|2381741|km2|sqmi|0}}, Algeria is the world's [[List of countries and dependencies by area|tenth-largest nation by area]], and the [[List of African countries by area|largest nation in Africa]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Africa: largest countries by area 2020|url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/1207844/largest-countries-in-africa-by-area/|access-date=9 February 2022|website=Statista|archive-date=9 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209174938/https://www.statista.com/statistics/1207844/largest-countries-in-africa-by-area/|url-status=live}}</ref> It has a semi-arid climate, with the [[Sahara]] desert dominating most of the territory except for its [[Soil fertility|fertile]] and mountainous north, where most of the population is concentrated.  With a population of 44 million, Algeria is the [[List of African countries by population|tenth-most populous country]] in Africa, and the [[List of countries and dependencies by population|33rd-most populous country]] in the world.  Algeria's official languages are [[Modern Standard Arabic|Arabic]] and [[Standard Algerian Berber|Tamazight]]; [[French language in Algeria|French]] is used in media, education, and certain administrative matters, but it has no official status. The vast majority of the population speak the [[Algerian Arabic|Algerian dialect of Arabic]]. Most Algerians are [[Arabs]], with [[Berbers]] forming a sizeable minority. [[Islam|Sunni Islam]] is the official religion and practised by 99 percent of the population.<ref name="AlgeriaFactbook" />

Algeria is a [[Semi-presidential system|semi-presidential republic]] composed of [[Provinces of Algeria|58 provinces]] ([[wilaya|''wilayas'']]) and [[Communes of Algeria|1,541 communes]]. It is a [[regional power]] in North Africa and a [[middle power]] in global affairs. As of 2025, the country has the highest [[Human Development Index]] in continental Africa, and one of the [[List of African countries by GDP (nominal)|largest economies in Africa]], due mostly to its large petroleum and natural gas reserves, which are the [[List of countries by proven oil reserves|sixteenth]] and [[List of countries by natural gas proven reserves|ninth-largest]] in the world, respectively. [[Sonatrach]], the national oil company, is the largest company in Africa and a major supplier of natural gas to Europe. The [[Algerian People's National Armed Forces|Algerian military]] is one of the largest in Africa, with the [[List of countries with highest military expenditures|highest defence budget]] on the continent and among the highest in the world (ranks 22nd globally).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Defense Budget by Country (2024) |url=https://www.globalfirepower.com/defense-spending-budget.php |access-date=2024-08-02 |website=globalfirepower.com |language=en-US}}</ref> Algeria is a member of the [[African Union]], the [[Arab League]], the [[Organisation of Islamic Cooperation|OIC]], [[OPEC]], the United Nations, and the [[Arab Maghreb Union]], of which it is a founding member.

== Name ==
[[File:Civitates-Orbis-Terrarium-1575.jpg|alt=Page of typeset book|left|thumb|"Algeria" page in the ''[[Georg Braun|Civitates Orbis Terrarium]]'' of 1575]]
Different forms of the name Algeria include: {{langx|ar|الجزائر|al-Jazāʾir}}, {{langx|arq|دزاير|dzāyer}}, {{langx|fr|l'Algérie}}. The country's full name is officially the ''People's Democratic Republic of Algeria''<ref>[http://www.joradp.dz/JO6283/1962/901/FP5.pdf Proclamación de la República argelina] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210228094855/http://www.joradp.dz/JO6283/1962/901/FP5.pdf |date=28 February 2021 }}, Journal officiel de la republique algerienne, 1st year, 1st issue, 1962, páge 5.</ref> ({{langx|ar|الجمهورية الجزائرية الديمقراطية الشعبية|al-Jumhūriyah al-Jazāʾiriyah ad-Dīmuqrāṭiyah ash‑Shaʿbiyah|links=no}}; {{langx|fr|République algérienne démocratique et populaire|links=no}}, {{Abbr.}}RADP; [[Berber languages|Berber]] [[Tifinagh]]: {{Lang|ber|ⵜⴰⴳⴷⵓⴷⴰ ⵜⴰⵣⵣⴰⵢⵔⵉⵜ ⵜⴰⵎⴰⴳⴷⴰⵢⵜ ⵜⴰⵖⴻⵔⴼⴰⵏⵜ}},<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Aps-dz |title=ⵜⵉⵔⵣⵉ ⵜⵓⵏⵚⵉⴱⵜ ⵏ ⵓⵙⴻⵍⵡⴰⵢ ⵏ ⵜⴻⴱⴱⵓⵏ ⵖⴻⵔ ⴽⵓⵡⴰⵢⵜ : ⵜⴰⵙⴳⵓⵔⵉ ⵜⵓⵛⵔⵉⴽⵜ |url=https://www.aps.dz/tamazight-tif/algerie/12079-2022-02-23-17-05-33 |journal=Algeria Press Service}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Ministère de l'Énergie {{!}} Algérie |url=https://www.energy.gov.dz/ |access-date=2024-08-17 |website=www.energy.gov.dz}}</ref>{{efn|name="transcription"|The transcription of Tamazight in the Tifinagh alphabet is not [[Codification (linguistics)|codified]].<ref name="El Watan 2020">{{cite web | title=La standardisation de la transcription n'est pas tranchée : Quelle graphie pour tamazight ? | website=El Watan | date=22 April 2020 | url=https://www.elwatan.com/regions/kabylie/tizi-ouzou/la-standardisation-de-la-transcription-nest-pas-tranchee-quelle-graphie-pour-tamazight-22-04-2020 | language=fr | access-date=14 March 2021 | archive-date=14 March 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210314144817/https://www.elwatan.com/regions/kabylie/tizi-ouzou/la-standardisation-de-la-transcription-nest-pas-tranchee-quelle-graphie-pour-tamazight-22-04-2020 | url-status=dead }}</ref>}} [[Berber Latin alphabet]]: {{lang|ber|Tagduda tazzayrit tamagdayt taɣerfant}}<ref>{{Cite journal |title=Aseɣnew n GPRA ila iswi n useddukkel n Tegrawla akked usegrew n umɣiwan aɣelnaw |url=https://www.aps.dz/tamazight-tal/algerie/71962-ase-new-n-gpra-ila-iswi-n-usddukkel-n-tegrawla-akked-usegrew-n-um-iwan-a-elnaw |journal=Algeria Press Service}}</ref>).

=== Etymology ===
Algeria's name derives from the city of [[Algiers]], which in turn derives from the Arabic {{lang|ar-Latn|al-Jazāʾir}} ({{lang|ar|الجزائر}}, 'the islands'), referring to four small islands off its coast,<ref>{{Cite book |last=LLC |first=Forbidden Fruits |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JA7tcmEx5lsC&q=origin+of+the+word+algeria+island&pg=PT14 |title=iAfrica – Ancient History UNTOLD |date=30 January 2013 |publisher=Forbidden Fruit Books LLC|access-date=8 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328154334/https://books.google.com/books?id=JA7tcmEx5lsC&q=origin+of+the+word+algeria+island&pg=PT14#v=snippet&q=origin%20of%20the%20word%20algeria%20island&f=false |archive-date=28 March 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref> a truncated form of the older {{lang|ar-Latn|Jazāʾir Banī Mazghanna}} ({{lang|ar|جزائر بني مزغنة}}, 'islands of Bani Mazghanna').<ref>{{cite book |last1=Bazina |first1=Abdullah Salem |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EpvHCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA23 |title=The spread of Islam in Sub-Saharan in Africa |date=2010 |publisher=Al Manhal |isbn=978-9796500024 |language=ar |access-date=25 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181216030953/https://books.google.ca/books?id=EpvHCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA23 |archive-date=16 December 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="idrisi">al-Idrisi, Muhammad (12th century) ''Nuzhat al-Mushtaq''</ref>{{page needed|date=February 2013}}<ref name="khaldun">{{cite book |last=Abderahman |first=Abderrahman |title=History of Ibn Khaldun&nbsp;– Volume 6 |year=1377}}</ref>{{page needed|date=February 2013}} The name was given by [[Buluggin ibn Ziri]] after he established the city on the ruins of the [[Phoenicia]]n city of [[Icosium]] in 950.<ref>{{Cite web |title=les origines d'alger, conference faite le 16 juin 1941, comite du vieil alger; venis |url=http://alger-roi.fr/Alger/alger_son_histoire/textes/3_origines_alger_1941_feuillets.htm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116134513/http://alger-roi.fr/Alger/alger_son_histoire/textes/3_origines_alger_1941_feuillets.htm |archive-date=16 January 2013 |access-date=2023-04-27 |website=alger-roi.fr}}</ref> It was employed by medieval geographers such as [[Muhammad al-Idrisi]] and [[Yaqut al-Hamawi]].

Algeria took its name from the Regency of Algeria<ref name="Nyrop-1972">{{Cite book |last=Nyrop |first=Richard F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bdn0p4kDs6cC |title=Area Handbook for Algeria |date=1972 |publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office |pages=7}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Studies |first=American University (Washington, D. C. ) Foreign Area |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ALHjoSJm-PsC&dq=Algeria+name+ottoman&pg=PA3 |title=Algeria, a Country Study |date=1979 |publisher=[Department of Defense], Department of the Army |pages=3}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Peaslee |first1=Amos Jenkins |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q2ICyUltcvIC |title=Constitutions of Nations: Volume I, Africa |last2=Xydis |first2=Dorothy Peaslee |date=1974 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-247-1681-4 |pages=3}}</ref> or Regency of Algiers,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Hardman |first=Ben |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ES_wd_TaxIoC&dq=Algeria+name+ottoman&pg=PA2 |title=Islam and the Métropole: A Case Study of Religion and Rhetoric in Algeria |date=2009 |publisher=Peter Lang |isbn=978-1-4331-0271-4 |pages=2}}</ref> when Ottoman rule was established in the central [[Maghreb]] in early 16th century. This period saw the installation of a political and administrative organisation which participated in the establishment of the {{lang|ar-Latn|Watan el djazâïr}} ({{Lang|ar|وطن الجزائر}}, 'country of Algiers') and the definition of its borders with its neighboring entities on the east and west.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Merouche |first=Lemnouar |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xeNPDwAAQBAJ |title=Recherches sur l'Algérie à l'époque ottomane II.: La course, mythes et réalité |date=2007-10-15 |publisher=Editions Bouchène |isbn=978-2-35676-055-5 |pages=139 |language=fr}}</ref> The [[Ottoman Turks]] who settled in Algeria referred both to themselves<ref>{{Cite book |last=Studies |first=American University (Washington, D. C. ) Foreign Area |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ALHjoSJm-PsC&dq=Algeria+name+ottoman&pg=PA3 |title=Algeria, a Country Study |date=1979 |publisher=[Department of Defense], Department of the Army |pages=23}}</ref><ref name="Naylor-2006">{{Cite book |last=Naylor |first=Phillip Chiviges |url=http://archive.org/details/historicaldictio0000nayl |title=Historical dictionary of Algeria |date=2006 |publisher=Lanham, Md. : Scarecrow Press |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-8108-5340-9 |pages=11}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Julien |first=Charles André |url=http://archive.org/details/historyofnorthaf0000juli |title=History of North Africa: Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco. From the Arab Conquest to 1830 |date=1970 |publisher=New York, Praeger |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-7100-6614-5 |pages=284}}</ref> and the peoples as "[[Algerians]]".<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Carpenter |first1=Allan |url=http://archive.org/details/algeria00carp |title=Algeria |last2=Balow |first2=Tom |date=1978 |publisher=Chicago : Childrens Press |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-516-04551-1 |pages=33}}</ref><ref name="Nyrop-1972"/> Acting as a central [[military]] and [[political authority]] in the regency, the Ottoman Turks shaped the modern [[political identity]] of Algeria as a state possessing all the attributes of [[sovereign]] independence, despite still being nominally subject to the [[List of sultans of the Ottoman Empire|Ottoman sultan]].<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ruedy |first=John (John Douglas) |url=http://archive.org/details/modernalgeriaori0000rued |title=Modern Algeria : the origins and development of a nation |date=1992 |publisher=Bloomington : Indiana University Press |others=Internet Archive |isbn=978-0-253-34998-9 |pages=16}}</ref>{{Sfn|Nyrop|1972|p=15}} Algerian nationalist, historian and statesman [[Ahmed Tewfik El Madani]] regarded the regency as the "first Algerian state" and the "Algerian Ottoman republic".<ref name="Naylor-2006" /><ref>{{Cite book |last=Maddy-Weitzman |first=Bruce |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xVpxZSTyhb0C&dq=Algerian+ottoman+republic&pg=PA34 |title=The Berber Identity Movement and the Challenge to North African States |date=2011-05-01 |publisher=University of Texas Press |isbn=978-0-292-74505-6 |pages=34}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Coller |first=Ian |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5A3UDwAAQBAJ&dq=Algerian+ottoman+republic&pg=PA127 |title=Muslims and Citizens: Islam, Politics, and the French Revolution |date=2020-03-20 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-24953-8 |pages=127}}</ref>

== History ==
{{Main|History of Algeria}}

=== Prehistory and ancient history ===
{{main|Prehistoric North Africa|North Africa during Antiquity}}
[[File:Djemila7.jpg|left|thumb|Roman ruins at [[Djémila]]]]
Around ~1.8-million-year-old stone artifacts from Ain Hanech (Algeria) were considered to represent the oldest archaeological materials in North Africa.<ref name="science.org">{{cite journal |display-authors=etal |last1=Sahnouni |title=1.9-million- and 2.4-million-year-old artifacts and stone tool–cutmarked bones from Ain Boucherit, Algeria |journal=Science |date=14 December 2018 |volume=362 |issue=6420 |pages=1297–1301 |doi=10.1126/science.aau0008 |pmid=30498166 |bibcode=2018Sci...362.1297S |hdl=10072/383164 |s2cid=54166305 |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aau0008 |access-date=22 November 2021 |hdl-access=free |archive-date=22 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211122211753/https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aau0008 |url-status=live | issn = 0036-8075 }}</ref> Stone artifacts and cut-marked bones that were excavated from two nearby deposits at Ain Boucherit are estimated to be ~1.9&nbsp;million years old, and even older stone artifacts to be as old as ~2.4&nbsp;million years.<ref name="science.org"/> Hence, the Ain Boucherit evidence shows that ancestral hominins inhabited the Mediterranean fringe in northern Africa much earlier than previously thought. The evidence strongly argues for early dispersal of stone tool manufacture and use from East Africa, or a possible multiple-origin scenario of stone technology in both East and North Africa.

Neanderthal tool makers produced hand axes in the [[Levallois technique|Levalloisian]] and [[Mousterian]] styles (43,000 BC) similar to those in the [[Levant]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gi.ulpgc.es/tarha/Ain_Hanech.pdf |title=The Site of Ain Hanech Revisited: New Investigations at this Lower Pleistocene Site in Northern Algeria |publisher=Journal of Archaeological Science |author1=Sahnouni, Mohamed |author2=de Heinzelin, Jean |access-date=14 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510140017/http://www.gi.ulpgc.es/tarha/Ain_Hanech.pdf |archive-date=10 May 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.stoneageinstitute.org/ain-hanech.html |title=Research at Ain Hanech, Algeria |publisher=Stoneageinstitute.org |access-date=14 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120712045121/http://www.stoneageinstitute.org/ain-hanech.html |archive-date=12 July 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> Algeria was the site of the highest state of development of [[Middle Paleolithic]] [[Flake tool]] techniques.<ref name="DelsonTattersall2004">{{cite book|author1=Eric Delson|author2=Ian Tattersall|author3=John Van Couvering|author4=Alison S. Brooks|title=Encyclopedia of Human Evolution and Prehistory: Second Edition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6GFGsswTIO8C&pg=PA32|year=2004|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-58228-9|page=32}}</ref> Tools of this era, starting about 30,000 BC, are called [[Aterian]] (after the archaeological site of [[Bir el Ater]], south of [[Tébessa|Tebessa]]).

The earliest blade industries in North Africa are called [[Iberomaurusian]] (located mainly in the [[Oran]] region). This industry appears to have spread throughout the coastal regions of the [[Maghreb]] between 15,000 and 10,000 BC. [[neolithic|Neolithic civilisation]] (animal domestication and agriculture) developed in the Saharan and Mediterranean Maghreb perhaps as early as 11,000 BC<ref>{{cite journal |title=Genomic Ancestry of North Africans Supports Back-to-Africa Migrations |journal=PLOS Genetics |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=e1002397 |date=12 January 2012 |doi=10.1371/journal.pgen.1002397 |pmid=22253600 |pmc=3257290 |last1=Henn |first1=Brenna M. |last2=Botigué |first2=Laura R. |last3=Gravel |first3=Simon |last4=Wang |first4=Wei |last5=Brisbin |first5=Abra |last6=Byrnes |first6=Jake K. |last7=Fadhlaoui-Zid |first7=Karima |last8=Zalloua |first8=Pierre A. |last9=Moreno-Estrada |first9=Andres |last10=Bertranpetit |first10=Jaume |last11=Bustamante |first11=Carlos D. |last12=Comas |first12=David |doi-access=free }}</ref> or as late as between 6000 and 2000 BC. This life, richly depicted in the [[Tassili n'Ajjer]] paintings, predominated in Algeria until the classical period. The mixture of peoples of North Africa coalesced eventually into a distinct native population that came to be called [[Berber people|Berbers]], who are the indigenous peoples of northern Africa.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Berbers|publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]]|year=1997|chapter=Berbers in Antiquity|isbn=978-0-631-20767-2|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8Zcz91t29ukC|author1=Brett, Michael|author2=Fentress, Elizabeth|access-date=22 August 2020|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328154212/https://books.google.com/books?id=8Zcz91t29ukC|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:Timgad, Algeria - panoramio (20).jpg|thumb|Ancient [[Roman Empire|Roman]] ruins of [[Timgad]] on the street leading to the local [[Arch of Trajan (Timgad)|Arch of Trajan]]]]
From their principal center of power at [[Carthage]], the [[Carthaginians]] expanded and established small settlements along the North African coast; by 600 BC, a [[Phoenicia]]n presence existed at [[Tipasa]], east of [[Cherchell]], [[Hippo Regius]] (modern [[Annaba]]) and [[Rusicade]] (modern [[Skikda]]). These settlements served as market towns as well as anchorages.

As Carthaginian power grew, its impact on the indigenous population increased dramatically. Berber civilisation was already at a stage in which agriculture, manufacturing, trade, and political organisation supported several states. Trade links between Carthage and the Berbers in the interior grew, but territorial expansion also resulted in the enslavement or military recruitment of some Berbers and in the extraction of tribute from others.

[[File:GM Massinissa.png|thumb|left|[[Masinissa]] ({{Circa}}&nbsp;238–148&nbsp;BC), first king of Numidia]]
By the early 4th century BC, The north is divided into two [[Masaesyli|Masaesyli kingdom]] in west led by [[Syphax]] and [[Massylii|Massylii kingdom]] in east. Berbers formed the single largest element of the Carthaginian army. In the [[Mercenary War|Revolt of the Mercenaries]], Berber soldiers rebelled from 241 to 238 BC after being unpaid following the defeat of Carthage in the [[First Punic War]].<ref name="Fischer-Bovet2014">{{cite book|author=Christelle Fischer-Bovet|title=Army and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z0sHAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA91|date=2014|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-00775-8|page=91|access-date=6 January 2019|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328154212/https://books.google.com/books?id=z0sHAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA91#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> They succeeded in obtaining control of much of Carthage's North African territory, and they minted coins bearing the name Libyan, used in Greek to describe natives of North Africa. The Carthaginian state declined because of successive defeats by the Romans in the [[Punic Wars]].<ref name="Spielvogel2014">{{cite book|author=Jackson J. Spielvogel|title=Western Civilization: Volume A: To 1500|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZBFvCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT156|year=2014|publisher=Cengage Learning|isbn=978-1-285-98299-1|page=156|access-date=6 January 2019|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328154213/https://books.google.com/books?id=ZBFvCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT156|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 146 BC the city of [[Carthage]] was destroyed. As Carthaginian power waned, the influence of Berber leaders in the hinterland grew. By the 2nd century BC, several large but loosely administered Berber kingdoms had emerged. Two of them were established in [[Numidia]], behind the coastal areas controlled by Carthage. West of Numidia lay [[Mauretania]], which extended across the [[Moulouya River]] in modern-day [[Morocco]] to the Atlantic Ocean. The high point of Berber civilisation, unequalled until the coming of the [[Almohads]] and [[Almoravids]] more than a millennium later, was reached during the reign of [[Masinissa]] in the 2nd century BC.
[[File:Justinian555AD.png|thumb|right| The lands which make up modern-day Algeria were part of [[Byzantine North Africa]] (The empire in 555 under [[Justinian the Great]], at its greatest extent since the fall of the [[Western Roman Empire]] ([[vassal state|vassals]] in pink))]]
After Masinissa's death in 148 BC, the Berber kingdoms were divided and reunited several times. Masinissa's line survived until 24 AD, when the remaining Berber territory was annexed to the [[Roman Empire]].

