Editing Alexander III of Russia

{{Short description|Emperor of Russia from 1881 to 1894}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
{{family name hatnote|Alexandrovich|[[Romanov]]|lang=Eastern Slavic}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name         = Alexander III
| succession   = [[Emperor of Russia]]
| image        = Tsar Alexander III c. 1885.jpg
| caption      = Portrait photograph by [[Sergey Lvovich Levitsky|Sergey Levitsky]], 1885
| reign        = 13 March 1881{{snd}}{{nowrap|1 November 1894}}
| coronation   = 27 May 1883
| cor-type     = Russia
| predecessor  = [[Alexander II of Russia|Alexander II]]
| successor    = [[Nicholas II]]
| spouse       = {{marriage|[[Maria Feodorovna (Dagmar of Denmark)|Dagmar of Denmark]]|9 November 1866}}
| issue        = {{plain list|
* [[Nicholas II]]
* [[Grand Duke Alexander Alexandrovich of Russia|Grand Duke Alexander]]
* [[Grand Duke George Alexandrovich of Russia|Grand Duke George]]
* [[Grand Duchess Xenia Alexandrovna of Russia|Grand Duchess Xenia]]
* [[Grand Duke Michael Alexandrovich of Russia|Grand Duke Michael]]
* [[Grand Duchess Olga Alexandrovna of Russia|Grand Duchess Olga]]
}}
| issue-link   = #Issue
| issue-pipe   = 
| full name    = Alexander Alexandrovich Romanov
| house        = [[Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov]]
| father       = [[Alexander II of Russia]]
| mother       = [[Maria Alexandrovna (Marie of Hesse)|Marie of Hesse and by Rhine]]
| birth_date   = {{Birth date|1845|3|10|df=y}}
| birth_place  = [[Winter Palace]], Saint Petersburg, Russian Empire
| death_date   = {{Death date and age|1894|11|1|1845|3|10|df=y}}
| death_place  = [[Maley Palace]], Livadia,{{efn|Modern-day [[Livadiya, Crimea]]}} Taurida Governorate, Russian Empire
| burial_date  = 18 November 1894
| burial_place = [[Peter and Paul Cathedral, Saint Petersburg]], Russian Empire
| signature    = Alexander III of Russia (signature).png
| religion     = [[Russian Orthodox]]
}}

'''Alexander III''' ({{langx|ru|Александр III Александрович Романов|Aleksandr III Aleksandrovich Romanov}}; 10 March 1845{{snd}}1 November 1894)<ref>10 March [O.S. 26 February] 1845 – 1 November [O.S. 20 October] 1894</ref> was [