[[File:Side face (2).jpg|thumb|upright|Roman inscription from Agueneb in the province of [[Laghouat]]]]
For several centuries Algeria was ruled by the Romans, who founded many colonies in the region. Algeria is home to the second-largest number of Roman sites and remains after Italy. Rome, after getting rid of its powerful rival Carthage in the year 146 BC, decided a century later to include Numidia to become the new master of North Africa. They built more than 500 cities.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.penguintravel.com/Offer/RoundtripsandCulturalTours/2062/AlgeriasRomanHeritage.html#:~:text=Algeria%20is%20the%20second%20country,new%20master%20of%20North%20Africa. | title=Algeria's Roman Heritage – Roundtrips and Cultural Tours Penguin Travel | access-date=22 April 2023 | archive-date=22 April 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230422142230/https://www.penguintravel.com/Offer/RoundtripsandCulturalTours/2062/AlgeriasRomanHeritage.html#:~:text=Algeria%20is%20the%20second%20country,new%20master%20of%20North%20Africa. | url-status=live }}</ref> Like the rest of North Africa, Algeria was one of the breadbaskets of the empire, exporting cereals and other agricultural products. [[Augustine of Hippo|Saint Augustine]] was the bishop of [[Hippo Regius]] (modern-day Annaba, Algeria), located in the Roman province of [[Africa (Roman province)|Africa]]. The Germanic [[Vandals]] of [[Geiseric]] moved into North Africa in 429, and by 435 controlled coastal Numidia.<ref name="vandaf">{{cite book|last1=Cameron|first1=Averil|last2=Ward-Perkins|first2=Bryan|title=The Cambridge Ancient History|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qf8mrHjfZRoC&pg=RA1-PA124|volume=14|year=2001|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-32591-2|pages=124–126|chapter=Vandal Africa, 429–533}}</ref> They did not make any significant settlement on the land, as they were harassed by local tribes.{{Citation needed|date=February 2021}} In fact, by the time the Byzantines arrived [[Leptis Magna]] was abandoned and the Msellata region was occupied by the indigenous [[Amazigh|Laguatan]] who had been busy facilitating an [[Amazigh]] political, military and cultural revival.<ref name="vandaf"/><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Mattingly|first1=D.J.|title=The Laguatan: A Libyan Tribal Confederation in the late Roman Empire.|journal=Libyan Studies|year=1983|volume=14|pages=96–108|doi=10.1017/S0263718900007810|s2cid=164294564 }}</ref> Furthermore, during the rule of the Romans, Byzantines, Vandals, Carthaginians, and Ottomans the Berber people were the only or one of the few in North Africa who remained independent.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4CfBKvsiWeQC&pg=PA156|title=The Middle East and North Africa 2003|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=9781857431322|via=Google Books|access-date=16 April 2021|archive-date=15 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230315191214/https://books.google.com/books?id=4CfBKvsiWeQC&pg=PA156|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Walmsley-1858">{{Cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=83koAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA118|title=Sketches of Algeria During the Kabyle War|first=Hugh Mulleneux|last=Walmsley|date=1 April 1858|publisher=Chapman and Hall|via=Google Books|access-date=16 April 2021|archive-date=15 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230315191255/https://books.google.com/books?id=83koAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA118|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wqF8CgAAQBAJ&pg=PT167|title=The Kabyle People|first=Glora M.|last=Wysner|date=30 January 2013|publisher=Read Books Ltd|isbn=9781447483526|via=Google Books|access-date=16 April 2021|archive-date=15 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230315191234/https://books.google.com/books?id=wqF8CgAAQBAJ&pg=PT167|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pv80AQAAMAAJ&q=Kabylia|title=The Encyclopedia Americana|date=1 April 1990|publisher=Grolier|isbn=9780717201211|via=Google Books|access-date=16 April 2021|archive-date=15 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230315191229/https://books.google.com/books?id=pv80AQAAMAAJ&q=Kabylia|url-status=live}}</ref> The Berber people were so resistant that even during the Muslim conquest of North Africa they still had control and possession over their mountains.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GI5CAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA45|title=The art journal London|date=1 April 1865 |publisher=Virtue|via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JU5CAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA93|title=The Barbary Coast|first=Henry Martyn|last=Field|date=1 April 1893|publisher=C. Scribner's Sons|via=Google Books|access-date=16 April 2021|archive-date=15 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230315191254/https://books.google.com/books?id=JU5CAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA93|url-status=live}}</ref>

The collapse of the [[Western Roman Empire]] led to the establishment of a native Kingdom based in [[Altava]] (modern-day Algeria) known as the [[Mauro-Roman Kingdom]]. It was succeeded by another Kingdom based in Altava, the [[Kingdom of Altava]]. During the reign of [[Kusaila]] its territory extended from the region of modern-day [[Fez, Morocco|Fez]] in the west to the western [[Aurès]] and later [[Kairouan|Kairaouan]] and the interior of Ifriqiya in the east.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Pk7BS9XC10QC&pg=PT139 The Great Arab Conquests: How the Spread of Islam Changed the World We Live InHugh Kennedy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164801/https://books.google.com/books?id=Pk7BS9XC10QC&pg=PT139 |date=26 March 2023 }}
Hachette UK,</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=yeUjAQAAIAAJ&q=Koceila+,+chef+Fès+aux Gibraltar: Croisée de mondes : d'Hercule à Boabdil] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405045214/https://books.google.com/books?id=yeUjAQAAIAAJ&q=Koceila+,+chef+F%C3%A8s+aux |date=5 April 2023 }}
Zakya Daoud
Séguier</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=7dCcAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA40 The History of Northern Africa] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164801/https://books.google.com/books?id=7dCcAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA40 |date=26 March 2023 }} Britannica Educational Publishing 
Britannica Educational Publishing</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=oHMBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA458 Middle East and Africa: International Dictionary of Historic Places] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164801/https://books.google.com/books?id=oHMBAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA458 |date=26 March 2023 }}
Trudy Ring, Noelle Watson, Paul Schellinger
Routledge</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=AIMRDQAAQBAJ&pg=PR17 Historical Dictionary of Tunisia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164801/https://books.google.com/books?id=AIMRDQAAQBAJ&pg=PR17 |date=26 March 2023 }}
Kenneth J. Perkins
Rowman & Littlefield</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=1ciOAAAAMAAJ&q=+kairouan+kusaila Islam, 01 AH-250 AH: A Chronology of Events] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230403231359/https://books.google.com/books?id=1ciOAAAAMAAJ&q=+kairouan+kusaila |date=3 April 2023 }}
Abu Tariq Hijazi
Message Publications,</ref>

=== Middle Ages ===
{{main|Medieval Muslim Algeria}}
After negligible resistance from the locals, [[Muslims|Muslim]] [[Arabs]] of the [[Umayyad Caliphate]] conquered Algeria in the early 8th century.

Large numbers of the indigenous Berber people converted to Islam. Christians, Berber and Latin speakers remained in the great majority in Tunisia until the end of the 9th century and Muslims only became a vast majority some time in the 10th.<ref name = jonathan>Jonathan Conant, Staying Roman, 2012, pp. 364–365 {{ISBN |978-0-521-19697-0}}</ref> After the fall of the Umayyad Caliphate, numerous local dynasties emerged, including the [[Rustamids]], [[Aghlabids]], [[Fatimids]], [[Zirids]], [[Hammadids]], [[Almoravids]], [[Almohads]] and the [[Abdalwadid|Zayyanids]]. The Christians left in three waves: after the initial conquest, in the 10th century and the 11th. The last were evacuated to [[Sicily]] by the [[Normans]] and the few remaining died out in the 14th century.<ref name = jonathan/>

[[File:Fatimid.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Fatimid Caliphate, a [[Shia Islam|Shia]] [[Isma'ilism|Ismaili]] dynasty that ruled much of North Africa, c.&nbsp;960–1100]]
[[File:Statue of Dyhia in Khenchela (Algeria).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Dihya]] memorial in [[Khenchela]], Algeria]]
During the [[Middle Ages]], North Africa was home to many great scholars, saints and sovereigns including [[Judah ibn Kuraish|Judah Ibn Quraysh]], the first grammarian to mention Semitic and Berber languages, the great [[Sufism|Sufi]] masters [[Abu Madyan|Sidi Boumediene (Abu Madyan)]] and [[Sidi El Houari]], and the Emirs [[Abd al-Mu'min|Abd Al Mu'min]] and [[Yaghmurasen Ibn Zyan|Yāghmūrasen]]. It was during this time that the [[Fatimids]] or children of [[Fatima]], daughter of [[Muhammad]], came to the [[Maghreb]]. These "Fatimids" went on to found a long lasting dynasty stretching across the Maghreb, [[Hejaz]] and the [[Levant]], boasting a secular inner government, as well as a powerful army and navy, made up primarily of [[Arabs]] and [[Levant]]ines extending from Algeria to their capital state of [[Cairo]]. The [[Fatimid caliphate]] began to collapse when its governors the [[Zirids]] seceded. To punish them the Fatimids sent the Arab [[Banu Hilal]] and [[Banu Sulaym]] against them. The resultant war is recounted in the epic [[Taghribat Bani Hilal|Tāghribāt]]. In Al-Tāghrībāt the Amazigh Zirid Hero [[Khalifa al-Zanati|Khālīfā Al-Zānatī]] asks daily, for duels, to defeat the Hilalan hero [[Abu Zayd al-Hilali|Ābu Zayd al-Hilalī]] and many other Arab knights in a string of victories. The [[Zirid]]s, however, were ultimately defeated ushering in an adoption of Arab customs and culture. The indigenous [[Berber people|Amazigh]] tribes, however, remained largely independent, and depending on tribe, location and time controlled varying parts of the Maghreb, at times unifying it (as under the Fatimids). The Fatimid Islamic state, also known as [[Fatimid Caliphate]] made an Islamic empire that included North Africa, Sicily, [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]], [[Jordan]], [[Lebanon]], [[Syria]], [[Egypt]], the [[Red Sea]] coast of Africa, Tihamah, [[Hejaz]] and [[Yemen]].<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/202580/Fatimid-Dynasty/2238/Conquest-of-Egypt|title=Fatimid Dynasty (Islamic dynasty)|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=29 August 2013|url-status=live|archive-date=1 November 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131101203234/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/202580/Fatimid-Dynasty/2238/Conquest-of-Egypt}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.qantara-med.org/qantara4/public/show_carte.php?carte=carte-05 |title=Qantara |publisher=Qantara-med.org |access-date=13 September 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-date=9 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131009220925/http://www.qantara-med.org/qantara4/public/show_carte.php?carte=carte-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.qantara-med.org/qantara4/public/show_document.php?do_id=595 |title=Qantara – Les Almoravides (1056–1147) |publisher=Qantara-med.org |access-date=13 September 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130921185314/http://www.qantara-med.org/qantara4/public/show_document.php?do_id=595 |archive-date=21 September 2013 }}</ref> Caliphates from Northern Africa traded with the other empires of their time, as well as forming part of a confederated support and trade network with other Islamic states during the Islamic Era.

The [[Berber people]] historically consisted of several tribes. The two main branches were the Botr and Barnès tribes, who were divided into tribes, and again into sub-tribes. Each region of the Maghreb contained several tribes (for example, [[Sanhadja]], [[Houara]], [[Zenata]], [[Masmuda|Masmouda]], [[Kutama]], Awarba, and [[Berghwata]]). All these tribes made independent territorial decisions.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H3RBAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR2|title=Histoire des Berbères et des dynasties musulmanes de l'Afrique Septentrionale Par Ibn Khaldūn, William MacGuckin Slane|trans-title=History of the Berbers and the Muslim dynasties of northern Africa|language=fr|page=XV|author=Khaldūn, Ibn|year=1852|access-date=22 August 2020|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328154337/https://books.google.com/books?id=H3RBAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR2#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref>

Several [[Berber people|Amazigh]] dynasties emerged during the Middle Ages in the Maghreb and other nearby lands. [[Ibn Khaldun]] provides a table summarising the Amazigh dynasties of the Maghreb region, the [[Zirid dynasty|Zirid]], [[Emirate of Tlemcen|Ifranid]], [[Maghrawid Dynasty|Maghrawa]], [[Almoravid]], [[Hammadid]], [[Almohad]], [[Merinid]], [[Zayyanid dynasty|Abdalwadid]], [[Wattasid]], [[Meknassa]] and [[Hafsid]] dynasties.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H3RBAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR115|title=Histoire des Berbères et des dynasties musulmanes de l'Afrique Septentrionale Par Ibn Khaldūn, William MacGuckin Slane|trans-title=History of the Berbers and the Muslim dynasties of northern Africa|language=fr|pages=X|author=Khaldūn, Ibn|year=1852|access-date=22 August 2020|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328154213/https://books.google.com/books?id=H3RBAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR115#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> Both of the [[Hammadid]] and [[Zirid]] empires as well as the [[Fatimid]]s established their rule in all of the Maghreb countries. The [[Zirid dynasty|Zirids]] ruled land in what is now Algeria, Tunisia, Morocco, Libya, Spain, Malta and Italy. The [[Hammadid dynasty|Hammadids]] captured and held important regions such as Ouargla, Constantine, Sfax, Susa, Algiers, Tripoli and Fez establishing their rule in every country in the Maghreb region.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BvTjCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA42|title=Saladin, the Almohads and the Banū Ghāniya: The Contest for North Africa (12th and 13th centuries)|first=Amar S.|last=Baadj|date=19 June 2015|publisher=BRILL|isbn=9789004298576|via=Google Books}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=huOBwihhwyQC&q=%22hammadids+extended+their+empire+to+Morocco%22&pg=PA614|title=Islam: Art and Architecture: Pg 614|isbn=9783833111785|last1=Hattstein|first1=Markus|last2=Delius|first2=Peter|year=2004|publisher=Könemann }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0E8qp_k515oC&pg=PA55|title=Historical Dictionary of the Berbers (Imazighen)|first=Hsain|last=Ilahiane|date=17 July 2006|publisher=Scarecrow Press|isbn=9780810864900|via=Google Books|access-date=16 April 2021|archive-date=30 July 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230730171425/https://books.google.com/books?id=0E8qp_k515oC&pg=PA55|url-status=live}}</ref> The [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimids]] which was created and established by the Kutama Berbers<ref name="Nanjira-2010">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LZuxGsXVPoMC&pg=PA92|title=African Foreign Policy and Diplomacy from Antiquity to the 21st Century|first=Daniel Don|last=Nanjira|date=1 April 2010|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=9780313379826|via=Google Books|access-date=16 April 2021|archive-date=15 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230315191212/https://books.google.com/books?id=LZuxGsXVPoMC&pg=PA92|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Fage-1958">{{Cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MN4EAQAAIAAJ&q=%22the+kutama+berbers+from+little+kabylia,+conquered+ifriqiya%22|title=An Atlas of African History|first=J. D.|last=Fage|date=1 April 1958|publisher=E. Arnold|via=Google Books|access-date=16 April 2021|archive-date=15 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230315191155/https://books.google.com/books?id=MN4EAQAAIAAJ&q=%22the+kutama+berbers+from+little+kabylia,+conquered+ifriqiya%22|url-status=live}}</ref> conquered all of North Africa as well as Sicily and parts of the Middle East.

[[File:Maghrawa dynasty - dynastie maghraoua.jpg|thumb|Territories controlled by the [[Maghrawid Dynasty|Maghrawa]]]]
Following the Berber revolt numerous independent states emerged across the Maghreb. In Algeria the [[Rustamid dynasty|Rustamid Kingdom]] was established. The Rustamid realm stretched from Tafilalt in Morocco to the Nafusa mountains in Libya including south, central and western Tunisia therefore including territory in all of the modern day Maghreb countries, in the south the Rustamid realm expanded to the modern borders of [[Mali]] and included territory in [[Mauritania]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=MmtBAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT311 The Puffin History of the World: Volume 1] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164803/https://books.google.com/books?id=MmtBAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT311 |date=26 March 2023 }},
By [[Roshen Dalal]]</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=R2lIAAAAMAAJ&q=rustamide+ Revue africaine:] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409023109/https://books.google.com/books?id=R2lIAAAAMAAJ&q=rustamide+ |date=9 April 2023 }} journal des travaux de la Société historique algérienne, Volumes 105–106
Kraus Reprint,</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=zpIMAQAAMAAJ&q=tiaret+rostemide+commerce Vers la paix en Algérie:] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405045219/https://books.google.com/books?id=zpIMAQAAMAAJ&q=tiaret+rostemide+commerce |date=5 April 2023 }} les négociations d'Evian dans les archives diplomatiques françaises (15 janvier 1961-29 juin 1962).
Bruylant,</ref>

Once extending their control over all of the Maghreb, part of Spain<ref>The Zīrids of Granada Andrew Handler University of Miami Press, 1974</ref> and briefly over Sicily,<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=GWjxR61xAe0C&pg=PA15 The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 3] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164803/https://books.google.com/books?id=GWjxR61xAe0C&pg=PA15 |date=26 March 2023 }} – J.D. Fage</ref> originating from modern Algeria, the [[Zirids]] only controlled modern [[Ifriqiya]] by the 11th century. The Zirids recognised nominal suzerainty of the Fatimid caliphs of Cairo. [[Al-Mu'izz ibn Badis|El Mu'izz]] the Zirid ruler decided to end this recognition and declared his independence.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Iliffe|first=John|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i9AoDwAAQBAJ&q=1048+banu+hilal&pg=PA47|title=Africans: The History of a Continent|date=13 July 2017|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-19832-6}}</ref><ref name="Meredith-2014">{{Cite book|last=Meredith|first=Martin|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xXN0AwAAQBAJ&q=1048+banu+hilal&pg=PT66|title=Fortunes of Africa: A 5,000 Year History of Wealth, Greed and Endeavour|date=11 September 2014|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-1-4711-3546-0}}</ref> The Zirids also fought against other Zenata Kingdoms, for example the [[Maghrawa]], a Berber dynasty originating from Algeria and which at one point was a dominant power in the Maghreb ruling over much of Morocco and western Algeria including Fez, [[Sijilmasa]], [[Aghmat]], [[Oujda]], most of the Sous and Draa and reaching as far as M'sila and the Zab in Algeria.<ref>Histoire de l'Afrique septentrionale (Berbérie) dupuis les temps les plus reculés jusqu'à la conquête française (1830), Volumes 1–2 Ernest Mercier E. Leroux,</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=LnMcAAAAMAAJ&q=maghrawa+dynasty In Barbary: Tunisia, Algeria, Morocco, and the Sahara] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230409023111/https://books.google.com/books?id=LnMcAAAAMAAJ&q=maghrawa+dynasty |date=9 April 2023 }} Edward Alexander Powell Century Company</ref><ref>Roudh El-Kartas: Histoire des souverains du Maghreb (Espagne et Maroc) et annales de la ville de Fès Abū al-Ḥasan ʻAlī b. ʻAbd Allāh Ibn Abī Zarʻ, ʿAlī Ibn-ʿAbdallāh Ibn-Abī-Zarʿ Imprimerie Imperiale</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=3wFBAAAAYAAJ&q=+Atïa+maghreb Les Berbers dans l'histoire: De la Kahina à l'occupation Turque] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405060009/https://books.google.com/books?id=3wFBAAAAYAAJ&q=+At%C3%AFa+maghreb |date=5 April 2023 }} Mouloud Gaïd Editions Mimouni</ref>

As the Fatimid state was at the time too weak to attempt a direct invasion, they found another means of revenge. Between the [[Nile]] and the [[Red Sea]] were living [[Bedouin]] nomad tribes expelled from [[Arabia]] for their disruption and turbulency. The [[Banu Hilal]] and the [[Banu Sulaym]] for example, who regularly disrupted farmers in the [[Nile Valley]] since the nomads would often loot their farms. The then [[Fatimid Caliphate|Fatimid]] vizier decided to destroy what he could not control, and broke a deal with the chiefs of these Bedouin tribes.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Fage|first1=John|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mXa4AQAAQBAJ&q=1048+banu+hilal&pg=PA166|title=A History of Africa|last2=Tordoff|first2=with William|date=23 October 2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-79727-2}}</ref> The Fatimids even gave them money to leave.

Whole tribes set off with women, children, elders, animals and camping equipment. Some stopped on the way, especially in [[Cyrenaica]], where they are still one of the essential elements of the settlement but most arrived in [[Ifriqiya]] by the [[Gabès Governorate|Gabe]]s region, arriving 1051.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RfBAAAAAYAAJ&q=1051+banu+hilal|title=The Maghreb Review: Majallat Al-Maghrib|date=1979}}</ref> The [[Zirid]] ruler tried to stop this rising tide, but with each encounter, the last under the walls of [[Kairouan]], his troops were defeated and the Arabs remained masters of the battlefield. The Arabs usually did not take control over the cities, instead looting them and destroying them.<ref name="Meredith-2014" />

[[File:Mansourah-1.jpg|thumb|[[Mansourah Mosque]], Tlemcen]]
The invasion kept going, and in 1057 the Arabs spread on the high plains of [[Constantine, Algeria|Constantine]] where they encircled the [[Beni Hammad Fort|Qalaa of Banu Hammad]] (capital of the [[Hammadid dynasty|Hammadid Emirate]]), as they had done in Kairouan a few decades ago. From there they gradually gained the upper [[Algiers]] and [[Oran]] plains. Some of these territories were forcibly taken back by the [[Almohads]] in the second half of the 12th century. The influx of [[Bedouin]] tribes was a major factor in the linguistic, cultural [[Arabization|Arabisation]] of the Maghreb and in the spread of [[nomad]]ism in areas where agriculture had previously been dominant.<ref>{{cite web|url = https://muslimheritage.com/the-great-mosque-of-tlemcen/|title = The Great Mosque of Tlemcen|website = MuslimHeritage.com|date = 8 December 2004|publisher = Foundation for Science Technology and Civilization|access-date = 23 September 2019|archive-date = 23 September 2019|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190923162057/https://muslimheritage.com/the-great-mosque-of-tlemcen/|url-status = live}}</ref> [[Ibn Khaldun]] noted that the lands ravaged by the [[Banu Hilal]] tribes had become completely arid desert.<ref>[http://www.galtoninstitute.org.uk/Newsletters/GINL9603/PopCrises3.htm ''Populations Crises and Population Cycles''] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130527170154/http://www.galtoninstitute.org.uk/Newsletters/GINL9603/PopCrises3.htm |date=27 May 2013 }}, Claire Russell and W. M. S. Russell</ref>

The [[Almohad Caliphate|Almohads]] originating from modern day Morocco, although founded by a man originating from modern day Algeria<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Singh|first1=Nagendra Kr|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EMTXAAAAMAAJ|title=Encyclopaedia of the World Muslims: Tribes, Castes and Communities|last2=Khan|first2=Abdul Mabud|date=2001|publisher=Global Vision|isbn=978-81-87746-05-8}}</ref> known as [[Abd al-Mu'min]] would soon take control over the Maghreb. During the time of the Almohad Dynasty [[Abd al-Mu'min]]'s tribe, the Koumïa, were the main supporters of the throne and the most important body of the empire.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=ql4fs-8VIPcC&pg=RA2-PA255 du moyen age] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164803/https://books.google.com/books?id=ql4fs-8VIPcC&pg=RA2-PA255 |date=26 March 2023 }} Louis Cibrario Libraire de Guillaumin et C.ie</ref> Defeating the weakening [[Almoravid dynasty|Almoravid Empire]] and taking control over Morocco in 1147,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Robinson|first=Neal|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TtolAQAAMAAJ&q=1147+almohad|title=Islam, a Concise Introduction|date=1999|publisher=Georgetown University Press|isbn=978-0-87840-224-3}}</ref> they pushed into Algeria in 1152, taking control over Tlemcen, Oran, and Algiers,<ref name="Huebner-1996">Jeff Huebner, "Al Qal'a of Beni Hammad (M'sila, Algeria)" in ''Middle East and Africa: International Dictionary of Historic Places'' (Vol. 4) (eds. K.A. Berney, Trudy Ring & Noelle Watson: Fitzroy Dearborn, 1996), pp. 36–39.</ref> wrestling control from the Hilian Arabs, and by the same year they defeated Hammadids who controlled Eastern Algeria.<ref name="Huebner-1996" />

Following their decisive defeat at the [[Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa]] in 1212, the Almohads began to collapse. In 1235, the governor of modern-day western Algeria, [[Yaghmurasen Ibn Zyan]], declared independence and established the [[Kingdom of Tlemcen]] under the [[Zayyanid dynasty]]. After warring with the Almohads for 13 years, the Zayyanids decisively defeated them in 1248 by ambushing and killing the Almohad caliph near Oujda.<ref>Jamil M. Abun-Nasr (20 August 1987). ''A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic Period''. Cambridge University Press. pp. 103–104

</ref>

[[File:Maghreb 15th Century.svg|thumb|upright=1.15|The [[Kingdom of Tlemcen|Zayyanid kingdom]] of Tlemcen in the fifteenth century and its neighbors]]
The Zayyanids retained control over much of Algeria for the next three centuries. While eastern Algeria largely fell under the [[Hafsid dynasty]],<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Crowther|first1=Geoff|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TfX-eAeG0uIC&q=eastern+algeria+hafsids|title=Morocco, Algeria & Tunisia: A Travel Survival Kit|last2=Finlay|first2=Hugh|date=1992|publisher=Lonely Planet Publications|isbn=978-0-86442-126-5}}</ref> the [[Hafsids of Bejaïa|Emirate of Bejaia]], which encompassed the Hafsid territories in Algeria, was at times independent from central Tunisian authority. At their peak, the Zayyanids held Morocco as a western vassal expanded eastward as far as [[Tunis]], which was captured during the reign of Abu Tashfin.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=o3SRAAAAIAAJ Les états de l'Occident musulman aux XIIIe, XIVe et XVe siècles: institutions gouvernementales et administratives] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164803/https://books.google.com/books?id=o3SRAAAAIAAJ |date=26 March 2023 }}
Atallah Dhina Office des Publications Universitaires,</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=qpdyAAAAMAAJ Histoire générale de la Tunisie, Volume 2] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164803/https://books.google.com/books?id=qpdyAAAAMAAJ |date=26 March 2023 }} Hédi Slim, Ammar Mahjoubi, Khaled Belkhodja, Hichem Djaït, Abdelmajid Ennabli
Sud éditions,</ref><ref name="Constantine2">[https://books.google.com/books?id=1CIaAQAAIAAJ&q=vassal+tlemcen Recueil des Notices et Memoires] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230518100115/https://books.google.com/books?id=1CIaAQAAIAAJ&q=vassal+tlemcen |date=18 May 2023 }}, Volumes 52–53
Société archéologique du département de Constantine</ref><ref name="Constantine">[https://books.google.com/books?id=1CIaAQAAIAAJ Recueil des Notices et Memoires] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164803/https://books.google.com/books?id=1CIaAQAAIAAJ |date=26 March 2023 }}, Volumes 52–53 Société archéologique du département de Constantine</ref><ref name="Cour">[https://books.google.com/books?id=oD9FAAAAYAAJ&q=Wattâside+vassal+d%27tlemcen La dynastie marocaine des Beni Wattâs] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230526010511/https://books.google.com/books?id=oD9FAAAAYAAJ&q=Watt%C3%A2side+vassal+d%27tlemcen |date=26 May 2023 }} (1420–1544) Auguste Cour P. Geuthner</ref><ref name="Arnolet">[https://books.google.com/books?id=q6AwAQAAMAAJ&q=vassal+d%27tlemcen Recueil des notices et mémoires de la Société archéologique du département de Constantine] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406012158/https://books.google.com/books?id=q6AwAQAAMAAJ&q=vassal+d%27tlemcen |date=6 April 2023 }} L. Arnolet,</ref>

Following several conflicts with local [[Barbary pirates]] sponsored by the Zayyanid sultans,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=García|first=Luis Arciniega|date=1 January 1999|title=Defensa a la antigua y a la moderna en el Reino de Valencia durante el siglo XVI|url=http://revistas.uned.es/index.php/ETFVII/article/view/2343|journal=Espacio Tiempo y Forma. Serie VII, Historia del Arte|language=es|issue=12|doi=10.5944/etfvii.12.1999.2343|issn=2340-1478|doi-access=free|access-date=19 June 2021|archive-date=14 November 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221114070030/https://revistas.uned.es/index.php/ETFVII/article/view/2343|url-status=dead}}</ref> Spain launched a campaign to invade Algeria and defeat the Kingdom of Tlemcen. In 1505, Spanish forces [[Capture of Mers-el-Kébir (1505)|invaded and captured Mers el Kébir]],<ref>{{Cite book|last=MARIANA|first=Juan de|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Emp2Lc_nMbQC&pg=PA72|title=Historia General de España ... con la continuacion de Miniana; completada ... por E. Chao. Enriquecida con notas historicas y criticas, etc|date=1849|language=es|access-date=4 August 2021|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328155528/https://books.google.com/books?id=Emp2Lc_nMbQC&pg=PA72#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref> and in 1509, they [[Spanish conquest of Oran (1509)|conquered Oran]] after a deadly siege.<ref>Sánchez Doncel, Gregorio. 1991. Presencia de España en Orán, 1509–1792. Estudio Teológico de San Ildefonso.
</ref> Following their decisive victories over the Algerians in the western-coastal areas of Algeria, the Spanish expanded their campaign across the western Algerian coast. In 1510, they captured Bejaia after [[Capture of Bejaia (1510)|a major siege]],<ref>{{Cite book|last=Vera|first=León Galindo y de|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8j4OAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA95|title=Historia vicisitudes y política tradicional de España respecto de sus posesiones en las costas de África desde la monarquía gótica y en los tiempos posteriores á la restauración hasta el último siglo|date=1884|publisher=Impr. y fundición de M. Tello|language=es}}</ref> launched an assault on Algiers, and besieged Tlemcen. In 1511, they seized [[Cherchell]]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rézette|first=Robert|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ifNYcVu1zvQC&q=Mostaganem+1510+spain&pg=PA36|title=the Spanish Enclaves in Morocco Par Robert Rezette|date=1976|publisher=Nouvelles Editions Latines}}</ref> and [[Jijel]], and attacked [[Mostaganem]], which they failed to conquer but succeeded in forcing into tribute.

=== Early modern era ===
{{main|Regency of Algiers}}
[[File:Barbarossa Hayreddin Pasha.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Hayreddin Barbarossa]]]]
In 1516, the Turkish privateer brothers [[Aruj]] and [[Hayreddin Barbarossa]], who operated successfully under the [[Hafsids]], moved their base of operations to Algiers. They succeeded in conquering Jijel and Algiers from the [[Spain|Spaniards]] with help from the locals who saw them as liberators from the Christians, but the brothers eventually assassinated the local noble Salim al-Tumi and took control over the city and the surrounding regions. Their state is known as the [[Regency of Algiers]]. When Aruj was killed in 1518 during his [[Fall of Tlemcen (1518)|invasion of Tlemcen]], [[Hayreddin Barbarossa|Hayreddin]] succeeded him as military commander of Algiers. The [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] [[Sultan of the Ottoman Empire|sultan]] gave him the title of [[beylerbey]] and a contingent of some 2,000 [[janissaries]]. With the aid of this force and native Algerians, Hayreddin conquered the whole area between Constantine and Oran (although the city of Oran remained in Spanish hands until 1792).<ref name="csa16" /><ref name="Mikaberidze" />

The next beylerbey was Hayreddin's son [[Hasan Pasha (son of Barbarossa)|Hasan]], who assumed the position in 1544. He was a [[Kouloughlis|Kouloughli]] or of mixed origins, as his mother was an Algerian Mooresse.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Houtsma|first=M. Th|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7CP7fYghBFQC&pg=PA873|title=E. J. Brill's First Encyclopaedia of Islam, 1913–1936|date=1993|publisher=BRILL|isbn=978-90-04-09790-2}}</ref> Until 1587 Beylerbeylik of Algiers was governed by Beylerbeys who served terms with no fixed limits. Subsequently, with the institution of a regular administration, governors with the title of pasha ruled for three-year terms. The pasha was assisted by an autonomous janissary unit, known in Algeria as the [[Odjak of Algiers|Ojaq]] who were led by an [[Agha of the Janissaries|agha]]. Discontent among the ojaq rose in the mid-1600s because they were not paid regularly, and they repeatedly revolted against the pasha. As a result, the agha charged the pasha with corruption and incompetence and seized power in 1659.<ref name="csa16" />

[[Plague (disease)|Plague]] had repeatedly struck the cities of North Africa. Algiers lost between 30,000 and 50,000 inhabitants to the plague in 1620–21, and had high fatalities in 1654–57, 1665, 1691 and 1740–42.<ref name="Davis">{{cite book|author=Robert Davis|title=Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy, 1500–1800|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan|year=2003|isbn=978-0-333-71966-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/trent_0116405722392|url-access=registration}}</ref>[[File:North Africa, from the "Physical And Political Map Of Africa ... 1822".png|left|thumb|Map of the Regency of Algiers in early 19th century]]
The [[Barbary pirates]] preyed on Christian and other non-Islamic shipping in the western Mediterranean Sea.<ref name="Davis" /> The pirates often took the passengers and crew on the ships and sold them or used them as [[slavery|slaves]].<ref name="Hannay 1911">{{cite EB1911|first=David McDowall|last=Hannay|author-link=David Hannay (historian)|wstitle=Barbary Pirates|volume=3|pages=383–384}}</ref> They also did a brisk business in ransoming some of the captives. According to Robert Davis, from the 16th to 19th century, pirates captured 1 million to 1.25&nbsp;million Europeans as slaves.<ref name="barbary">{{cite web|author=Robert Davis|date=17 February 2011|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110425235016/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml|archive-date=25 April 2011|access-date=7 September 2008|publisher=BBC}}</ref> They often made raids on European coastal towns to capture Christian slaves to sell at [[Slavery in the Ottoman Empire|slave markets]] in North Africa and other parts of the [[Ottoman Empire]].<ref>{{cite web|title=British Slaves on the Barbary Coast |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_02.shtml|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090208143435/http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_02.shtml|archive-date=8 February 2009|access-date=7 September 2008}}</ref> In 1544, for example, [[Hayreddin Barbarossa]] captured the island of [[Ischia]], taking 4,000 prisoners, and enslaved some 9,000 inhabitants of [[Lipari]], almost the entire population.<ref>{{cite news|last=Povoledo|first=Elisabetta|date=26 September 2003|title=The Mysteries and Majesties of the Aeolian Islands|work=International Herald Tribune|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2003/09/26/style/26iht-trsic_ed3_.html|url-status=live|access-date=14 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160722205034/http://www.nytimes.com/2003/09/26/style/26iht-trsic_ed3_.html|archive-date=22 July 2016}}</ref> In 1551, the Ottoman governor of Algiers, [[Turgut Reis]], enslaved the entire population of the Maltese island of [[Gozo]]. Barbary pirates often attacked the [[Balearic Islands]]. The threat was so severe that residents abandoned the island of [[Formentera]].<ref>{{cite web|title=When Europeans were slaves: Research suggests white slavery was much more common than previously believed|url=http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm|archive-date=25 July 2011|work=Ohio State Research Communications}}</ref> The introduction of broad-sail ships from the beginning of the 17th century allowed them to branch out into the Atlantic.<ref name="Auchterlonie2012">{{cite book|author=Paul Auchterlonie|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f6JZBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA21|title=Encountering Islam: Joseph Pitts: An English Slave in 17th-century Algiers and Mecca|date=24 March 2012|publisher=Arabian Publishing|isbn=978-0-9571060-8-6|page=21}}</ref>

In July 1627 two pirate ships from Algiers under the command of [[Dutch people|Dutch]] pirate [[Jan Janszoon]] sailed as far as [[History of Iceland|Iceland]],<ref>[http://www.visindavefur.is/svar.php?id=5770 "Vísindavefurinn: Hverjir stóðu raunverulega að Tyrkjaráninu?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150206081804/http://www.visindavefur.is/svar.php?id=5770|date=6 February 2015}}. ''Vísindavefurinn''.</ref> [[Turkish Abductions|raiding and capturing slaves]].<ref>[http://www.visindavefur.is/svar.php?id=5743 "Vísindavefurinn: Hvað gerðist í Tyrkjaráninu?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150206081316/http://www.visindavefur.is/svar.php?id=5743|date=6 February 2015}}. ''Vísindavefurinn''.</ref><ref>[http://www.heimaslod.is/index.php/Turkish_invasion_walk "Turkish invasion walk"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150206081146/http://www.heimaslod.is/index.php/Turkish_invasion_walk|date=6 February 2015}}. ''heimaslod.is''.</ref><ref>Etravel Travel service. [http://www.visitwestmanislands.com/sidur/turkish-invasion "Turkish Invasion – Visit Westman Islands .com"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150206083010/http://www.visitwestmanislands.com/sidur/turkish-invasion|date=6 February 2015}}. ''visitwestmanislands.com''.</ref> Two weeks earlier another pirate ship from [[Sale, Morocco|Salé]] in [[Saadi dynasty|Morocco]] had also raided in Iceland. Some of the slaves brought to Algiers were later ransomed back to Iceland, but some chose to stay in Algeria. In 1629, pirate ships from Algeria raided the [[Faroe Islands]].<ref>[http://www.visindavefur.is/svar.php?id=66655 "Vísindavefurinn: Voru Tyrkjarán framin í öðrum löndum?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150206081705/http://www.visindavefur.is/svar.php?id=66655|date=6 February 2015}}. ''Vísindavefurinn''.</ref>

[[File:Portrait de Baba Ali, Dey d'Alger.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Baba Ali Chaouch]], Dey of Algiers]]
[[File:Niels simonsen Alger 2.jpg|left|thumb|Algiers, by [[Niels Simonsen]]]]
In 1659, the Janissaries stationed in Algiers, also known commonly as the [[Odjak of Algiers|Odjak]] of Algiers; and the Reis or the company of corsair captains rebelled, they removed the Ottoman [[viceroy]] from power, and placed one of its own in power. The new leader received the title of "Agha" then "[[Dey]]" in 1671, and the right to select passed to the [[divan]], a council of some sixty military senior officers. Thus Algiers became a sovereign military republic. It was at first dominated by the odjak; but by the 18th century, it had become the dey's instrument. Although Algiers remained nominally part of the Ottoman Empire,<ref name="csa16" /> in reality they acted independently from the rest of the Empire,<ref>{{Cite book|last=Association|first=American Historical|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D6gOAQAAMAAJ&q=Algiers+independence+1710&pg=PA23|title=General Index to Papers and Annual Reports of the American Historical Association, 1884–1914|date=1918|publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office|access-date=4 August 2021|archive-date=18 May 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240518180753/https://books.google.com/books?id=D6gOAQAAMAAJ&q=Algiers+independence+1710&pg=PA23#v=snippet&q=Algiers%20independence%201710&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Hutt|first=Graham|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HxGQDwAAQBAJ&q=Algiers+independence+1710+influence&pg=PA114|title=North Africa|date=1 January 2019|publisher=Imray, Laurie, Norie and Wilson Ltd|isbn=978-1-84623-883-3}}</ref> and often had wars with other Ottoman subjects and territories such as the [[Beylik of Tunis]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Constantine|first=Société Archéologique de la Province de|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ygt2-v21DRUC&q=sept+mille+hommes+mourad-bey+kouhil&pg=PA275|title=Recueil des notices et mémoires de la Société Archéologique de la Province de Constantine|date=1868|language=fr}}</ref>

The [[dey]] was in effect a constitutional autocrat. The dey was elected for a life term, but in the 159 years (1671–1830) that the system was in place, fourteen of the twenty-nine deys were assassinated. Despite usurpation, military coups and occasional mob rule, the day-to-day operation of the Deylikal government was remarkably orderly. Although the regency patronised the tribal chieftains, it never had the unanimous allegiance of the countryside, where heavy taxation frequently provoked unrest. Autonomous tribal states were tolerated, and the regency's authority was seldom applied in the [[Kabylie|Kabylia]],<ref name="csa16">{{cite web|title=Algeria&nbsp;– Ottoman Rule|url=http://countrystudies.us/algeria/16.htm|publisher=Country Studies|access-date=4 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121014191245/http://countrystudies.us/algeria/16.htm|archive-date=14 October 2012|url-status=live}}</ref> although in 1730 the Regency was able to take control over the [[Kingdom of Kuku]] in western Kabylia.<ref>{{Cite book|last=algérienne|first=Société historique|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jM0OAAAAQAAJ&q=Si+Amar+el+kadi&pg=PA136|title=Revue africaine|date=1873|publisher=La Société|language=fr}}</ref> Many cities in the northern parts of the Algerian desert paid taxes to Algiers or one of its Beys.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=poo8-aABnVwC&q=laghouat+1727+1828&pg=PA128|title=Bulletin du comité des travaux historiques et scientifiques: section de géographie|date=1894|publisher=Imprimerie nationale|language=fr}}</ref>

Barbary raids in the Mediterranean continued to attack Spanish merchant shipping, and as a result, the [[Spanish Empire]] launched an [[Invasion of Algiers (1775)|invasion in 1775]], then the [[Spanish Navy]] bombarded Algiers in [[Bombardment of Algiers (1783)|1783]] and [[Bombardment of Algiers (1784)|1784]].<ref name="Mikaberidze">{{cite book|last1=Mikaberidze|first1=Alexander|title=Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia, Volume 1|date=2011|publisher=ABC-CLIO|page=847}}</ref> For the attack in 1784, the Spanish fleet was to be joined by ships from such traditional enemies of Algiers as [[Kingdom of Naples|Naples]], [[Kingdom of Portugal|Portugal]] and the [[Knights Hospitaller|Knights of Malta]]. Over 20,000 cannonballs were fired, but all these military campaigns were doomed and Spain had to ask for peace in 1786 and paid 1&nbsp;million pesos to the Dey.

In 1792, Algiers took back Oran and Mers el Kébir, the two last Spanish strongholds in Algeria.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Schreier|first=Joshua|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zUUkDwAAQBAJ&q=1792+oran&pg=PT67|title=The Merchants of Oran: A Jewish Port at the Dawn of Empire|date=16 May 2017|publisher=Stanford University Press|isbn=978-1-5036-0216-8}}</ref> In the same year, they conquered the Moroccan [[Rif]] and [[Oujda]], which they then abandoned in 1795.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=WQFyAAAAMAAJ Morocco in the Reign of Mawlay Sulayman] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164803/https://books.google.com/books?id=WQFyAAAAMAAJ |date=26 March 2023 }} – Mohamed El Mansour Middle East & North African Studies Press, 1990 – Morocco – 248 pages: Pg 104</ref>

[[File:De Engels-Nederlandse vloot in de Baai van Algiers ter ondersteuning van het ultimatum tot vrijlating van blanke slaven, 26 augustus 1816. Rijksmuseum SK-A-1377.jpeg|thumb|[[Bombardment of Algiers (1816)|Bombardment of Algiers]] by the Anglo-Dutch fleet, to support the ultimatum to release European slaves, August 1816]]
In the 19th century, Algerian pirates forged affiliations with Caribbean powers, paying a "license tax" in exchange for safe harbor of their vessels.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Mackie|first=Erin Skye|title=Welcome the Outlaw: Pirates, Maroons, and Caribbean Countercultures|journal=Cultural Critique|date=1 January 2005|volume=59|issue=1|pages=24–62|doi=10.1353/cul.2005.0008|s2cid=145628873 }}</ref>

Attacks by Algerian pirates on American merchantmen resulted in the [[First Barbary War|First]] and [[Second Barbary War]]s, which ended the attacks on U.S. ships in 1815. A year later, a combined [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|Anglo]]-[[United Kingdom of the Netherlands|Dutch]] fleet, under the command of [[Edward Pellew, 1st Viscount Exmouth|Lord Exmouth]] [[Bombardment of Algiers (1816)|bombarded Algiers]] to stop similar attacks on European fishermen. These efforts proved successful, although Algerian piracy would continue until the [[French conquest of Algeria|French conquest]] in 1830.<ref>{{cite book |author=Littell, Eliakim |title=The Museum of foreign literature, science and art |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=48L1w21XYI4C&pg=PA231 |year=1836 |publisher=E. Littell |page=231 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906021446/https://books.google.com/books?id=48L1w21XYI4C&pg=PA231 |archive-date=6 September 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== French colonisation (1830–1962) ===
{{main|French Algeria|Pacification of Algeria|Algerian War}}
{{see also|French North Africa}}
[[File:Vernet-Combat de Somah.jpg|thumb|Battle of Somah in 1836]]

Under the pretext of a slight to their consul, the [[July Monarchy|French]] invaded and [[Invasion of Algiers in 1830|captured Algiers]] in 1830.<ref>{{cite web|title=Background Note: Algeria|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/8005.htm|work=U.S. Department of State|access-date=24 June 2017|archive-date=19 June 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170619072130/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/8005.htm|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |author =Horne, Alistair |title=A Savage War of Peace: Algeria 1954–1962 |publisher=NYRB Classics |location=New York, NY |year=2006 |pages=29–30 |isbn=978-1-59017-218-6}}</ref> According to several historians, the methods used by the French to establish control over Algeria reached [[Algerian genocide|genocidal]] proportions.<ref>{{cite book |first= Dominik J. |last= Schaller |editor1-first= Donald |editor1-last= Bloxham |editor2-first= A. Dirk |editor2-last= Moses |chapter-url= https://books.google.com/books?id=bEcTDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA356 |title= The Oxford Handbook of Genocide Studies |publisher= [[Oxford University Press]] |date= 2010 |page= 356 |chapter= Genocide and Mass Violence in the 'Heart of Darkness': Africa in the Colonial Period |isbn= 978-0-19-923211-6}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Jalata|first=Asafa|title=Phases of Terrorism in the Age of Globalization: From Christopher Columbus to Osama bin Laden|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SCjxCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA92|date=2016|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan US|isbn=978-1-137-55234-1|pages=92–93|access-date=12 December 2023|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328160439/https://books.google.com/books?id=SCjxCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA92#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Kiernan|first=Ben|author-link=Ben Kiernan|title=Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur|url=https://archive.org/details/bloodan_kie_2007_00_0326|url-access=registration|year=2007|publisher=[[Yale University Press]]|isbn=978-0-300-10098-3|pages=[https://archive.org/details/bloodan_kie_2007_00_0326/page/364 364]–ff}}</ref> Historian [[Ben Kiernan]] wrote on the French conquest of Algeria: "By 1875, the French conquest was complete. The war had killed approximately 825,000 indigenous Algerians since 1830".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Kiernan|first1=Ben|title=Blood and Soil: A World History of Genocide and Extermination from Sparta to Darfur|publisher=Yale University Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/bloodan_kie_2007_00_0326/page/374 374]|url=https://archive.org/details/bloodan_kie_2007_00_0326|url-access=registration|isbn=978-0-300-10098-3|year=2007|access-date=21 May 2017}}</ref> French losses from 1831 to 1851 were 92,329 dead in the hospital and only 3,336 killed in action.<ref>{{cite book|title=The Making of Contemporary Algeria, 1830–1987|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4nXl7h8i5scC&pg=PA42|isbn=978-0-521-52432-2|last1=Bennoune|first1=Mahfoud|date=2002|page=42|publisher=Cambridge University Press|access-date=22 May 2019|archive-date=28 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328160440/https://books.google.com/books?id=4nXl7h8i5scC&pg=PA42#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>"Had planning been better (barracks, hospitals, medical services), the drain on men would have been {{sic|hide=y|miniscule}}: it has been calculated that between 1831 and 1851, 92,329 died in hospital, and only 3,336 in battle." The Military and Colonial Destruction of the Roman Landscape of North Africa ... – [[Michael Greenhalgh]], p366 [https://books.google.com/books?id=5pCfAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA366] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190320064550/https://books.google.com/books?id=5pCfAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA366|date=20 March 2019}}</ref> In 1872, The Algerian population stood at about 2.9&nbsp;million.<ref>{{cite web|title=Algeria (Djazaïria) historical demographic data of the whole country|url=http://www.populstat.info/Africa/algeriac.htm|work=Population Statistics |publisher=populstat.info|access-date=9 June 2012|author=Lahmeyer, Jan|date=11 October 2003|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120718104037/http://www.populstat.info/Africa/algeriac.htm|archive-date=18 July 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=November 2018}} French policy was predicated on "civilising" the country.<ref>{{cite book |author=Ruedy, John Douglas |title=Modern Algeria: The Origins And Development of a Nation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WIRWgrbE_fEC&pg=PA103 |year=2005 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-21782-0 |page=103 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906032036/https://books.google.com/books?id=WIRWgrbE_fEC&pg=PA103 |archive-date=6 September 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> The slave trade and piracy in Algeria ceased following the French conquest.<ref name="Hannay 1911"/> The [[French conquest of Algeria|conquest of Algeria]] by the French took some time and resulted in considerable bloodshed. A combination of violence and disease epidemics caused the [[indigenous peoples|indigenous]] Algerian population to decline by nearly one-third from 1830 to 1872.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Sowerwine |first1=Charles |title=France since 1870 |date=2018 |isbn=9781137406118 |page=37 |publisher=Bloomsbury |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2-xIDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA37 }}{{Dead link|date=February 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref name="Ricoux1880">{{cite book|last=Ricoux|first=René|title=La démographie figurée de l'Algérie: étude statistique des...|url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k103772b/f299.image|access-date=14 February 2013|year=1880|publisher=G. Masson|pages=260–261|trans-title=The figurative demographics of Algeria|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130513102734/http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k103772b/f299.image|archive-date=13 May 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=February 2013}} On 17 September 1860, [[Napoleon III]] declared "Our first duty is to take care of the happiness of the three million Arabs, whom the fate of arms has brought under our domination."<ref>{{Cite web|title=Le rêve arabe de Napoléon III|url=https://www.lhistoire.fr/le-r%C3%AAve-arabe-de-napol%C3%A9on-iii-0|access-date=15 January 2021|website=lhistoire.fr|language=fr|archive-date=21 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210121033913/https://www.lhistoire.fr/le-r%C3%AAve-arabe-de-napol%C3%A9on-iii-0|url-status=live}}</ref> During this time, only Kabylia resisted, the Kabylians were not colonised until after the [[Mokrani Revolt]] in 1871.{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}}

[[Alexis de Tocqueville]] wrote and never completed an unpublished essay outlining his ideas for how to transform Algeria from an occupied tributary state to a colonial regime, wherein he advocated for a mixed system of "total domination and total colonisation" whereby French military would wage total war against civilian populations while a colonial administration would provide rule of law and property rights to settlers within French occupied cities.<ref name="Tocqueville 2023, pp.47">Alexis de Tocqueville, ''Travels in Algeria'', ed. Yusuf Ritter, Tikhanov Library, 2023</ref>

[[File:Abd al-Qadir.jpg|thumb|upright|left|[[Abdelkader El Djezairi|Emir Abdelkader]], Algerian leader insurgent against French colonial rule, 1865]]
From 1848 until independence, France administered the whole Mediterranean region of Algeria as an integral part and ''département'' of the nation. One of France's longest-held overseas territories, Algeria became a destination for hundreds of thousands of [[European ethnic groups|European]] immigrants, who became known as ''colons'' and later, as ''[[Pied-Noir]]s.'' Between 1825 and 1847, 50,000 French people emigrated to Algeria.<ref>{{cite book|last=Randell|first=Keith|title=France: Monarchy, Republic and Empire, 1814–70|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=AvyGHAAACAAJ|year=1986|publisher=Hodder & Stoughton|isbn=978-0-340-51805-2|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906031725/https://books.google.com/books?id=AvyGHAAACAAJ|archive-date=6 September 2015|url-status=live}}{{page needed|date=February 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Fisher|first1=Michael H.|title=Migration: A World History|date=2014|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0199764341|page=80}}</ref> These settlers benefited from the French government's confiscation of communal land from tribal peoples, and the application of modern agricultural techniques that increased the amount of arable land.<ref>{{cite book |author =Horne, Alistair |title=A Savage War of Peace: Algeria 1954–1962 (New York Review Books Classics) |publisher=NYRB Classics |location=New York|year=2006 |isbn=978-1-59017-218-6 |page=32}}</ref> Many Europeans settled in [[Oran]] and [[Algiers]], and by the early 20th century they formed a majority of the population in both cities.<ref>Albert Habib Hourani, Malise Ruthven (2002). "''[https://books.google.com/books?id=egbOb0mewz4C&pg=PA323 A history of the Arab peoples]''". Harvard University Press. p.323. {{ISBN|0-674-01017-5}}</ref>

[[File:Six chefs FLN - 1954.jpg|thumb|The six historical Leaders of the FLN: [[Rabah Bitat]], [[Mustapha Benboulaïd|Mostefa Ben Boulaïd]], [[Mourad Didouche]], [[Mohammed Boudiaf]], [[Krim Belkacem]] and [[Larbi Ben M'Hidi]].]]

During the late 19th and early 20th century, the [[White Africans of European ancestry|European share]] was almost a fifth of the population. The French government aimed at making Algeria an assimilated part of France, and this included substantial educational investments especially after 1900. The indigenous cultural and religious resistance heavily opposed this tendency, but in contrast to the other colonised countries' path in central Asia and [[Caucasus]], Algeria kept its individual skills and a relatively human-capital intensive agriculture.<ref>{{cite book|author=Baten, Jörg |title=A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present.|date=2016|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=220|isbn=9781107507180}}</ref>

During the [[Second World War]], Algeria came under [[Vichy France|Vichy control]] before being liberated by the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] in [[Operation Torch]], which saw the first large-scale deployment of [[Military history of the United States during World War II|American troops]] in the [[North African campaign]].<ref name="USMA-1945">{{cite book |author=United States Military Academy. Department of Military Art and Engineering |title=The War in North Africa Part 2—The Allied Invasion |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KThNAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA5 |year=1947 |publisher=Department of Military Art and Engineering, United States Military Academy |location=West Point, NY |pages=4–5 |access-date=18 March 2021 |archive-date=3 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230203050305/https://books.google.com/books?id=KThNAQAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA5 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Gradually, dissatisfaction among the Muslim population, which lacked political and economic status under the colonial system, gave rise to demands for greater political autonomy and eventually independence from [[Provisional Government of the French Republic|France]]. In May 1945, the uprising against the occupying French forces was suppressed through what is now known as the [[Sétif and Guelma massacre]]. Tensions between the two population groups came to a head in 1954, when the first violent events of what was later called the [[Algerian War]] began after the publication of the [[Declaration of 1 November 1954]]. Historians have estimated that between 30,000 and 150,000 [[Harki]]s and their dependents were killed by the [[National Liberation Front (Algeria)|National Liberation Front]] (FLN) or by [[lynching|lynch]] mobs in Algeria.<ref>{{cite news | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7130307.stm | work = BBC News | title = French 'Reparation' for Algerians | date = 6 December 2007 | access-date = 16 November 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100420212617/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/7130307.stm | archive-date = 20 April 2010 | url-status=live}}</ref> The [[National Liberation Front (Algeria)|FLN]] used hit and run attacks in Algeria and France as part of its war, and the French conducted [[Torture during the Algerian War of Independence|severe reprisals]]. In addition, the French destroyed over 8,000 villages<ref name="Kevin Shillington">{{cite book|author=Kevin Shillington|title=Encyclopedia of African History 3-Volume Set|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=umyHqvAErOAC&pg=PA60|year=2013|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-135-45670-2|pages=60|access-date=17 February 2023|archive-date=26 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164808/https://books.google.com/books?id=umyHqvAErOAC&pg=PA60|url-status=live}}</ref> and relocated over 2 million Algerians to [[Internment camps in France#Algerian War|concentration camps]].<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8ztnVsIiefwC&pg=PA179 |title=The Algerian Novel and Colonial Discourse: Witnessing to a Différend |author=Abdelkader Aoudjit |year=2010 |page=179 |publisher=Peter Lang |isbn=9781433110740 |access-date=22 November 2022 |archive-date=28 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240328161116/https://books.google.com/books?id=8ztnVsIiefwC&pg=PA179#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }}</ref>

The war led to the death of hundreds of thousands of Algerians and hundreds of thousands of injuries. Historians, like [[Alistair Horne]] and [[Raymond Aron]], state that the actual number of Algerian Muslim war dead was far greater than the original FLN and official French estimates but was less than the 1&nbsp;million deaths claimed by the Algerian government after independence. Horne estimated Algerian casualties during the span of eight years to be around 700,000.<ref>{{cite book|first=Alistair|last=Horne|page=[https://archive.org/details/savagewarofpeace00horn/page/538 538]|title=A Savage War of Peace|isbn=978-0-670-61964-1|year=1978|publisher=Viking Press |url=https://archive.org/details/savagewarofpeace00horn/page/538}}</ref> The war uprooted more than 2&nbsp;million Algerians.<ref>{{cite book|first=Martin|last=Windrow|page=13|title=The Algerian War 1954–62|isbn=1-85532-658-2|date=15 November 1997|publisher=Bloomsbury USA }}</ref>

The war against French rule concluded in 1962, when Algeria gained complete independence following the March 1962 [[Evian agreements]] and the July 1962 [[Algerian self-determination referendum, 1962|self-determination referendum]].

=== The first three decades of independence (1962–1991) ===
{{main|History of Algeria (1962–1999)}}

The number of European ''[[Pied-Noir]]s'' who fled Algeria totaled more than 900,000 between 1962 and 1964.<ref>{{cite book|author1=Ussama Samir Makdisi|authorlink1= Ussama Makdisi|author2=Paul A. Silverstein|title=Memory and Violence in the Middle East and North Africa|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2VlR9Uh22EgC&pg=PA160|year=2006 |publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0-253-34655-1|page=160|access-date=12 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170416125539/https://books.google.com/books?id=2VlR9Uh22EgC&pg=PA160 |archive-date=16 April 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> The exodus to mainland France accelerated after the [[Oran massacre of 1962]], in which hundreds of militants entered European sections of the city and began attacking civilians.

[[File:Houari Boumediene's Portrait.jpg|thumb|upright=0.65|[[Houari Boumediene]]]]
Algeria's first president was the Front de Libération Nationale ([[FLN (Algeria)|FLN]]) leader [[Ahmed Ben Bella]]. Morocco's claim to [[Greater Morocco|portions of western Algeria]] led to the [[Sand War]] in 1963. Ben Bella was [[1965 Algerian coup d'état|overthrown in 1965]] by [[Houari Boumédiène]], his former ally and defence minister. Under Ben Bella, the government had become increasingly [[Socialism|socialist]] and authoritarian; Boumédienne continued this trend. However, he relied much more on the army for his support, and reduced the sole legal party to a symbolic role. He [[collective farming|collectivised]] agriculture and launched a massive industrialisation drive. [[Extraction of petroleum|Oil extraction]] facilities were nationalised. This was especially beneficial to the leadership after the international [[1973 oil crisis]].

Boumédienne's successor, [[Chadli Bendjedid]], introduced some liberal economic reforms. He promoted a policy of [[Arabisation]] in Algerian society and public life. Teachers of Arabic, brought in from other Muslim countries, spread conventional Islamic thought in schools and sowed the seeds of a return to Orthodox Islam.<ref name="faco" />

The Algerian economy became increasingly dependent on oil, leading to hardship when the price collapsed during the [[1980s oil glut]].<ref name="Prochaska-2013">{{cite web|last=Prochaska|first=David|title=That Was Then, This Is Now: The Battle of Algiers and After.|url=http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/rhr/summary/v085/85.1prochaska.html|page=141|access-date=10 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130725163300/http://muse.jhu.edu/journals/rhr/summary/v085/85.1prochaska.html|archive-date=25 July 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> Economic recession caused by the crash in world oil prices resulted in Algerian social unrest during the 1980s; by the end of the decade, Bendjedid introduced a multi-party system. Political parties developed, such as the [[Islamic Salvation Front]] (FIS), a broad coalition of Muslim groups.<ref name="faco" />

=== Civil War (1991–2002) and aftermath ===
{{main|Algerian Civil War}}
[[File:Algerian massacres 1997-1998.png|thumb|[[List of massacres during the Algerian Civil War|Massacres]] of over 50 people in 1997–1998. The [[Armed Islamic Group|Armed Islamic Group (GIA)]] claimed responsibility for many of them.]]
In December 1991 the [[Islamic Salvation Front]] dominated the first of two rounds of [[Algerian legislative election, 1991|legislative elections]]. Fearing the election of an Islamist government, the authorities intervened on 11 January 1992, cancelling the elections. Bendjedid resigned and a [[High Council of State (Algeria)|High Council of State]] was installed to act as the Presidency. It banned the FIS, triggering a civil [[insurgency]] between the Front's armed wing, the [[Armed Islamic Group of Algeria|Armed Islamic Group]], and the national armed forces, in which more than 100,000 people are thought to have died. The Islamist militants conducted a violent campaign of [[List of massacres during the Algerian Civil War|civilian massacres]].<ref>"[https://www.nytimes.com/1997/08/30/world/98-die-in-one-of-algerian-civil-war-s-worst-massacres.html 98 Die in One of Algerian Civil War's Worst Massacres ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170623134112/http://www.nytimes.com/1997/08/30/world/98-die-in-one-of-algerian-civil-war-s-worst-massacres.html |date=23 June 2017 }}". ''The New York Times''. 30 August 1997.</ref>{{Failed verification|date=November 2023|reason=Graphic description of one massacre, but no mention of 100k or a "campaign"}} At several points in the conflict, the situation in Algeria became a point of international concern, most notably during the crisis surrounding [[Air France Flight 8969]], a hijacking perpetrated by the Armed Islamic Group. The Armed Islamic Group declared a ceasefire in October 1997.<ref name="faco" />

Algeria held [[Algerian presidential election, 1999|elections in 1999]], considered biased by international observers and most opposition groups<ref>{{cite web|url = http://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2013/algeria|title = Freedom in the World 2013: Algeria|publisher = Freedom House|author = Freedom House|access-date = 22 January 2014|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20140202094239/http://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2013/algeria|archive-date = 2 February 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> which were won by President [[Abdelaziz Bouteflika]]. He worked to restore political stability to the country and announced a "Civil Concord" initiative, approved in a [[Algerian Civil Concord referendum, 1999|referendum]], under which many political prisoners were pardoned, and several thousand members of armed groups were granted exemption from prosecution under a limited amnesty, in force until 13 January 2000. The AIS disbanded and levels of insurgent violence fell rapidly. The [[Groupe Salafiste pour la Prédication et le Combat]] (GSPC), a splinter group of the Armed Islamic Group, continued a terrorist campaign against the Government.<ref name="faco" />

Bouteflika was re-elected in the [[Algerian presidential election, 2004|April 2004 presidential election]] after campaigning on a programme of national reconciliation. The programme comprised economic, institutional, political and social reform to modernise the country, raise living standards, and tackle the causes of alienation. It also included a second amnesty initiative, the [[Charter for Peace and National Reconciliation]], which was approved in a [[Algerian national reconciliation referendum, 2005|referendum in September 2005]]. It offered amnesty to most guerrillas and Government security forces.<ref name="faco" />

In November 2008, the [[Algerian Constitution]] was amended following a vote in Parliament, removing the two-term limit on Presidential incumbents. This change enabled Bouteflika to stand for re-election in the [[Algerian presidential election, 2009|2009 presidential elections]], and he was re-elected in April 2009. During his election campaign and following his re-election, Bouteflika promised to extend the programme of national reconciliation and a $150-billion spending programme to create three million new jobs, the construction of one million new housing units, and to continue public sector and infrastructure modernisation programmes.<ref name="faco" />

A continuing series of protests throughout the country started on 28 December 2010, inspired by similar [[Arab Spring|protests across the Middle East and North Africa]]. On 24 February 2011, the government lifted Algeria's 19-year-old [[state of emergency]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://articles.cnn.com/2011-02-24/world/algeria.emergency_1_islamist-party-algerian-press-service-emergency-declaration |title=Algeria Officially Lifts State of Emergency |publisher=CNN |date=24 February 2011 |access-date=27 February 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110301134330/http://articles.cnn.com/2011-02-24/world/algeria.emergency_1_islamist-party-algerian-press-service-emergency-declaration |archive-date=1 March 2011 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The government enacted legislation dealing with political parties, the electoral code, and the representation of women in elected bodies.<ref name="aaeo">{{cite web|title=Algeria|url=http://www.africaneconomicoutlook.org/en/countries/north-africa/algeria/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130326032434/http://www.africaneconomicoutlook.org/en/countries/north-africa/algeria/|archive-date=26 March 2013|access-date=6 January 2013|publisher=African Economic Outlook}}</ref> In April 2011, Bouteflika promised further constitutional and political reform.<ref name="faco">{{cite web|title=Country Profile: Algeria |url=http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/travel-and-living-abroad/travel-advice-by-country/country-profile/middle-east-north-africa/algeria/?profile=all |publisher=Foreign and Commonwealth Office |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101213054455/http://www.fco.gov.uk/en/travel-and-living-abroad/travel-advice-by-country/country-profile/middle-east-north-africa/algeria/?profile=all |archive-date=13 December 2010 }}</ref> However, elections are routinely criticised by opposition groups as unfair and international human rights groups say that media censorship and harassment of political opponents continue.

On 2 April 2019, Bouteflika resigned from the presidency after [[2019–2020 Algerian protests|mass protests]] against his candidacy for a fifth term in office.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/04/algeria-parliament-meet-tuesday-interim-president-190406201605242.html |title=Algeria parliament to meet on Tuesday to name interim president |publisher=Al Jazeera |date=6 April 2019 |access-date=7 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190407103512/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2019/04/algeria-parliament-meet-tuesday-interim-president-190406201605242.html |archive-date=7 April 2019 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In December 2019, [[Abdelmadjid Tebboune]] became Algeria's president, after winning the first round of the [[2019 Algerian presidential election|presidential election]] with a record abstention rate – the highest of all presidential elections since Algeria's democracy in 1989. Tebboune is accused of being close to the military and being loyal to the deposed president. Tebboune rejects these accusations, claiming to be the victim of a witch hunt. He also reminds his detractors that he was expelled from the Government in August 2017 at the instigation of oligarchs languishing in prison.<ref>{{cite news |date=17 December 2019 |title=Algeria: Who is new president Abdelmadjid Tebboune? |work=The Africa Report.com |url=https://www.theafricareport.com/21301/algeria-who-is-new-president-abdelmadjid-tebboune/ |access-date=17 December 2021 |archive-date=17 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211217204433/https://www.theafricareport.com/21301/algeria-who-is-new-president-abdelmadjid-tebboune/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In September 2024, President Tebboune [[2024 Algerian presidential election|won]] a second term with a landslide 84.3 percent of the vote, although his opponents called the results fraud.<ref>{{cite news |title=Algeria court certifies President Tebboune's landslide re-election win |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/9/14/algeria-court-certifies-president-tebbounes-landslide-re-election-win |work=Al Jazeera |language=en}}</ref>

== Geography ==
{{Main|Geography of Algeria}}
[[File:Algeria relief.png|thumb|The [[Sahara]], the [[Hoggar Mountains]] and the [[Atlas Mountains]] compose the Algerian relief.]]
[[File:Dunes.jpg|thumb|The [[Algerian Desert]] makes up more than 90% of the country's total area.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Earth from Space: Algerian sands |url=https://www.esa.int/Applications/Observing_the_Earth/Earth_from_Space_Algerian_sands |access-date=2023-06-16 |website=esa.int|archive-date=27 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230627150647/https://www.esa.int/Applications/Observing_the_Earth/Earth_from_Space_Algerian_sands |url-status=live }}</ref>]]
Since the 2011 breakup of Sudan, and the creation of South Sudan, Algeria has been the largest country in Africa, and the [[Mediterranean Basin]]. Its southern part includes a significant portion of the [[Sahara]]. To the north, the [[Tell Atlas]] forms with the [[Saharan Atlas]], further south, two parallel sets of reliefs in approaching eastbound, and between which are inserted vast plains and highlands. Both Atlas tend to merge in eastern Algeria. The vast mountain ranges of [[Aures]] and [[Tébessa|Nememcha]] occupy the entire northeastern Algeria and are delineated by the Tunisian border. The highest point is [[Mount Tahat]] ({{convert|3003|m|ft|disp=or}}).

Algeria lies mostly between latitudes [[19th parallel north|19°]] and [[37th parallel north|37°N]] (a small area is north of 37°N and south of 19°N), and longitudes [[9th meridian west|9°W]] and [[12th meridian east|12°E]]. Most of the coastal area is hilly, sometimes even mountainous, and there are a few natural [[harbour]]s. The area from the coast to the Tell Atlas is fertile. South of the Tell Atlas is a [[steppe]] landscape ending with the [[Saharan Atlas]]; farther south, there is the Sahara desert.<ref name=LOC>{{cite web|last=Metz |first=Helen Chapin |author-link=Helen Chapin Metz |title=Algeria : a country study |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/dztoc.html |publisher=United States Library of Congress |access-date=18 May 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115052428/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/dztoc.html |archive-date=15 January 2013 }}</ref>

The [[Hoggar Mountains]] ({{langx|ar|جبال هقار}}), also known as the Hoggar, are a highland region in central Sahara, southern Algeria. They are located about {{convert|1500|km|0|abbr=on}} south of the capital, Algiers, and just east of [[Tamanghasset]]. Algiers, [[Oran]], [[Constantine, Algeria|Constantine]], and [[Annaba]] are Algeria's main cities.<ref name=LOC />
[[File:Djurdjura mountains.jpg|thumb|The Babor mountains and the Jijel Coast. The Erraguene lake can be seen on the right.]]

=== Climate and hydrology ===
{{Main|Climate of Algeria}}
[[File:Koppen-Geiger Map DZA present.svg|thumb|left|Algeria map of [[Köppen climate classification]]]]

In this region, midday desert temperatures can be hot year round. After sunset, however, the clear, dry air permits rapid loss of heat, and the nights are cool to chilly. Enormous daily ranges in temperature are recorded.

Rainfall is fairly plentiful along the coastal part of the Tell Atlas, ranging from {{convert|400|to|670|mm|1|abbr=on}} annually, the amount of precipitation increasing from west to east. [[Precipitation (meteorology)|Precipitation]] is heaviest in the northern part of eastern Algeria, where it reaches as much as {{convert|1000|mm|1|abbr=on}} in some years.

Farther inland, the rainfall is less plentiful. Algeria also has [[erg (landform)|ergs]], or sand dunes, between mountains. Among these, in the summer time when winds are heavy and gusty, temperatures can go up to {{convert|110|°F|°C|1|abbr=on|order=flip}}.

{{Excerpt|Climate change in Algeria|hat=no|files=no}}

=== Fauna and flora ===
{{Main|Wildlife of Algeria}}
[[File:Vulpes zerda.JPG|thumb|left|The [[fennec fox]] is the [[national animal]] of Algeria.]]

The varied vegetation of Algeria includes [[coastal]], [[mountainous]] and grassy [[desert]]-like regions which all support a wide range of wildlife.

In Algeria [[forest cover]] is around 1% of the total land area, equivalent to 1,949,000 hectares (ha) of forest in 2020, up from 1,667,000 hectares (ha) in 1990. In 2020, naturally regenerating forest covered 1,439,000 hectares (ha) and planted forest covered 510,000 hectares (ha). Of the naturally regenerating forest 0% was reported to be [[primary forest]] (consisting of native tree species with no clearly visible indications of human activity) and around 6% of the forest area was found within protected areas. For the year 2015, 80% of the forest area was reported to be under [[State ownership|public ownership]], 18% [[Private property|private ownership]] and 2% with ownership listed as other or unknown.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/a6e225da-4a31-4e06-818d-ca3aeadfd635/content |title=Terms and Definitions FRA 2025 Forest Resources Assessment, Working Paper 194 |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |year=2023}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020, Algeria |url=https://fra-data.fao.org/assessments/fra/2020/DZA/home/overview |website=Food Agriculture Organization of the United Nations}}</ref>

Many of the creatures constituting the Algerian wildlife live in close proximity to civilisation. The most commonly seen animals include the wild [[boar]]s, [[jackal]]s, and [[gazelle]]s, although it is not uncommon to spot [[fennecs]] (foxes), and [[jerboas]]. Algeria also has a small [[African leopard]] and [[Saharan cheetah]] population, but these are seldom seen. A species of deer, the [[Barbary stag]], inhabits the dense humid forests in the north-eastern areas. The [[fennec fox]] is the [[national animal]] of Algeria.<ref>{{cite web|last=Hodges |first=K. |title=National Animals of African Countries |url=http://african.howzit.msn.com/national-animals-of-african-countries?page=10 |access-date=19 February 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140225172955/http://african.howzit.msn.com/national-animals-of-african-countries?page=10 |archive-date=25 February 2014}}</ref>

A variety of bird species makes the country an attraction for bird watchers. The forests are inhabited by boars and jackals. [[Barbary macaque]]s are the sole native monkey. Snakes, [[monitor lizard]]s, and numerous other reptiles can be found living among an array of [[rodent]]s throughout the [[semi arid]] regions of Algeria. Many animals are now extinct, including the [[Barbary lion]]s, [[Atlas bear]]s and [[West African crocodile|crocodile]]s.<ref>"[http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0014734 Crocodiles in the Sahara Desert: An Update of Distribution, Habitats and Population Status for Conservation Planning in Mauritania] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180810113430/http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0014734 |date=10 August 2018 }}". ''[[PLOS ONE]]''. 25 February 2011.</ref>

In the north, some of the native flora includes [[Macchia]] scrub, [[Olive|olive trees]], [[oak]]s, [[cedrus|cedars]] and other [[Pinophyta|conifers]]. The mountain regions contain large forests of evergreens ([[Aleppo pine]], [[juniper]], and [[evergreen oak]]) and some deciduous trees. [[Ficus|Fig]], [[eucalyptus]], [[agave]], and various [[Arecaceae|palm trees]] grow in the warmer areas. The [[grape vine]] is indigenous to the coast. In the Sahara region, some oases have palm trees. [[Acacia]]s with wild [[olive]]s are the predominant flora in the remainder of the [[Sahara]]. Algeria had a 2018 [[Forest Landscape Integrity Index]] mean score of 5.22/10, ranking it 106th globally out of 172 countries.<ref name="FLII-Supplementary">{{cite journal|last1=Grantham|first1=H. S.|last2=Duncan|first2=A.|last3=Evans|first3=T. D.|last4=Jones|first4=K. R.|last5=Beyer|first5=H. L.|last6=Schuster|first6=R.|last7=Walston|first7=J.|last8=Ray|first8=J. C.|last9=Robinson|first9=J. G.|last10=Callow|first10=M.|last11=Clements|first11=T.|last12=Costa|first12=H. M.|last13=DeGemmis|first13=A.|last14=Elsen|first14=P. R.|last15=Ervin|first15=J.|last16=Franco|first16=P.|last17=Goldman|first17=E.|last18=Goetz|first18=S.|last19=Hansen|first19=A.|last20=Hofsvang|first20=E.|last21=Jantz|first21=P.|last22=Jupiter|first22=S.|last23=Kang|first23=A.|last24=Langhammer|first24=P.|last25=Laurance|first25=W. F.|last26=Lieberman|first26=S.|last27=Linkie|first27=M.|last28=Malhi|first28=Y.|last29=Maxwell|first29=S.|last30=Mendez|first30=M.|last31=Mittermeier|first31=R.|last32=Murray|first32=N. J.|last33=Possingham|first33=H.|last34=Radachowsky|first34=J.|last35=Saatchi|first35=S.|last36=Samper|first36=C.|last37=Silverman|first37=J.|last38=Shapiro|first38=A.|last39=Strassburg|first39=B.|last40=Stevens|first40=T.|last41=Stokes|first41=E.|last42=Taylor|first42=R.|last43=Tear|first43=T.|last44=Tizard|first44=R.|last45=Venter|first45=O.|last46=Visconti|first46=P.|last47=Wang|first47=S.|last48=Watson|first48=J. E. M.|title=Anthropogenic modification of forests means only 40% of remaining forests have high ecosystem integrity – Supplementary Material|journal=Nature Communications|volume=11|issue=1|year=2020|page=5978|issn=2041-1723|doi=10.1038/s41467-020-19493-3|pmid=33293507|pmc=7723057|bibcode=2020NatCo..11.5978G |doi-access=free}}</ref>

Camels are used extensively; the desert also abounds with venomous and nonvenomous snakes, [[scorpion]]s, and numerous insects.

== Government and politics ==
{{Main|Politics of Algeria}}
[[File:Abdelmadjid Tebboune (2023) (cropped).jpg|left|thumb|upright|[[Abdelmadjid Tebboune]], President of Algeria since 2019]]
Algeria's government has been described as authoritarian,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hill |first=J. N. C. |date=2019-11-17 |title=The evolution of authoritarian rule in Algeria: linkage versus organizational power |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13510347.2019.1641694 |journal=Democratization |language=en |volume=26 |issue=8 |pages=1382–1398 |doi=10.1080/13510347.2019.1641694 |issn=1351-0347}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Ghanem |first=Dalia |url=https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-05102-9 |title=Understanding the Persistence of Competitive Authoritarianism in Algeria |date=2022 |publisher=Springer International Publishing |isbn=978-3-031-05101-2 |series=Middle East Today |location=Cham |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-031-05102-9}}</ref><ref>Muradova Huseynova, L. (2016). Riqueza petrolífera y autoritarismo: Argelia en la Primavera Árabe. ''Revista Española De Ciencia Política'', (40). Retrieved from https://recyt.fecyt.es/index.php/recp/article/view/39641</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wischermann |first1=Jörg |last2=Bunk |first2=Bettina |last3=Köllner |first3=Patrick |last4=Lorch |first4=Jasmin |date=2018-04-03 |title=Do associations support authoritarian rule? Evidence from Algeria, Mozambique, and Vietnam |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/17448689.2018.1464707 |journal=Journal of Civil Society |language=en |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=95–115 |doi=10.1080/17448689.2018.1464707 |issn=1744-8689}}</ref> and elected politicians have relatively little sway over affairs in the country. Instead, a group of unelected civilian and military "décideurs" ("deciders") known as "le pouvoir" ("the power") exercising ''de facto'' rule over the country, even deciding who should be president.<ref>{{Cite web|date=12 April 2019|title=What's happening in Algeria… is it the "Arab spring"? (فراس صليبا)|url=https://www.lebanese-forces.com/2019/04/12/algeria-132/|access-date=12 July 2021|website=Lebanese Forces Official Website|archive-date=12 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210712120251/https://www.lebanese-forces.com/2019/04/12/algeria-132/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Algeria – Country Profile – Nations Online Project |website=nationsonline.org |url=https://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/algeria.htm |access-date=12 July 2021 |archive-date=8 November 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191108185524/https://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/algeria.htm |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Ottaway |first=Marina |date=2021-10-13 |title=Algeria: The Enduring Failure of Politics |url=https://www.wilsoncenter.org/article/algeria-enduring-failure-politics |access-date=2024-09-09 |website=Wilson Center |language=en}}</ref> The most powerful man might have been [[Mohamed Mediène]], the head of military intelligence, before he was brought down during the [[2019–2020 Algerian protests|2019 protests]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Still waiting for real democracy |url=http://www.economist.com/node/21554565 |newspaper=The Economist |date=12 May 2012 |access-date=16 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130103155414/http://www.economist.com/node/21554565 |archive-date=3 January 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> In recent years, many of these generals have died, retired, or been imprisoned. After the death of General [[Larbi Belkheir]], previous president [[Abdelaziz Bouteflika|Bouteflika]] put loyalists in key posts, notably at [[Sonatrach]], and secured constitutional amendments that made him re-electable indefinitely, until he was brought down in 2019 during [[2019–2020 Algerian protests|protests]].<ref>{{cite news |title=The president and the police |url=http://www.economist.com/node/15612455 |newspaper=The Economist |date=4 May 2010 |access-date=16 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130104202443/http://www.economist.com/node/15612455 |archive-date=4 January 2013 |url-status=live}}</ref>

The head of state is the [[President of Algeria]], who is elected for a five-year term. The president is limited to two five-year terms. The [[2019 Algerian presidential election|most recent presidential election]] was planned to be in April 2019, but [[2019 Algerian protests|widespread protests]] erupted on 22 February against the president's decision to participate in the election, which resulted in President Bouteflika announcing his resignation on 3 April.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/apr/02/algeria-latest-news-president-abdelaziz-bouteflika-resigns|title=Algeria's president Abdelaziz Bouteflika resigns after 20 years|first=Ruth|last=Michaelson|date=3 April 2019|work=The Guardian|access-date=5 April 2019|archive-date=2 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402200757/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2019/apr/02/algeria-latest-news-president-abdelaziz-bouteflika-resigns|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Abdelmadjid Tebboune]], an independent candidate, was elected as president after the election eventually took place on 12 December 2019. Protestors refused to recognise Tebboune as president, citing demands for comprehensive reform of the political system.<ref>{{Cite news|date=13 December 2019|title=Algeria election: Fresh protests as Tebboune replaces Bouteflika|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-50782676|access-date=10 February 2021|archive-date=17 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200117104936/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-50782676|url-status=live}}</ref> Algeria has universal [[suffrage]] at 18 years of age.<ref name="CIA" /> The President is the head of the [[Algerian Army|army]], the [[Council of Ministers of Algeria|Council of Ministers]] and the [[High Security Council]]. He appoints the [[Prime Minister of Algeria|Prime Minister]] who is also the head of government.<ref name="president">Articles: 85, 87, 77, 78 and 79 of the Algerian constitution {{cite web|last=Algerian government|title=Constitution|url=http://www.conseil-constitutionnel.dz/Constitution08_6.htm|access-date=25 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120422193224/http://www.conseil-constitutionnel.dz/Constitution08_6.htm|archive-date=22 April 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>
[[File:Hémicycle de l'assemblée populaire nationale (Algérie).jpg|thumb|The [[People's National Assembly]]]]
The Algerian parliament is [[bicameral]]; the lower house, the [[People's National Assembly]], has 462 members who are directly elected for five-year terms, while the upper house, the [[Council of the Nation]], has 144 members serving six-year terms, of which 96 members are chosen by local assemblies and 48 are appointed by the president.<ref name="fitw13">{{cite web|title=Algeria|url=http://www.freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2013/algeria|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130323022533/http://www.freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/2013/algeria|archive-date=23 March 2013|access-date=8 March 2013|work=Freedom in the World 2013|publisher=Freedom House}}</ref> According to the [[Constitution of Algeria|constitution]], no political association may be formed if it is "based on differences in religion, language, race, gender, profession, or region". In addition, political campaigns must be exempt from the aforementioned subjects.<ref>Article 42 of the Algerian constitution – {{cite web|last=Algerian Government|title=Algerian constitution الحـقــوق والحــرّيـات|url=http://www.conseil-constitutionnel.dz/Constitution08_4-1.htm|access-date=25 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120914044119/http://www.conseil-constitutionnel.dz/Constitution08_4-1.htm|archive-date=14 September 2012|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Parliamentary elections were last held in [[2021 Algerian parliamentary election|June 2021]]. In the elections, the [[National Liberation Front (Algeria)|FLN]] lost 66 of its seats, but remained the largest party with 98 seats. Other parties included the [[Movement of Society for Peace|Movement of the Society for Peace]] which won 65 seats, the [[National Rally for Democracy (Algeria)|National Rally for Democracy]] which won 58 seats, the [[Future Front]] which won 48 seats, and the [[National Construction Movement]] which won 39 seats.

=== Foreign relations ===
{{Main|Foreign relations of Algeria}}
[[File:Abdelaziz Bouteflika and George W Bush 20080707.jpg|thumb|President [[Abdelaziz Bouteflika]] and [[George W. Bush]] exchange handshakes at the Windsor Hotel Toya Resort and Spa in Tōyako Town, Abuta District, Hokkaidō in 2008. With them are [[Dmitriy Medvedev]], left, and [[Yasuo Fukuda]], right.]]

Algeria is included in the [[European Union]]'s [[European Neighbourhood Policy]] (ENP) which aims at bringing the EU and its neighbours closer.
Giving incentives and rewarding best performers, as well as offering funds in a faster and more flexible manner, are the two main principles underlying the European Neighbourhood Instrument (ENI) that came into force in 2014. It has a budget of €15.4&nbsp;billion and provides the bulk of funding through a number of programmes.

In 2009, the French government agreed to compensate victims of nuclear tests in Algeria. Defence Minister Hervé Morin stated that "It's time for our country to be at peace with itself, at peace thanks to a system of compensation and reparations", when presenting the draft law on the payouts. Algerian officials and activists believe that this is a good first step and hope that this move would encourage broader reparation.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/france-offers-compensation-to-victims-sickened-by-nuclear-tests-1.797730|title=France offers compensation to victims sickened by nuclear tests|access-date=3 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104142121/http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/france-offers-compensation-to-victims-sickened-by-nuclear-tests-1.797730|archive-date=4 November 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Algeria–Morocco relations|Tensions between Algeria and Morocco]] in relation to the [[Western Sahara]] have been an obstacle to tightening the [[Arab Maghreb Union]], nominally established in 1989, but which has carried little practical weight.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.arabicnews.com/ansub/Daily/Day/990219/1999021906.html |publisher=ArabicNews.com |title=Bin Ali calls for reactivating Arab Maghreb Union, Tunisia-Maghreb, Politics |date=19 February 1999 |access-date=4 April 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20011125202857/http%3A//www%2Earabicnews%2Ecom/ansub/daily/day/990219/1999021906%2Ehtml |archive-date= 25 November 2001 }}</ref> On 24 August 2021, Algeria announced the break of diplomatic relations with Morocco.<ref>{{cite news |title=Algeria stops gas supplies to Spain via Morocco, as diplomatic row with Rabat intensifies |url=https://www.upstreamonline.com/politics/algeria-stops-gas-supplies-to-spain-via-morocco-as-diplomatic-row-with-rabat-intensifies/2-1-1092219 |work=[[Upstream (newspaper)|Upstream]] |date=2 November 2021 |access-date=5 November 2021 |archive-date=5 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211105090802/https://www.upstreamonline.com/politics/algeria-stops-gas-supplies-to-spain-via-morocco-as-diplomatic-row-with-rabat-intensifies/2-1-1092219 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Military ===
{{Main|Military of Algeria}}
[[File:Al-chihab.jpg|thumb|A [[Djebel Chenoua-class corvette|''Djebel Chenoua''-class corvette]], designed and assembled in Algeria]]
The military of Algeria consists of the [[People's National Army]] (ANP), the [[Algerian National Navy]] (MRA), and the [[Algerian Air Force]] (QJJ), plus the [[Territorial Air Defence Forces]].<ref name="AlgeriaFactbook">{{Cite CIA World Factbook|country=Algeria|access-date=24 December 2013 }}</ref> It is the direct successor of the [[National Liberation Army (Algeria)|National Liberation Army]] (Armée de Libération Nationale or ALN), the armed wing of the nationalist National Liberation Front which fought French colonial [[military occupation|occupation]] during the Algerian War of Independence (1954–62).

Total military personnel include 147,000 active, 150,000 reserve, and 187,000 paramilitary staff (2008 estimate).<ref name=IISS_TMB>{{cite book|title=The Military Balance 2008|editor=Hackett, James|others=[[International Institute for Strategic Studies]]|date=5 February 2008|publisher=Europa|isbn=978-1-85743-461-3|url=http://www.zawya.com/printstory.cfm?storyid=v51n20-1TS05&l=134200080519|access-date=16 July 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130725074725/http://www.zawya.com/printstory.cfm?storyid=v51n20-1TS05&l=134200080519|archive-date=25 July 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> Service in the military is compulsory for men aged 19–30, for a total of 12 months.<ref>"Loi 14-06 relative au service national", JORADP 48, August, 10th 2014</ref> The military expenditure was 4.3% of the gross domestic product (GDP) in 2012.<ref name="AlgeriaFactbook"/> Algeria has the [[List of countries by number of military and paramilitary personnel|second-largest military]] in North Africa with the largest defence budget in Africa ($10&nbsp;billion).<ref name="AlgeriaSpending">{{cite web|url=http://www.upi.com/Business_News/Security-Industry/2013/03/11/Algerias-military-goes-on-an-arms-spree/UPI-89581363031700/|title=Algeria buying military equipment|work=United Press International|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131113051727/http://www.upi.com/Business_News/Security-Industry/2013/03/11/Algerias-military-goes-on-an-arms-spree/UPI-89581363031700/|archive-date=13 November 2013|access-date=24 December 2013}}</ref> Most of Algeria's weapons are imported from Russia, with whom they [[Algeria–Russia relations|are a close ally]].<ref name="AlgeriaSpending" /><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb228/index.htm|title=The Nuclear Vault: The Algerian Nuclear Problem|publisher=Gwu.edu|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130302044856/http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/nukevault/ebb228/index.htm|archive-date=2 March 2013|access-date=14 March 2013}}</ref>

In 2007, the Algerian Air Force signed a deal with Russia to purchase 49 [[MiG-29]]SMT and 6 MiG-29UBT at an estimated cost of $1.9&nbsp;billion. Russia is also building two [[Kilo class submarine|636-type]] diesel [[submarines]] for Algeria.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.warandpeace.ru/en/news/view/12214/| title=Venezuela's Chavez To Finalise Russian Submarines Deal| agency=[[Agence France-Presse]]| date=14 June 2007| access-date=31 August 2011| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150212214143/http://www.warandpeace.ru/en/news/view/12214/| archive-date=12 February 2015| url-status=live}}</ref>

Algeria is the 90th most peaceful country in the world, according to the 2024 [[Global Peace Index]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=2024 Global Peace Index |url=https://www.economicsandpeace.org/wp-content/uploads/2024/06/GPI-2024-web.pdf}}</ref>

=== Human rights ===
{{Main|Human rights in Algeria}}
Algeria has been categorised by the US government funded [[Freedom House]] as "not free" since it began publishing such ratings in 1972, with the exception of 1989, 1990, and 1991, when the country was labelled "partly free".<ref>{{cite web|title=Freedom in the World|url=http://www.freedomhouse.org/report-types/freedom-world|work=Freedom House|access-date=19 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130127202423/http://www.freedomhouse.org/report-types/freedom-world|archive-date=27 January 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> In December 2016, the ''Euro-Mediterranean Human Rights Monitor'' issued a report regarding violation of [[media freedom]] in Algeria. It clarified that the Algerian government imposed restrictions on [[freedom of the press]]; expression; and right to peaceful demonstration, protest and assembly as well as intensified censorship of the media and websites. Due to the fact that the journalists and activists criticise the ruling government, some media organisations' licenses are cancelled.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://euromedmonitor.org/en/article/1629/Algeria-must-stop-crushing-dissent-by-imprisoning-journalists-and-activists|title=Algeria must stop crushing dissent by imprisoning journalists and activists|last=Monitor|first=Euro-Med|newspaper=Euro-Mediterranean|date=December 2016|access-date=21 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202064732/http://euromedmonitor.org/en/article/1629/Algeria-must-stop-crushing-dissent-by-imprisoning-journalists-and-activists|archive-date=2 February 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>

Independent and autonomous trade unions face routine harassment from the government, with many leaders imprisoned and protests suppressed. In 2016, a number of unions, many of which were involved in the 2010–2012 Algerian Protests, have been deregistered by the government.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.maghrebemergent.info/actualite/maghrebine/82657-algerie-dissolution-du-snateg-le-secretaire-general-conteste.html|title=Algérie : Dissolution du Snateg, le secrétaire général conteste |website =Maghreb Emergent|last=Izouaouen|first=Noreddine|language=fr-fr|date = 4 December 2017|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180315200337/https://www.maghrebemergent.info/actualite/maghrebine/82657-algerie-dissolution-du-snateg-le-secretaire-general-conteste.html|archive-date=15 March 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.lematindalgerie.com/le-snategs-denonce-et-decide-de-porter-plainte|title=Le Snategs dénonce et décide de porter plainte {{!}} Le Matin d'Algérie|work=[[Le Matin d'Algérie]]|access-date=15 March 2018|language=fr|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180315200412/http://www.lematindalgerie.com/le-snategs-denonce-et-decide-de-porter-plainte|archive-date=15 March 2018|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url= https://www.hrw.org/fr/news/2014/05/27/algerie-les-droits-des-travailleurs-bafoues|title=Algérie : Les droits des travailleurs bafoués|date=27 May 2014|publisher=Human Rights Watch|access-date=15 March 2018|language=fr|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170421154755/https://www.hrw.org/fr/news/2014/05/27/algerie-les-droits-des-travailleurs-bafoues|archive-date=21 April 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[LGBT rights in Algeria|Homosexuality]] is illegal in Algeria.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/06/13/here-are-the-10-countries-where-homosexuality-may-be-punished-by-death-2/ |title=Here are the 10 countries where homosexuality may be punished by death |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=16 June 2016 |access-date=21 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161111064457/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/worldviews/wp/2016/06/13/here-are-the-10-countries-where-homosexuality-may-be-punished-by-death-2/ |archive-date=11 November 2016 |url-status=live }}</ref> Public homosexual behavior is punishable by up to two years in prison.<ref>{{cite web|title=2010 Human Rights Report: Algeria|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/2010/nea/154458.htm|work=US Department of State|access-date=24 June 2017|archive-date=20 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200320140735/https://2009-2017.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/2010/nea/154458.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> Despite this, about 26% of Algerians think that homosexuality should be accepted, according to the survey conducted by the [[BBC Arabic|BBC News Arabic]]-Arab Barometer in 2019. Algeria showed the highest LGBT acceptance compared to other Arab countries where the survey was conducted.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-48703377|title=Are Arabs turning their backs on religion?|date=24 June 2019|access-date=17 July 2021|archive-date=19 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201119175129/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-48703377|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Human Rights Watch]] has accused the Algerian authorities of using the [[COVID-19 pandemic]] as an excuse to prevent pro-democracy movements and protests in the country, leading to the arrest of youths as part of [[social distancing]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/04/29/during-pandemic-algeria-tightens-vise-protest-movement|title=During Pandemic, Algeria Tightens Vise on Protest Movement|access-date=29 April 2020|publisher=Human Rights Watch|date=29 April 2020|archive-date=23 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200723182332/https://www.hrw.org/news/2020/04/29/during-pandemic-algeria-tightens-vise-protest-movement|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Administrative divisions ===
{{Main|Provinces of Algeria|Districts of Algeria|Municipalities of Algeria}}
Algeria is divided into 58 [[provinces of Algeria|provinces]] (''[[wilaya]]s''), 553 [[districts of Algeria|districts]] (''[[daïra]]s'')<ref>{{Cite web|title=Wildfire Management Policies in Algeria: Present and Future Needs1,2|url=https://www.fs.fed.us/psw/publications/documents/psw_gtr245/psw_gtr245_382.pdf|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170504200710/https://www.fs.fed.us/psw/publications/documents/psw_gtr245/psw_gtr245_382.pdf |archive-date=4 May 2017 }}</ref> and 1,541 [[Municipalities of Algeria|municipalities]] (''[[baladiyah]]s''). Each province, district, and municipality is named after its [[Capital city|seat]], which is usually the largest city.

The administrative divisions have changed several times since independence. When introducing new provinces, the numbers of old provinces are kept, hence the non-alphabetical order. With their official numbers, currently (since 1983) they are:<ref name="AlgeriaFactbook"/>

{{Algeria Wilayas}}

== Economy ==
{{Main|Economy of Algeria}}
[[File:GDP per capita development in Algeria.png| upright=1.35|thumb|right|GDP per capita development in Algeria]]
Algeria's currency is the [[Algerian dinar|dinar]] (DZD). The economy remains dominated by the state, a legacy of the country's socialist post-independence development model. In June 2024 The World Bank's 2024 report marks a turning point for Algeria, which joins the select club of upper-middle-income countries. This economic rise, the result of an ambitious development strategy, places the country in the same category as emerging powers such as China, Brazil and Turkey<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-07-24 |title=Banque mondiale : 6 pays d'Afrique dont 2 du maghreb à revenu intermédiaire supérieur |url=https://lanouvelletribune.info/2024/07/banque-mondiale-6-pays-dafrique-dont-2-du-maghreb-a-revenu-intermediaire-superieur/ |access-date=2024-07-30 |website=La Nouvelle Tribune |language=fr-FR}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Algeria reclassified to upper middle income by WB |url=https://www.aps.dz/en/economy/52947-world-bank-algeria-s-positioning-improves-in-new-classification-of-economies}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Algeria reclassification to upper middle income by World Bank |work=World Bank Blogs |url=https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/opendata/world-bank-country-classifications-by-income-level-for-2024-2025}}</ref> In recent years, the Algerian government has halted the privatisation of state-owned industries and imposed restrictions on imports and foreign involvement in its economy.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Cilliers |first1=Jakkie |last2=Kwasi |first2=Stellah |date=8 June 2023 |title=Stagnation or Growth? Algeria's development pathway to 2040 |url=https://futures.issafrica.org/special-reports/country/algeria/#09-economy |access-date=21 January 2025 |website=futures.issafrica.org |language=en}}</ref> These restrictions are just starting to be lifted off recently although questions about Algeria's slowly-diversifying economy remain.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=2023-01-01 |title=Algerian efforts to diversify the economy will be slow |url=https://www.emerald.com/insight/content/doi/10.1108/oxan-db280723/full/html |journal=Emerald Expert Briefings |volume= |issue= |doi=10.1108/OXAN-DB280723 |issn=2633-304X}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Alby |first=Stéphane |date=25 June 2024 |title=ALGERIA: POSITIVE SIGNS BUT MAJOR CHALLENGES |url=https://economic-research.bnpparibas.com/pdf/en-US/Algeria-positive-signs-major-challenges-7/15/2024,49785 |journal=Eco Emerging |issue=Q3 2024 |pages=21–22 |via=[[BNP Paribas]]}}</ref>

Algeria has struggled to develop industries outside hydrocarbons in part because of high costs and an inert state bureaucracy. The government's efforts to diversify the economy by attracting foreign and domestic investment outside the energy sector have done little to reduce high youth unemployment rates or to address housing shortages.<ref name="AlgeriaFactbook"/> The country is facing a number of short-term and medium-term problems, including the need to diversify the economy, strengthen political, economic and financial reforms, improve the business climate and reduce inequalities among regions.<ref name=aaeo/>

A wave of economic protests in February and March 2011 prompted the Algerian government to offer more than $23&nbsp;billion in public grants and retroactive salary and benefit increases. Public spending has increased by 27% annually during the past five years. The 2010–14 public-investment programme will cost US$286&nbsp;billion, 40% of which will go to human development.<ref name=aaeo/>
[[File:A Market in Algeria.jpg|thumb|[[Street market]] in Algeria]]
Thanks to strong hydrocarbon revenues, Algeria has a cushion of $173&nbsp;billion in [[foreign currency reserves]] and a large hydrocarbon stabilisation fund. In addition, Algeria's [[List of countries by external debt|external debt]] is extremely low at about 2% of GDP.<ref name="AlgeriaFactbook"/> The economy remains very dependent on hydrocarbon wealth, and, despite high foreign exchange reserves (US$178&nbsp;billion, equivalent to three years of imports), current expenditure growth makes Algeria's budget more vulnerable to the risk of prolonged lower hydrocarbon revenues.<ref name=imfart4/>

Algeria has not joined the [[WTO]], despite several years of negotiations but is a member of the [[Greater Arab Free Trade Area]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=Members of the GAFTA – Greater Arab Free Trade Area|url=https://www.worlddata.info/trade-agreements/gafta.php|access-date=29 January 2022|website=Worlddata.info|archive-date=29 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220129230922/https://www.worlddata.info/trade-agreements/gafta.php|url-status=live}}</ref>{{unreliable source?|certain=yes|reason=Self-published source. See Special:PermanentLink/1244711437#worlddata.info|date=September 2024}} the [[African Continental Free Trade Area]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=KUNA : Algeria officially joins AU free trade agreement – Economics – 16/12/2019|url=https://www.kuna.net.kw/ArticleDetails.aspx?id=2841571&language=en|access-date=29 January 2022|website=kuna.net.kw|archive-date=29 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220129230920/https://www.kuna.net.kw/ArticleDetails.aspx?id=2841571&language=en|url-status=live}}</ref> and has an association agreement with the European Union.<ref>{{Cite web|title=General presentation of Association Agreement|url=https://www.caci.dz/en-us/Nos%20Services/coop%C3%A9ration%20internationale/Pages/accord-association/Pr%C3%A9sentation-g%C3%A9n%C3%A9ral-de-l%27Accord-d%27Association.aspx|access-date=29 January 2022|website=caci.dz|archive-date=29 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220129230921/https://www.caci.dz/en-us/Nos%20Services/coop%C3%A9ration%20internationale/Pages/accord-association/Pr%C3%A9sentation-g%C3%A9n%C3%A9ral-de-l%27Accord-d%27Association.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Doing Business in Algeria|url=http://algiers.usembassy.gov/doing_business_algeria.html|publisher=Embassy of the United States Algiers, Algeria|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121228091321/http://algiers.usembassy.gov/doing_business_algeria.html|archive-date=28 December 2012}}</ref>

Turkish direct investments have accelerated in Algeria, with total value reaching $5&nbsp;billion. As of 2022, the number of Turkish companies present in Algeria has reached 1,400. In 2020, despite the pandemic, more than 130 Turkish companies were created in Algeria.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Dubessy |first=Frédéric |title=Turkey strengthens its investments in Algeria |url=https://en.econostrum.info/Turkey-strengthens-its-investments-in-Algeria_a1362.html |access-date=2022-04-22 |website=Econostrum {{!}} Economic News in the Mediterranean |archive-date=23 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220423015337/https://en.econostrum.info/Turkey-strengthens-its-investments-in-Algeria_a1362.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== Oil and natural resources ===
{{see also|Mining industry of Algeria}}
[[File:Algeria pipelines map.jpg|thumb|Pipelines across Algeria]]

Algeria, whose economy is reliant on petroleum, has been an [[OPEC]] member since 1969. Its crude oil production stands at around 1.1&nbsp;million barrels/day, but it is also a major gas producer and exporter, with important links to Europe.<ref name=opb15>{{cite web|title=OPEC Bulletin 8-9/12|url=http://www.opec.org/opec_web/flipbook/OB08092012/OB08092012/assets/basic-html/page17.html|page=15|access-date=6 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224114739/http://www.opec.org/opec_web/flipbook/OB08092012/OB08092012/assets/basic-html/page17.html|archive-date=24 December 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> Hydrocarbons have long been the backbone of the economy, accounting for roughly 60% of budget revenues, 30% of GDP, and 87.7%<ref>{{Cite news|date=13 November 2021|title=Exportations hors hydrocarbures: une recette de près de 3 mds de dollars durant les huit 1ers mois de 2021|work=APS|url=https://www.aps.dz/economie/127366-exportations-hors-hydrocarbures-une-recette-de-pres-de-3-mds-de-dollars-durant-les-huit-1ers-mois-de-2021|access-date=30 January 2022|archive-date=29 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220129230916/https://www.aps.dz/economie/127366-exportations-hors-hydrocarbures-une-recette-de-pres-de-3-mds-de-dollars-durant-les-huit-1ers-mois-de-2021|url-status=live}}</ref> of export earnings. Algeria has the [[List of countries by natural gas proven reserves|10th-largest reserves of natural gas]] in the world and is the [[List of countries by natural gas exports|sixth-largest gas exporter]]. The U.S. [[Energy Information Administration]] reported that in 2005, Algeria had {{convert|160|Tcuft|order=flip}} of proven [[natural gas reserves]].<ref name="ciawfb">{{cite web|url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2253rank.html|title=Country Comparison: Natural Gas – Proved Reserves|publisher=Cia.gov|access-date=17 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170307234405/https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2253rank.html|archive-date=7 March 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> It also ranks [[List of countries by proven oil reserves|16th in oil reserves]].<ref name="AlgeriaFactbook"/>

Non-hydrocarbon growth for 2011 was projected at 5%. To cope with social demands, the authorities raised expenditure, especially on basic food support, employment creation, support for SMEs, and higher salaries. High hydrocarbon prices have improved the current account and the already large international reserves position.<ref name=imfart4/>

Income from oil and gas rose in 2011 as a result of continuing high oil prices, though the trend in production volume is downward.<ref name=aaeo/> Production from the oil and gas sector in terms of volume continues to decline, dropping from 43.2&nbsp;million tonnes to 32 million tonnes between 2007 and 2011. Nevertheless, the sector accounted for 98% of the total volume of exports in 2011, against 48% in 1962,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tsa-algerie.com/actualite/item/622-le-temps-des-crapules |title=Le temps des crapules&nbsp;– Tout sur l'Algérie |publisher=Tsa-algerie.com |date=27 May 2013 |author =Benchicou, Mohamed |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140311022328/http://www.tsa-algerie.com/actualite/item/622-le-temps-des-crapules |archive-date=11 March 2014 }}</ref> and 70% of budgetary receipts, or US$71.4&nbsp;billion.<ref name=aaeo/>

The Algerian national oil company is [[Sonatrach]], which plays a key role in all aspects of the oil and natural gas sectors in Algeria. All foreign operators must work in partnership with Sonatrach, which usually has majority ownership in production-sharing agreements.<ref>{{cite web|title=Country Analysis Briefs&nbsp;– Algeria |url=http://www.eia.gov/cabs/Algeria/pdf.pdf |publisher=Energy Information Administration |url-status=dead |archive-date=31 May 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130531053812/http://www.eia.gov/cabs/Algeria/pdf.pdf}}</ref>

Access to [[biocapacity]] in Algeria is lower than world average. In 2016, Algeria had 0.53 global hectares<ref name=footprintdata>{{cite web|url=http://data.footprintnetwork.org/#/countryTrends?cn=4&type=BCpc,EFCpc|title=Country Trends|publisher=Global Footprint Network|access-date=23 June 2020|archive-date=8 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808050235/http://data.footprintnetwork.org/#/countryTrends?cn=4&type=BCpc,EFCpc|url-status=live}}</ref> of biocapacity per person within its territory, much less than the world average of 1.6 global hectares per person.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lin |first1=David |last2=Hanscom |first2=Laurel |last3=Murthy |first3=Adeline |last4=Galli |first4=Alessandro |last5=Evans |first5=Mikel |last6=Neill |first6=Evan |last7=Mancini |first7=MariaSerena |last8=Martindill |first8=Jon |last9=Medouar |first9=FatimeZahra |last10=Huang |first10=Shiyu |last11=Wackernagel |first11=Mathis |year=2018 |title=Ecological Footprint Accounting for Countries: Updates and Results of the National Footprint Accounts, 2012–2018 |journal=Resources|volume=7|issue=3|pages=58|doi=10.3390/resources7030058 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2018Resou...7...58L }}</ref> In 2016, Algeria used 2.4 global hectares of biocapacity per person – their [[ecological footprint]] of consumption. This means they use just under 4.5 times as much biocapacity as Algeria contains. As a result, Algeria is running a biocapacity deficit.<ref name=footprintdata/> In April 2022, diplomats from Italy and Spain held talks after Rome's move to secure large volume of Algerian gas stoked concerns in Madrid.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-04-12 |title=Italy and Spain Hold Talks to Head Off Tension Over Algerian Gas|work=Bloomberg.com |url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-04-12/italy-and-spain-hold-talks-to-head-off-tension-over-algeria-gas |access-date=2022-04-14 |archive-date=14 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220414050705/https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2022-04-12/italy-and-spain-hold-talks-to-head-off-tension-over-algeria-gas |url-status=live }}</ref> Under the deal between Algeria's Sonatrach and Italy's Eni, Algeria will send an additional 9 billion cubic metres of gas to Italy by next year and in 2024.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-04-11 |title=Italy looks to demote Russia and make Algeria its top gas supplier |url=https://www.politico.eu/article/italy-turns-to-algeria-to-replace-russian-gas/ |access-date=2022-04-14 |website=POLITICO|archive-date=14 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220414030803/https://www.politico.eu/article/italy-turns-to-algeria-to-replace-russian-gas/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Research and alternative energy sources ===
Algeria has invested an estimated 100&nbsp;billion dinars towards developing research facilities and paying researchers. This development programme is meant to advance alternative energy production, especially solar and wind power.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://portail.cder.dz/spip.php?article1571 |title=Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Algerian Program (English Version) |access-date=31 October 2016 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161101101749/http://portail.cder.dz/spip.php?article1571 |archive-date=1 November 2016 }}</ref> Algeria is estimated to have the largest solar energy potential in the Mediterranean, so the government has funded the creation of a solar science park in Hassi R'Mel. Currently, Algeria has 20,000 research professors at various universities and over 780 research labs, with state-set goals to expand to 1,000. Besides solar energy, areas of research in Algeria include space and satellite telecommunications, nuclear power and medical research.

=== Labour market ===
The overall rate of unemployment was 11.8% in 2023.<ref name="unemplyment">{{cite web | title=World Bank Open Data | website=World Bank Open Data | date=18 Jun 2024 | url=https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.UEM.TOTL.ZS?locations=DZ | language=en | access-date=10 Nov 2024}}</ref> The government strengthened in 2011 the job programmes introduced in 1988, in particular in the framework of the programme to aid those seeking work (Dispositif d'Aide à l'Insertion Professionnelle).<ref name="aaeo" />

Despite a decline in total unemployment, youth and women unemployment is high.<ref name="imfart4">{{cite web|title=Algeria: 2011 Article IV Consultation|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/scr/2012/cr1220.pdf|publisher=IMF|access-date=6 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140311020241/http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/scr/2012/cr1220.pdf|archive-date=11 March 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Tourism ===
{{Main|Tourism in Algeria}}
[[File:Giants - Rock towers in the Algerian Sahara.jpg|thumb|[[Djanet]]]]

The development of the tourism sector in Algeria had previously been hampered by a lack of facilities, but since 2004 a broad tourism development strategy has been implemented resulting in many hotels of a high modern standard being built.

There are several [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Sites]] in Algeria<ref>{{cite web|last=UNESCO|title=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/dz|access-date=25 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110919064425/https://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/dz|archive-date=19 September 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> which includes [[Al Qal'a of Beni Hammad]], the first capital of the [[Hammadid]] empire; [[Tipasa]], a Phoenician and later Roman town;[[Djémila]] and [[Timgad]], both [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] ruins; [[M'Zab Valley]], a limestone valley containing a large urbanised [[oasis]]; and the [[Casbah]] of Algiers, an important citadel. The only natural [[World Heritage Site]] in Algeria is the [[Tassili n'Ajjer]], a mountain range.

=== Transport ===
{{Main|Transport in Algeria}}
[[File:Autoroute est ouest ghomri2.JPG|thumb|The main highway connecting the Moroccan to the Tunisian border was a part of the [[Cairo–Dakar Highway]] project.]]

Two trans-African automobile routes pass through Algeria:
* [[Cairo-Dakar Highway]]
* [[Algiers-Lagos Highway]]
The Algerian road network is the densest in Africa; its length is estimated at {{cvt|180,000|km}} of highways, with more than 3,756 structures and a paving rate of 85%. This network will be complemented by the [[Algeria East–West Highway|East-West Highway]], a major infrastructure project currently under construction. It is a three-way, {{convert|1216|km|mi|adj=mid|-long}} highway, linking [[Annaba]] in the extreme east to the [[Tlemcen]] in the far west. Algeria is also crossed by the [[Trans-Sahara Highway]], which is now completely paved. This road is supported by the Algerian government to increase trade between the six countries crossed: Algeria, [[Mali]], [[Niger]], [[Nigeria]], [[Chad]], and [[Tunisia]].

== Demographics ==
{{Main|Demographics of Algeria}}
{{see also|List of cities in Algeria}}

Algeria has a population of an estimated 45.6 million,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Algeria - Place Explorer - Data Commons |url=https://datacommons.org/place/country/DZA|access-date=2024-11-10 |website=datacommons.org |language=en}}</ref> of which the majority, 75%<ref name="EB-2022">{{Cite web |title=Algeria – Drainage |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Algeria/Drainage |access-date=2022-12-25 |website=Britannica|archive-date=22 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221222022251/https://www.britannica.com/place/Algeria/Drainage |url-status=live |quote=More than three-fourths of the country is ethnically Arab}}</ref> to 85% are ethnically [[Arabs|Arab]].<ref name="AlgeriaFactbook"/><ref name="ons">{{cite web |url=http://www.ons.dz/-Demographie-.html/ |title=Algérie a atteint 40,4 millions d'habitants (ONS) |publisher=ons |date=17 April 2013 |access-date=24 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131205120223/http://www.ons.dz/-Demographie-.html |archive-date=5 December 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="ber_evidance">{{cite journal |last1=Arredi |first1=Barbara |first2=Estella S. |last2=Poloni |first3=Silvia |last3=Paracchini |author-link3=Silvia Paracchini |first4=Tatiana |last4=Zerjal |last5=Dahmani |first5=M. Fathallah |first6=Mohamed |last6=Makrelouf |last7=Vincenzo |first7=L. Pascali |first8=Andrea |last8=Novelletto |first9=Chris |last9=Tyler-Smith |title=A Predominantly Neolithic Origin for Y-Chromosomal DNA Variation in North Africa|date=7 June 2004 |pmc=1216069 |pmid=15202071 |doi=10.1086/423147 |volume=75 |issue=2 |journal=Am. J. Hum. Genet. |pages=338–45}}</ref> At the outset of the 20th century, its population was approximately 4 million.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://countrystudies.us/algeria/48.htm |title=Algeria&nbsp;– Population |publisher=Library of Congress Country Studies |access-date=17 January 2013 |archive-date=13 June 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110613154609/http://countrystudies.us/algeria/48.htm |url-status=live}}</ref> About 90% of Algerians live in the northern, coastal area; the inhabitants of the Sahara desert are mainly concentrated in [[oasis|oases]], although some 1.5 million remain [[nomad]]ic or partly nomadic. 28.1% of Algerians are under the age of 15.<ref name="AlgeriaFactbook"/>

Between 90,000 and 165,000 [[Sahrawi people|Sahrawis]] from [[Western Sahara]] live in the [[Sahrawi refugee camps]],<ref name="UNHCRAlgeria">{{cite web |url=http://www.unhcr.org/pages/49e485e16.html |title=2013 UNHCR country operations profile – Algeria |publisher=[[United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees]] |year=2013 |access-date=9 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131213003042/http://www.unhcr.org/pages/49e485e16.html |archive-date=13 December 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="USCRIAlgeria">{{cite web|url=http://www.refugees.org/resources/refugee-warehousing/archived-world-refugee-surveys/2009-wrs-country-updates/algeria.html |title=World Refugee Survey 2009: Algeria |publisher=[[U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants]] |year=2009 |access-date=9 December 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140812185303/http://www.refugees.org/resources/refugee-warehousing/archived-world-refugee-surveys/2009-wrs-country-updates/algeria.html |archive-date=12 August 2014 }}</ref> in the western Algerian Sahara desert.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irinnews.org/report/74134/western-sahara-lack-of-donor-funds-threatens-humanitarian-projects |title=Western Sahara: Lack of Donor Funds Threatens Humanitarian Projects |work=IRINnews |agency=[[The New Humanitarian|IRIN]] |date=5 September 2007 |access-date=9 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131212160848/http://www.irinnews.org/report/74134/western-sahara-lack-of-donor-funds-threatens-humanitarian-projects |archive-date=12 December 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> There are also more than 4,000 [[Palestinian refugee]]s, who are well integrated and have not asked for assistance from the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR).<ref name="UNHCRAlgeria"/><ref name="USCRIAlgeria"/> In 2009, 35,000 [[Overseas Chinese|Chinese]] migrant workers lived in Algeria.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8184499.stm |title=Chinese Migrants in Algiers Clash |work=BBC News |date=4 August 2009 |access-date=17 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121206105216/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/8184499.stm |archive-date=6 December 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The largest concentration of Algerian migrants outside Algeria is in France, which has reportedly over 1.7&nbsp;million [[Algerians]] of up to the second generation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/document.asp?reg_id=0&ref_id=IMMFRA12_g_Flot1_pop |title=Fiches thématiques – Population immigrée&nbsp;– Immigrés 2012 |publisher=Insee |access-date=18 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130220075247/http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/document.asp?reg_id=0&ref_id=IMMFRA12_g_Flot1_pop |archive-date=20 February 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref>

There are also many [[foreign communities in Algeria]], though these do not make up a significant portion of the population. 

{{Largest cities
| country      = Algeria
| stat_ref     = According to the 2008 Census<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.citypopulation.de/en/algeria/cities/ |title=Algeria: Provinces & Major Cities – Population Statistics, Maps, Charts, Weather and Web Information |website=City Population |access-date=27 January 2023 |archive-date=17 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210517222605/https://www.citypopulation.de/en/algeria/cities/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
| list_by_pop  = <!-- link to the list of cities in the given country, if possible sorted by population -->
| div_name     = Province
| div_link     = <!-- the template will automatically create a link for "div_name of country" (e.g. Provinces of Chile), if this doesn't work you can use this field -->

| city_1 = Algiers | div_1 = Algiers Province | pop_1 =  2,364,230 | img_1 = Alger View Oct-2010 IMG 1039.JPG
| city_2 = Oran | div_2 = Oran Province | pop_2 = 803,329 | img_2 = Oran facade maritime.JPG
| city_3 = Constantine, Algeria{{!}}Constantine | div_3 = Constantine Province | pop_3 =  448,028 | img_3 = Constantine10.JPG
| city_4 = Annaba| div_4 = Annaba Province | pop_4 = 342,703 | img_4 = Annaba, algeria04.jpg
| city_5 = Blida| div_5 = Blida Province | pop_5 = 331,779

| city_6 = Batna, Algeria{{!}}Batna | div_6 = Batna Province | pop_6 = 289,504
| city_7 = Djelfa| div_7 = Djelfa Province | pop_7 = 265,833
| city_8 = Sétif | div_8 = Sétif Province | pop_8 = 252,127
| city_9 = Sidi Bel Abbès | div_9 =  Sidi Bel Abbès Province | pop_9 = 210,146
| city_10 = Biskra | div_10 = Biskra Province | pop_10 = 204,661
| city_11 = Tébessa | div_11 = Tébessa Province | pop_11 = 194,461
| city_12 = El Oued | div_12 = El Oued Province | pop_12 = 186,525
| city_13 = Skikda | div_13 = Skikda Province | pop_13 = 182,903
| city_14 = Tiaret | div_14 = Tiaret Province | pop_14 = 178,915
| city_15 = Béjaïa | div_15 = Béjaïa Province | pop_15 = 176,139
| city_16 = Tlemcen | div_16 = Tlemcen Province | pop_16 = 173,531
| city_17 = Ouargla | div_17 = Ouargla Province | pop_17 = 169,928
| city_18 = Béchar | div_18 = Béchar Province | pop_18 = 165,241
| city_19 = Mostaganem{{!}}Mostaganem | div_19 = Mostaganem Province | pop_19 = 162,885
| city_20 = Bordj Bou Arréridj | div_20 = Bordj Bou Arréridj Province | pop_20 = 158,812
}}

=== Ethnic groups ===
{{Main|Ethnic groups in Algeria}}
[[File:Tenus traditionnelles algériennes 27.png|left|thumb|Some of Algeria's traditional clothes]]
[[Arabs]] and indigenous [[Berbers]] as well as [[Phoenicians]], [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], [[Vandals]], [[Byzantine Greeks]], [[Turkish people|Turks]], various [[Sub-Saharan Africans]], and French have contributed to the history and culture of Algeria.<ref>{{cite web|publisher=UNESCO |year=2009 |title=Diversité et interculturalité en Algérie |url=http://rabat.unesco.org/IMG/pdf/Diversite_InterculturalitAlgerie.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130725111743/http://rabat.unesco.org/IMG/pdf/Diversite_InterculturalitAlgerie.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=25 July 2013|page=9 }}</ref> Descendants of [[Al-Andalus|Andalusi]] refugees are also present in the population of Algiers and other cities.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WIRWgrbE_fEC&pg=PA22 |title=Modern Algeria&nbsp;– The Origins and Development of a Nation |page=22 |author=Ruedy, John Douglas |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=9780253217820 |year=2005 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906031345/https://books.google.com/books?id=WIRWgrbE_fEC&pg=PA22 |archive-date=6 September 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref> Moreover, Spanish was spoken by these [[Aragon]]ese and [[Castilian people|Castillian]] [[Moriscos|Morisco]] descendants deep into the 18th century, and even [[Catalan language|Catalan]] was spoken at the same time by [[Catalonia|Catalan]] [[Moriscos|Morisco]] descendants in the small town of Grish El-Oued.<ref>{{cite book|last=De Epalza|first=Mikel|title=El español hablado en Túnez por los moriscos (siglos XVII-XVIII)|year=2011|publisher=Universitat de València|pages=32–38–39–444|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D7_VKzdSIzwC|isbn=978-84-370-8415-2|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020075020/https://books.google.com/books?id=D7_VKzdSIzwC|archive-date=20 October 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>

Centuries of [[Arab migrations to the Maghreb]] since the seventh century shifted the demographic scope in Algeria. Estimates vary based on different sources. The majority of the population of Algeria is ethnically [[Arabs|Arab]], constituting between 75%<ref name="EB-2022" /><ref name="DK-2016">{{Cite book |last=DK |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=joxoDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA201 |title=Reference World Atlas: Everything You Need to Know About Our Planet Today |date=2016-08-01 |publisher=Dorling Kindersley Limited |isbn=978-0-241-28679-1 |pages=201 |language=en |quote=Ethnic groups: Arab 75%, Berber 24%, European and Jewish 1%}}</ref><ref name="Seddon-2013">{{Cite book |last=Seddon |first=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=buyrxARN_H0C&pg=PT39 |title=A Political and Economic Dictionary of the Middle East |date=2013-01-11 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-35561-6 |pages=39 |language=en |quote=The population was estimated at 32,277,942 in July 2002, of which 75% were Arabs, 24% Berbers, and 1% others (mostly Europeans).}}</ref><ref name="DK-2005">{{Cite book |last=DK |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cVVtZn6goCAC&pg=PA82 |title=FT World Desk Reference 2005 |date=2005-01-27 |publisher=Dorling Kindersley Limited |isbn=978-1-4053-6726-4 |pages=82 |language=en |quote=Arab 75%, Berber 24%, European and Jewish 1%. The population is predominantly Arab, under 30 years of age and urban; some 24% are Berber. More than 85% speak Arabic and 99% are Sunni Muslim.}}</ref> and 80%<ref name="ESU-2024">{{Cite web |title=Algeria - History Background |url=https://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/19/Algeria-HISTORY-BACKGROUND.html |access-date=2024-08-18 |website=education.stateuniversity.com |language=en |quote=The combined Arab-Berber people comprise more than 99 percent of the population (Arabs approximately 80 percent; Berbers 20 percent), with Europeans less than one percent.}}</ref><ref name="Laaredj-Campbell-2015" /><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Bouherar |first1=Salim |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1ppXEAAAQBAJ&pg=PR8 |title=Algerian Languages in Education: Conflicts and Reconciliation |last2=Ghafsi |first2=Abderrezzaq |date=2022-01-03 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-89324-8 |language=en |quote=In Algeria, on the other hand, Berberists supported by France ask to expand the use of Tamazight even on Arabs who represent 80% of Algerian population.}}</ref> to 85%<ref>{{Cite book |last=Naylor |first=Phillip C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ftFbCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA87 |title=Historical Dictionary of Algeria |date=2015-05-07 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-0-8108-7919-5 |pages=87 |language=en |quote=Most Algerians, approximately 85 percent of the population, today claim an Arab background.}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Algeria Ethnic Groups |url=https://study.com/academy/lesson/algeria-ethnic-groups.html |access-date=2024-08-18 |website=study.com |quote=Partly due to the strong association between Islam and Arab identity, there is a fair amount of social pressure in Algeria to identify with Arab ancestry. In fact, roughly 85% of the nation identifies much more strongly with their Arab heritage than their Berber heritage.}}</ref> of the population. [[Berbers]] who make up between 15%<ref name="AlgeriaFactbook" /> and 20%<ref name="Laaredj-Campbell-2015">{{Cite book |last=Laaredj-Campbell |first=Anne |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C7UvCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA31 |title=Changing Female Literacy Practices in Algeria: Empirical Study on Cultural Construction of Gender and Empowerment |date=2015-12-10 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-658-11633-0 |quote=Ethnically the population is made up of about 80% Arabic and 20% Berber. |access-date=1 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164800/https://books.google.com/books?id=C7UvCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA31 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="ESU-2024" /><ref>{{Cite book |last1=Tschudin |first1=Alain |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6sXnDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT28 |title=Extremisms in Africa Volume 2 |last2=Moffat |first2=Craig |last3=Buchanan-Clarke |first3=Stephen |last4=Russell |first4=Susan |last5=Coutts |first5=Lloyd |date=2019-06-18 |publisher=Jonathan Ball Publishers |isbn=978-0-6399928-3-9 |language=en |quote=The majority of Algerians are Arab, but around 20% are Berbers.}}</ref> to 24%<ref name="DK-2016" /><ref name="Seddon-2013" /><ref name="DK-2005" /> of the population are divided into many groups with varying languages. The largest of these are the [[Kabyle people|Kabyles]], who live in the [[Kabylie]] region east of Algiers, the [[Chaoui people|Chaoui]] of Northeast Algeria, the [[Tuareg people|Tuaregs]] in the southern desert and the [[Chenouas|Shenwa people]] of North Algeria.<ref>{{cite book|last=Marion Mill Preminger|title=The sands of Tamanrasset: the story of Charles de Foucauld|year=1961 |publisher=Hawthorn Books|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xfCfAAAAMAAJ|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150906031938/https://books.google.com/books?id=xfCfAAAAMAAJ |archive-date=6 September 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>{{page needed|date=February 2013}}
During the colonial period, there was a large (10% in 1960)<ref name="Cook">{{Cite book | author=Cook, Bernard A. | title=Europe since 1945: an encyclopedia | year=2001 | publisher=Garland | location=New York | isbn=978-0-8153-4057-7 | page=398}}</ref> [[Ethnic groups in Europe|European]] population who became known as ''[[Pied-Noir]]s''. They were primarily of French, Spanish and [[Italian Algerians|Italian origin]]. Almost all of this population left during the war of independence or immediately after its end.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N8VHizsqaH0C&pg=PA25 |title=Migration and Development Co-Operation |page=25 |author1=De Azevedo |author2=Raimond Cagiano |publisher=Council of Europe |isbn=9789287126115 |year=1994 |access-date=20 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906025429/https://books.google.com/books?id=N8VHizsqaH0C&pg=PA25 |archive-date=6 September 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Languages ===
{{Main|Languages of Algeria}}[[Modern Standard Arabic]] and [[Berber language|Berber]] are the official languages.<ref name="Constitution of Algeria">{{Cite web|url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_Algeria|title=Constitution of Algeria|via=Wikisource|access-date=21 April 2021|archive-date=21 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210421195005/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_Algeria|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Algerian Arabic]] (Darja) is the language used by the majority of the population. Colloquial Algerian Arabic has some Berber loanwords which represent 8% to 9% of its vocabulary.<ref name="Wexler-2012">{{Cite book |last=Wexler |first=Paul |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YJpdiPiG2g4C&pg=PA174 |title=The Non-Jewish Origins of the Sephardic Jews |date=2012-02-01 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-1-4384-2393-7|access-date=1 January 2023 |archive-date=26 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164800/https://books.google.com/books?id=YJpdiPiG2g4C&pg=PA174 |url-status=live }}</ref>[[File:Tizi Ouzou Tasdawit.jpg|thumb|Signs in the [[University of Tizi Ouzou]] in three languages: [[Arabic]], [[Berber languages|Berber]], and French]]

[[Berber language|Berber]] has been recognised as a "national language" by the constitutional amendment of 8 May 2002.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.magharebia.com/cocoon/awi/xhtml1/fr/features/awi/features/2007/06/21/feature-01 |title=L'Algérie crée une académie de la langue amazigh |publisher=Magharebia.com |date=2 June 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110216045948/http://www.magharebia.com/cocoon/awi/xhtml1/fr/features/awi/features/2007/06/21/feature-01 |archive-date=16 February 2011 }}</ref> [[Kabyle language|Kabyle]], the predominant Berber language, is taught and is partially co-official (with a few restrictions) in parts of [[Kabylie]]. Kabyle has a significant [[Arabic]], [[French language|French]], [[Latin]], [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Phoenician language|Phoenician]] and [[Punic language|Punic]] substratum, and Arabic loanwords represent 35% of the total Kabyle vocabulary.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Baldauf |first1=Richard B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sabe8l9hox0C&pg=PA50 |title=Language Planning and Policy in Africa |last2=Kaplan |first2=Robert B. |date=2007-01-01 |publisher=Multilingual Matters |isbn=978-1-84769-011-1|access-date=1 January 2023 |archive-date=31 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230131153531/https://books.google.com/books?id=Sabe8l9hox0C&pg=PA50 |url-status=live }}</ref> In February 2016, the Algerian constitution passed a resolution that made Berber an official language alongside Arabic. Algeria emerged as a bilingual state after 1962.<ref>{{cite news |last=Dargin|first=Justin |url= http://topics.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/11/19/algerias-liberation-terrorism-and-arabization/ |title=Algeria's Liberation, Terrorism, and Arabization |work=The New York Times |date=19 November 2008 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130510130831/http://topics.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/11/19/algerias-liberation-terrorism-and-arabization/ |archive-date=10 May 2013 |url-access = registration }}</ref> Colloquial [[Algerian Arabic]] is spoken by about 83% of the population and Berber by 27%.<ref name="leclerc">{{cite web
 |author=Leclerc, Jacques
 |title=Algérie: Situation géographique et démolinguistique
 |work=L'aménagement linguistique dans le monde
 |language=fr
 |publisher=[[Université Laval]]
 |date=5 April 2009 |url=http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/AXL/AFRIQUE/algerie-1demo.htm
 |access-date=8 January 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100124150058/http://www.tlfq.ulaval.ca/axl/afrique/algerie-1demo.htm
 |archive-date=24 January 2010 |url-status=dead
}}</ref>

Although French has no official status in Algeria, it has one of the largest Francophone populations in the world,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.senat.fr/colloques/actes_mondialisation_francophonie/actes_mondialisation_francophonie10.html |title=La mondialisation, une chance pour la francophonie |publisher=Senat.fr |access-date=17 January 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201075711/http://www.senat.fr/colloques/actes_mondialisation_francophonie/actes_mondialisation_francophonie10.html |archive-date=1 December 2008 }} () "L'Algérie, non-membre de l'Organisation internationale de la Francophonie, comptabilise la seconde communauté francophone au monde, avec environ 16 millions de locuteurs, suivie par la Côte d'Ivoire avec près de 12 millions de locuteurs francophones, le Québec avec 6 millions et la Belgique avec plus de 4 millions de francophones."</ref> and French is widely used in government, media (newspapers, radio, local television), and both the education system (from primary school onwards) and academia due to [[French rule in Algeria|Algeria's colonial history]]. It can be regarded as a [[lingua franca]] of Algeria. In 2008, 11.2 million Algerians could read and write in French.<ref>{{cite web|title=Le dénombrement des francophones |url=http://www.francophonie.org/IMG/pdf/1e.pdf |publisher=Organisation internationale de la Francophonie |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131012052949/http://www.francophonie.org/IMG/pdf/1e.pdf |archive-date=12 October 2013 }} () p. 9 "Nous y agrégeons néanmoins quelques données disponibles pour des pays n'appartenant pas à l'OIF mais dont nous savons, comme pour l'Algérie (11,2 millions en 2008<sup>1</sup>)," and "1. Nombre de personnes âgées de cinq ans et plus déclarant savoir lire et écrire le français, d'après les données du recensement de 2008 communiquées par l'[[Office national des statistiques d'Algérie]]."</ref> In 2013, it was estimated that 60% of the population could speak or understand French.<ref name="Natalie Edwards">{{cite book|first=Natalie |last=Edwards|title=The Contemporary Francophone African Intellectual |year=2013|publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing |isbn=978-1-4438-5121-3|pages=9}}</ref> In 2022, it was estimated that 33% of the population was Francophone.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://www.francophonie.org/sites/default/files/2023-03/Rapport-La-langue-francaise-dans-le-monde_VF-2022.pdf |title=La Langue Française Dans le Monde 2019–2022 |language=fr |publisher=Éditions Gallimard |edition=2022 |page=35 |access-date=30 March 2024 |archive-date=18 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240118183348/https://www.francophonie.org/sites/default/files/2023-03/Rapport-La-langue-francaise-dans-le-monde_VF-2022.pdf |url-status=bot: unknown }}</ref>

The use of [[English in Algeria]], though limited in comparison to the previously mentioned languages, has increased due to globalisation.<ref name="Maraf Osam 2023 pp. 307–314">{{cite journal | last1=Maraf | first1=Baya | last2=Osam | first2=Ulker Vanci | title=The booming wave of English in the linguistic landscape in Algeria: Timeline of the presence of English language in Algerian bottom-up signs | journal=English Today | volume=39 | issue=4 | date=2023 | issn=0266-0784 | doi=10.1017/S026607842200013X | pages=307–314| doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Allah 2023 k545">{{cite web | last=Allah | first=Abu Bakr Khaled Saad | title=The Politics of Language in Algerian Education | website=Carnegie Endowment for International Peace | date=July 20, 2023 | url=https://carnegieendowment.org/sada/2023/07/the-politics-of-language-in-algerian-education?lang=en | access-date=April 2, 2024 | archive-date=18 April 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240418193904/https://carnegieendowment.org/sada/90230 | url-status=live }}</ref> In 2022 it was announced that English would be taught in elementary schools.<ref name="The Associated Press 2024 o507">{{cite web | agency=Associated Press | title=Algeria expands English lessons to primary school students | website=Toronto Star | date=April 2, 2024 | url=https://www.thestar.com/news/world/africa/algeria-expands-english-lessons-to-primary-school-students/article_8a2d3b20-672b-5eb6-9e94-e5bfc6c30abd.html | access-date=April 2, 2024 | archive-date=2 April 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240402222458/https://www.thestar.com/news/world/africa/algeria-expands-english-lessons-to-primary-school-students/article_8a2d3b20-672b-5eb6-9e94-e5bfc6c30abd.html | url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Religion ===
{{Main|Religion in Algeria}}
{{See also|Islam in Algeria|Early African Church|History of the Jews in Algeria}}

[[File:Mosque Hassan Pacha Oran 1790 (6).jpg|thumb|right|[[Hassan Pasha Mosque]] in [[Oran]] ]]

[[Islam]] is the predominant religion in Algeria, with its adherents, mostly Sunnis, accounting for 99% of the population according to a 2021 CIA ''[[World Factbook]]'' estimate,<ref name="AlgeriaFactbook"/> and 97.9% according to Pew Research in 2020.<ref name=pew>{{cite web |url = http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/algeria/religious_demography#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2020|website = Global Religious Futures|publisher = [[Pew Research Center]]'s Religion & Public Life Project|title = Religion in Algeria |url-status = live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131216182816/http://www.globalreligiousfutures.org/countries/algeria/religious_demography#/?affiliations_religion_id=0&affiliations_year=2010 |archive-date=16 December 2013 |year = 2010}}</ref> There are about 290,000 [[Ibadi]]s in the M'zab Valley in the region of [[Ghardaia]].

Prior to independence, Algeria was home to more than 1.3 million Christians (mostly of [[Pied-Noir|European ancestry]]).<ref>{{cite book|last1=Greenberg|first1=Udi|last2= A. Foster|first2=Elizabeth|title=Decolonization and the Remaking of Christianity|year=2023|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|location=Pennsylvania|isbn=9781512824971|pages=105}}</ref> Most of the Christian settlers left to France after the country's independence.<ref>De Azevedo, Raimondo Cagiano (1994) ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=N8VHizsqaH0C&pg=PA25 Migration and development co-operation.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230429204819/https://books.google.com/books?id=N8VHizsqaH0C&pg=PA25 |date=29 April 2023 }}''. Council of Europe. p. 25. {{ISBN|92-871-2611-9}}.</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Area Handbook for Morocco|first=Richard |last=F. Nyrop|year= 1972| isbn= 9780810884939| page =97|publisher=University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign}}</ref> Today, estimates of the [[Christianity in Algeria|Christian population]] range from 100,000 to 200,000.<ref name="US DoS-2020">{{Cite web|title=Algeria|url=https://www.state.gov/reports/2018-report-on-international-religious-freedom/algeria/|access-date=6 April 2021|website=United States Department of State|archive-date=10 June 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200610190351/https://www.state.gov/reports/2018-report-on-international-religious-freedom/algeria/|url-status=live}}</ref> Algerian citizens who are Christians predominantly belong to [[Protestantism|Protestant]] denominations, which have seen increased pressure from the government in recent years including many forced closures.<ref name="US DoS-2020" />

According to the [[Arab Barometer]] in 2018–2019, the vast majority of Algerians (99.1%) continue to identify as Muslim.<ref name="Arab Barometer-2023">{{Cite web |title=Data Analysis Tool – Arab Barometer |url=https://www.arabbarometer.org/survey-data/data-analysis-tool/ |access-date=2022-11-02|archive-date=21 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230821161350/https://www.arabbarometer.org/survey-data/data-analysis-tool/ |url-status=live }}</ref> The June 2019 [[Arab Barometer]]-[[BBC News]] report found that the percentage of Algerians identifying as non-religious has grown from around 8% in 2013 to around 15% in 2018.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-48703377 |title=The Arab world in seven charts: Are Arabs turning their backs on religion? |work=[[Arab Barometer]], [[BBC News]] |date=23 June 2019 |access-date=17 July 2021 |archive-date=19 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201119175129/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-48703377 |url-status=live }}</ref> The Arab Barometer December 2019, found that the growth in the percentage of Algerians identifying as non-religious is largely driven by young Algerians, with roughly 25% describing themselves as non-religious.<ref>{{Cite news |date=31 December 2019 |title=Young Arabs are Changing their Beliefs and Perceptions: New Survey |work=Fanack |url=https://fanack.com/religions-in-the-middle-east-and-north-africa/young-arabs-are-changing-their-beliefs-and-perceptions/ |access-date=17 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200924090413/https://fanack.com/religions-in-the-middle-east-and-north-africa/young-arabs-are-changing-their-beliefs-and-perceptions/ |archive-date=24 September 2020}}</ref> However, the 2021 Arab Barometer report found that those who said they were not religious among Algerians has decreased, with just 2.6% identifying as non-religious. In that same report, 69.5% of Algerians identified as religious and another 27.8% identifying as somewhat religious.<ref name="Arab Barometer-2023" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=Bheria |date=2022-02-17 |title=Arabs Are Getting More Religious. Why Isn't Western Media Reporting It? |url=https://muslimskeptic.com/2022/02/17/arabs-are-getting-more-religious-why-isnt-western-media-reporting-it/ |access-date=2022-11-03 |website=The Muslim Skeptic|archive-date=3 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221103184929/https://muslimskeptic.com/2022/02/17/arabs-are-getting-more-religious-why-isnt-western-media-reporting-it/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Algeria has given the [[Muslim world]] a number of prominent thinkers, including [[Emir Abdelkader]], [[Abdelhamid Ben Badis]], [[Mouloud Kacem Naît Belkacem]], [[Malek Bennabi]] and [[Mohamed Arkoun]].

=== Health ===
{{Main|Health in Algeria}}
In 2018, Algeria had the highest numbers of physicians in the Maghreb region (1.72 per 1,000 people), nurses (2.23 per 1,000 people), and dentists (0.31 per 1,000 people). Access to "improved water sources" was around 97.4% of the population in urban areas and 98.7% of the population in the rural areas. Some 99% of Algerians living in urban areas, and around 93.4% of those living in rural areas, had access to "improved sanitation". According to the World Bank, Algeria is making progress towards its goal of "reducing by half the number of people without sustainable access to improved drinking water and basic sanitation by 2015". Given Algeria's young population, policy favours preventive health care and clinics over hospitals. In keeping with this policy, the government maintains an immunisation programme. However, poor sanitation and unclean water still cause [[tuberculosis]], [[hepatitis]], [[measles]], [[typhoid fever]], [[cholera]] and [[dysentery]]. The poor generally receive healthcare free of charge.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Algeria.pdf |title=Library of Congress Country Studies – Algeria |access-date=20 September 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090319155750/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Algeria.pdf |archive-date=19 March 2009 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Health records have been maintained in Algeria since 1882 and began adding Muslims living in the south to their vital record database in 1905 during French rule.<ref>{{cite book|author=Kemp, Thomas Jay|title=International Vital Records Handbook|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=afnc6_o5AqoC&pg=PA347|year=2009|publisher=Genealogical Publishing Com|isbn=978-0-8063-1793-9|page=347|access-date=20 June 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150906024608/https://books.google.com/books?id=afnc6_o5AqoC&pg=PA347|archive-date=6 September 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Education ===
{{Main|Education in Algeria|List of universities in Algeria}}
[[File:UIS Literacy Rate Algeria population plus15 1980 2015.png|thumb|[[UNESCO Institute for Statistics|UIS]] literacy rate Algeria population plus 15 1985–2015]]
Since the 1970s, in a centralised system that was designed to significantly reduce the rate of illiteracy, the Algerian government introduced a decree by which school attendance became compulsory for all children aged between 6 and 15 years who have the ability to track their learning through the 20 facilities built since independence, now the literacy rate is around 92.6%.<ref name="APSLIT">{{cite web | title=Le taux d'analphabétisme en Algérie réduit à 7,94% en 2021 | website=Algérie presse service | date=8 September 2021 | url=https://www.aps.dz/societe/127134-le-taux-d-analphabetisme-en-algerie-reduit-a-7-94-en-2021 | language=fr | access-date=12 September 2021 | archive-date=12 September 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210912230519/https://www.aps.dz/societe/127134-le-taux-d-analphabetisme-en-algerie-reduit-a-7-94-en-2021 | url-status=live }}</ref> Since 1972, Arabic is used as the language of instruction during the first nine years of schooling. From the third year, French is taught and it is also the language of instruction for science classes. The students can also learn English, Italian, Spanish and German. In 2008, new programmes at the elementary appeared, therefore the compulsory schooling does not start at the age of six anymore, but at the age of five.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.presse-dz.com/revue-de-presse/version-imprimable/1045-les-verites-de-benbouzid.html |title=Ecoles privées, Tamazight, enseignement du Français, syndicats&nbsp;... – Les vérités de Benbouzid |publisher=Presse-dz.com |access-date=18 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121115130310/http://www.presse-dz.com/revue-de-presse/version-imprimable/1045-les-verites-de-benbouzid.html |archive-date=15 November 2012 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Apart from the 122 private schools, the Universities of the State are free of charge. After nine years of primary school, students can go to a high school or to an educational institution. The school offers two programmes: general or technical. At the end of the third year of secondary school, students pass the exam of the baccalaureate, which allows once it is successful to pursue graduate studies in universities and institutes.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.algerie-dz.com/article10808.html |title=Le taux d'analphabétisme en Algérie est de 21,3% |publisher=Algerie-dz.com |access-date=18 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121021070732/http://www.algerie-dz.com/article10808.html |archive-date=21 October 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref>
[[File:Wikipedia Education Program Algeria V2 Ceremony (96).jpg|thumb|Students at the [[University of Chlef]] in Algeria]]
Education is officially compulsory for children between the ages of six and 15. In 2008, the illiteracy rate for people over 10 was 22.3%, 15.6% for men and 29.0% for women. The province with the lowest rate of illiteracy was [[Algiers Province]] at 11.6%, while the province with the highest rate was [[Djelfa Province]] at 35.5%.<ref name="illit">{{cite web|title=Taux d'Analphabétisme et taux d'Alphabétisation de la population âgée de 10 ans et plus selon le sexe et la wilaya de résidence|url=http://www.ons.dz/IMG/pdf/pop9_national.pdf|publisher=Office National des Statistiques|access-date=7 January 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130204094417/http://www.ons.dz/IMG/pdf/pop9_national.pdf|archive-date=4 February 2013|url-status=live}}</ref>

Algeria has 26 universities and 67 institutions of higher education, which must accommodate a million Algerians and 80,000 foreign students in 2008. The [[University of Algiers]], founded in 1879, is the oldest, it offers education in various disciplines (law, medicine, science and letters). Twenty-five of these universities and almost all of the institutions of higher education were founded after the independence of the country.

Even if some of them offer instruction in [[Arabic]] like areas of law and the economy, most of the other sectors such as science and medicine continue to be provided in French and English. Among the most important universities, there are the [[University of Sciences and Technology Houari Boumediene]], the [[University of Mentouri]] Constantine, and [[University of Oran]] Es-Senia. The [[University of Abou Bekr Belkaïd]] in Tlemcen and [[University of Batna]] Hadj Lakhdar occupy the 26th and 45th row in Africa.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://webometrics.info/en/Africa/Algeria |title=Algeria &#124; Ranking Web of Universities |publisher=Webometrics.info |access-date=18 January 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140208084507/http://webometrics.info/en/Africa/Algeria |archive-date=8 February 2014 }}</ref> Algeria was ranked 115th in the [[Global Innovation Index]] in 2024.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.wipo.int/web-publications/global-innovation-index-2024/en/|title=Global Innovation Index 2024. Unlocking the Promise of Social Entrepreneurship|access-date=2024-10-22|author=[[World Intellectual Property Organization]]|year=2024|isbn=978-92-805-3681-2|doi= 10.34667/tind.50062|website=www.wipo.int|location=Geneva|page=18}}</ref>

== Culture ==
{{Main|Culture of Algeria}}
[[File:Bensari2.jpg|thumb|Algerian musicians in [[Tlemcen]], [[Regency of Algiers]]; by [[Bachir Yellès]]]]

Modern Algerian literature, split between [[Classical Arabic|Arabic]], [[Berber languages|Tamazight]] and French, has been strongly influenced by the country's recent history. [[List of Algerian writers|Famous novelists]] of the 20th century include [[Mohammed Dib]], [[Albert Camus]], [[Kateb Yacine]] and [[Ahlam Mosteghanemi]] while [[Assia Djebar]] is widely translated. Among the important novelists of the 1980s were [[Rachid Mimouni]], later vice-president of [[Amnesty International]], and [[Tahar Djaout]], murdered by an [[Islamist]] group in 1993 for his secularist views.<ref>{{cite web |title=Tahar Djaout |publisher=French Publishers' Agency |url=http://www.frenchpubagency.com/?fuseaction=people.main&pid=517 |access-date=17 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170620082020/http://www.frenchpubagency.com/?fuseaction=people.main&pid=517 |archive-date=20 June 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>

[[Malek Bennabi]] and [[Frantz Fanon]] are noted for their thoughts on [[decolonization|decolonisation]]; [[Augustine of Hippo]] was born in [[Tagaste]] (modern-day [[Souk Ahras]]); and [[Ibn Khaldun]], though born in [[Tunis]], wrote the [[Muqaddima]] while staying in Algeria. The works of the [[Senussi|Sanusi]] family in pre-colonial times, and of [[Emir Abdelkader]] and Sheikh [[Abdelhamid Ben Badis|Ben Badis]] in colonial times, are widely noted. The Latin author [[Apuleius]] was born in [[Madaurus]] (Mdaourouch), in what later became Algeria.

Contemporary [[Algerian cinema]] is varied in terms of genre, exploring a wider range of themes and issues. There has been a transition from cinema which focused on the war of independence to films more concerned with the everyday lives of Algerians.<ref>{{cite web |title=Short guide to contemporary Algerian cinema |publisher=Mapping Contemporary Cinema |url=http://www.mcc.sllf.qmul.ac.uk/?p=550 |access-date=1 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140311032134/http://www.mcc.sllf.qmul.ac.uk/?p=550 |archive-date=11 March 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== Media ===
{{main|Media of Algeria}}

=== Art ===
[[File:Portrait-racim.jpg|thumb|upright=0.65|left|[[Mohammed Racim]]; founder of the Algerian school for painting]]

Algerian painters, like [[Mohammed Racim]] and [[Baya (artist)|Baya]], attempted to revive the prestigious Algerian past prior to French colonisation, at the same time that they have contributed to the preservation of the authentic values of Algeria. In this line, [[Mohamed Temam]], [[Abdelkhader Houamel]] have also returned through this art, scenes from the history of the country, the habits and customs of the past and the country life. Other new artistic currents including the one of [[M'hamed Issiakhem]], [[Mohammed Khadda]] and [[Bachir Yelles]], appeared on the scene of Algerian painting, abandoning figurative classical painting to find new pictorial ways, to adapt Algerian paintings to the new realities of the country through its struggle and its aspirations. [[Mohammed Khadda]]<ref name=art>{{cite web |url=http://www.khadda.com/ |title=Mohammed Khadda |publisher=Khadda.com |access-date=18 January 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130402061339/http://www.khadda.com/ |archive-date=2 April 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and [[M'hamed Issiakhem]] have been notable in recent years.<ref name=art/>

=== Literature ===
{{Main|Algerian literature|List of Algerian writers}}
{{unreferenced section|date=September 2024|find=Algeria literature}}
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The historic roots of Algerian literature go back to the [[Numidia]]n and [[Africa (Roman province)|Roman Africa]]n era, when [[Apuleius]] wrote ''[[The Golden Ass]]'', the only Latin novel to survive in its entirety. This period had also known [[Augustine of Hippo]], [[Nonius Marcellus]] and [[Martianus Capella]], among many others. The Middle Ages have known many Arabic writers who revolutionised the Arab world literature, with authors like [[Ahmad al-Buni]], [[Ibn Manzur]] and [[Ibn Khaldoun]], who wrote the [[Muqaddimah]] while staying in Algeria, and many others.

[[Albert Camus]] was an Algerian-born French Pied-Noir author. In 1957, he was awarded the [[Nobel Prize in Literature]].

Today Algeria contains, in its literary landscape, big names having not only marked the Algerian literature, but also the universal literary heritage in Arabic and French.

As a first step, Algerian literature was marked by works whose main concern was the assertion of the Algerian national entity, there is the publication of novels as the ''Algerian trilogy'' of [[Mohammed Dib]], or even ''Nedjma'' of [[Kateb Yacine]] novel which is often regarded as a monumental and major work. Other known writers will contribute to the emergence of Algerian literature whom include [[Mouloud Feraoun]], [[Malek Bennabi]], [[Malek Haddad]], [[Moufdi Zakaria]], Abdelhamid Ben Badis, Mohamed Laïd Al-Khalifa, [[Mouloud Mammeri]], [[Frantz Fanon]], and [[Assia Djebar]].

[[File:Ahlem Mosteghanemi at Beirut Book Fair 2012.JPG|thumb|upright|right|[[Ahlam Mosteghanemi]], the most widely read female writer in the [[Arab world]]<ref>{{cite web |author= Honorary and Goodwill Ambassadors |url=http://www.unesco.org/new/en/media-services/single-view/news/algerian_novelist_ahlam_mosteghanemi_designated_unesco_artis/ |title=Algerian novelist Ahlem Mosteghanemi designated UNESCO artist for peace|website= United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization |date=20 January 2017 |url-status=live |archive-date=7 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170507062814/http://www.unesco.org/new/en/media-services/single-view/news/algerian_novelist_ahlam_mosteghanemi_designated_unesco_artis/}}</ref>]]
In the aftermath of the independence, several new authors emerged on the Algerian literary scene, they will attempt through their works to expose a number of social problems, among them there are [[Rachid Boudjedra]], [[Rachid Mimouni]], [[Leila Sebbar]], [[Tahar Djaout]] and [[Tahir Wattar]].

Currently, a part of Algerian writers tends to be defined in a literature of shocking expression, due to the terrorism that occurred during the 1990s, the other party is defined in a different style of literature who staged an individualistic conception of the human adventure. Among the most noted recent works, there is the writer, ''the swallows of Kabul'' and ''the attack'' of [[Yasmina Khadra]], ''the oath of barbarians'' of [[Boualem Sansal]], ''memory of the flesh'' of [[Ahlam Mosteghanemi]] and the last novel by Assia Djebar ''nowhere in my father's House''.

=== Cinema ===
{{Main|Cinema of Algeria}}
[[File:Mohamed LAKHDAR HAMINA.png|thumb|[[Mohammed Lakhdar-Hamina]], one of the most prominent figures in contemporary Arabic cinema]]

The Algerian state's interest in film-industry activities can be seen in the annual budget of DZD 200 million (EUR 1.3&nbsp;million) allocated to production, specific measures and an ambitious programme plan implemented by the Ministry of Culture to promote national production, renovate the cinema stock and remedy the weak links in distribution and exploitation.

The financial support provided by the state, through the Fund for the Development of the Arts, Techniques and the Film Industry (FDATIC) and the Algerian Agency for Cultural Influence (AARC), plays a key role in the promotion of national production. Between 2007 and 2013, FDATIC subsidised 98 films (feature films, documentaries and short films). In mid-2013, AARC had already supported a total of 78 films, including 42 feature films, 6 short films and 30 documentaries.

According to the European Audiovisual Observatory's LUMIERE database, 41 Algerian films were distributed in Europe between 1996 and 2013; 21 films in this repertoire were Algerian-French co-productions. [[Days of Glory (2006 film)|''Days of Glory'' (2006)]] and [[Outside the Law (2010 film)|''Outside the Law'' (2010)]] recorded the highest number of admissions in the European Union, 3,172,612 and 474,722, respectively.<ref>Ali, Sahar (25 March 2014) [http://www.obs.coe.int/documents/205595/412951/Rapport_Alg%C3%A9rie_FR_21-05-2014.pdf ALGÉRIE] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160203213653/http://www.obs.coe.int/documents/205595/412951/Rapport_Alg%C3%A9rie_FR_21-05-2014.pdf |date=3 February 2016 }}. European Audiovisual Observatory</ref>

Algeria won the {{Lang|fr|[[Palme d'Or]]|italic=no}} for ''[[Chronicle of the Years of Fire]]'' (1975), two Oscars for [[Z (1969 film)|''Z'' (1969)]], and other awards for the Italian-Algerian movie ''[[The Battle of Algiers]]''.

=== Cuisine ===
{{Main|Algerian cuisine}}
[[File:Couscous (Algérie, lieu exact non précisé).jpg|thumb|upright=0.7| [[Couscous]], the national dish of Algeria]]
Algerian cuisine is rich and diverse as a result of interactions and exchanges with other cultures and nations over the centuries.<ref name="Encyclopedia Britannica 1998 v327">{{cite web | title=Culture, Traditions, Cuisine | website=Encyclopedia Britannica | date=August 12, 1998 | url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Algeria/Cultural-life | access-date=April 2, 2024 | archive-date=3 April 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230403191637/https://www.britannica.com/place/Algeria/Cultural-life | url-status=live }}</ref> It is based on both land and sea products. Conquests or demographic movement towards the Algerian territory were two of the main factors of exchanges between the different peoples and cultures. The Algerian cuisine is a mix of [[Arab cuisine|Arab]], [[Berber cuisine|Berber]], [[Turkish cuisine|Turkish]] and [[French cuisine|French]] roots.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2019-06-13 |title=The Cuisine of Algeria |url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-cuisine-of-algeria.html |access-date=2023-12-19 |website=WorldAtlas|archive-date=19 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231219171838/https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-cuisine-of-algeria.html |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Encyclopedia Britannica 1998 v327"/>

Algerian cuisine offers a variety of dishes depending on the region and the season, but vegetables and [[cereal]]s remain at its core. Most of the Algerian dishes are centered around bread, meats (lamb, beef or poultry), olive oil, vegetables, and fresh herbs. Vegetables are often used for salads, soups, [[tajine]]s, [[couscous]], and sauce-based dishes. Of all the Algerian traditional dishes available, the most famous one is [[Algerian couscous|couscous]], recognized as a national dish.<ref name="ebin.pub 2005 h182">{{cite web | title=Food Cultures of the World Encyclopedia 4 volumes 0313376263, 9780313376269 | website=ebin.pub | date=June 10, 2005 | url=https://ebin.pub/food-cultures-of-the-world-encyclopedia-4-volumes-0313376263-9780313376269.html | page=17 | access-date=April 2, 2024 | archive-date=2 April 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240402225500/https://ebin.pub/food-cultures-of-the-world-encyclopedia-4-volumes-0313376263-9780313376269.html | url-status=live }}</ref>

=== Sports ===
{{Main|Sport in Algeria}}
[[File:Algérie_-_Arménie_-_20140531_-_Equipe_d'Algérie.jpg|thumb|The [[Algeria national football team]]]]
Various games have existed in Algeria since antiquity. In the [[Aurès Mountains|Aures]], people played several games such as El Kherba or El khergueba ([[chess]] variant). Playing cards, [[checkers]] and chess games are part of Algerian culture. Racing ([[Fantasia (culture)|fantasia]]) and [[rifle shooting]] are part of cultural recreation of the Algerians.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/15001/Algeria/220546/Sports-and-recreation | title=Algeria :: Sports and recreation |website=Britannica Online Encyclopedia | access-date=9 December 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120328233832/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/15001/Algeria/220546/Sports-and-recreation | archive-date=28 March 2012 | url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Football in Algeria|Football]] is the most popular sport in the country. The [[Algeria national football team|Algerian national football team]], known as the Desert Foxes, has a strong fan base and has achieved success both domestically and internationally.<ref name="Amara Bouandel 2022 pp. 735–746">{{cite journal | last1=Amara | first1=Mahfoud | last2=Bouandel | first2=Youcef | title=Algeria and the FIFA World Cup: between political legitimization and regional rivalry | journal=Soccer & Society | volume=23 | issue=7 | date=2022-10-03 | issn=1466-0970 | doi=10.1080/14660970.2022.2108241 | pages=735–746| doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Liverpool University Press 2017 p. ">{{cite book | title=Algeria | publisher=Liverpool University Press | date=2017-12-01 | isbn=978-1-78694-021-6 | doi=10.5949/liverpool/9781786940216.003.0011 }}</ref>

Algeria has a long history in other sports such as [[Athletics in Algeria|athletics]], [[Boxing in Algeria|boxing]], [[Volleyball in Algeria|volleyball]], [[Handball in Algeria|handball]] and the study of [[Martial arts in Algeria|martial arts]].<ref name="Algeria b859">{{cite web | title=Recreations and Leisure | website=Algeria | url=https://algeriansareawesome.weebly.com/recreations-and-leisure.html | access-date=April 2, 2024 | archive-date=2 April 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240402232629/https://algeriansareawesome.weebly.com/recreations-and-leisure.html | url-status=live }}</ref> Algerian athletes have [[Algeria at the Olympics|competed in the Olympic Games]] and have won medals in various events.<ref name="Verlete Sports 2020 a344">{{cite web | title=Global Sports Industry Data | website=Verlete Sports | date=February 12, 2020 | url=https://www.verlete.com/country/algeria/ | access-date=April 2, 2024 | archive-date=12 April 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412061815/https://www.verlete.com/country/algeria/ | url-status=live }}</ref> Many sports clubs and organisations exist in Algeria to promote and develop sports among young people.<ref name="SmartScraper 2024 d760">{{cite web | title=List Of Sports clubs in Algeria | website=SmartScraper | date=March 15, 2024 | url=https://rentechdigital.com/smartscraper/business-report-details/algeria/sports-clubs | access-date=April 2, 2024 | archive-date=2 April 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240402232629/https://rentechdigital.com/smartscraper/business-report-details/algeria/sports-clubs | url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Ministry of Youth and Sports]] in Algeria manages sport-related activities.<ref name="Devex e776">{{cite web | title=Ministère de la Jeunesse et des Sports (Algeria) (Ministry of Youth and Sports) | website=Devex | url=https://www.devex.com/organizations/ministere-de-la-jeunesse-et-des-sports-algeria-ministry-of-youth-and-sports-128824 | access-date=April 2, 2024 | archive-date=2 April 2024 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240402232636/https://www.devex.com/organizations/ministere-de-la-jeunesse-et-des-sports-algeria-ministry-of-youth-and-sports-128824 | url-status=live }}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Index of Algeria-related articles]]
* [[Outline of Algeria]]

== Explanatory notes ==
{{notelist}}
{{reflist|group=nb}}

== Citations ==
{{reflist}}

== General bibliography ==
{{refbegin|30em}}
* Ageron, Charles-Robert (1991). ''Modern Algeria&nbsp;– A History from 1830 to the Present''. Translated from French and edited by Michael Brett. London: [[C. Hurst & Co|Hurst]]. {{ISBN|978-0-86543-266-6}}.
* Aghrout, Ahmed; Bougherira, Redha M. (2004). ''Algeria in Transition&nbsp;– Reforms and Development Prospects''. [[Routledge]]. {{ISBN|978-0-415-34848-5}}.
* Bennoune, Mahfoud (1988). ''The Making of Contemporary Algeria&nbsp;– Colonial Upheavals and Post-Independence Development, 1830–1987''. Cambridge: [[Cambridge University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-521-30150-3}}.
* Christelow, Allan (1985) ''Muslim Law Courts and the French Colonial State in Algeria''. Princeton University Press.
* [[Frantz Fanon|Fanon, Frantz]] (1966; 2005 paperback). ''The Wretched of the Earth''. [[Grove Press]]. ASIN B0007FW4AW, {{ISBN|978-0-8021-4132-3}}.
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle= Algeria | volume= 1 |last1= Gibson |first1= Walcot |author1-link= Walcot Gibson |last2= Cana |first2= Frank Richardson |last3= Girault |first3= Arthur |pages = 642–653 }}
* [[Alistair Horne|Horne, Alistair]] (1977). ''A Savage War of Peace: Algeria 1954–1962''. [[Viking Adult]]. {{ISBN|978-0-670-61964-1}}, {{ISBN|978-1-59017-218-6}} (2006 reprint)
* Laouisset, Djamel (2009). ''A Retrospective Study of the Algerian Iron and Steel Industry''. New York City: [[Nova Publishers]]. {{ISBN|978-1-61761-190-2}}.
* Roberts, Hugh (2003). ''The Battlefield&nbsp;– Algeria, 1988–2002. Studies in a Broken Polity''. London: [[Verso Books]]. {{ISBN|978-1-85984-684-1}}.
* Ruedy, John (1992). ''Modern Algeria&nbsp;– The Origins and Development of a Nation''. Bloomington: [[Indiana University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-253-34998-9}}.
* Stora, Benjamin (2001). ''Algeria, 1830–2000&nbsp;– A Short History''. Ithaca, New York: [[Cornell University Press]]. {{ISBN|978-0-8014-3715-1}}.
* Sidaoui, Riadh (2009). "Islamic Politics and the Military&nbsp;– Algeria 1962–2008". ''Religion and Politics&nbsp;– Islam and Muslim Civilisation''. Farnham: [[Ashgate Publishing]]. {{ISBN|0-7546-7418-5}}.
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Library resources box}}
* [https://www.ifs.du.edu/ifs/frm_CountryProfile.aspx?Country=DZ Key Development Forecasts for Algeria] from [[International Futures]]

=== Government ===
* [https://bawabatic.dz/ Public Services] – gateway to government sites
* [https://www.el-mouradia.dz/ El Mouradia Palace] – official website of the president of Algeria
* [https://www.ons.dz Statistics] – official website of National Office of Statistics

=== History ===
* [https://www.mfa.gov.dz/en/discover-algeria/history-of-algeria "History"] – Algerian history at Ministry of Foreign Affairs

=== Tourism ===
* [http://visitalgeria.dz/en/ Visit Algeria] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230206095834/https://visitalgeria.dz/en/ |date=6 February 2023 }} – Algeria's official tourism portal

=== Maps ===
* {{Wikiatlas}}
* {{Osmrelation-inline|192756}}

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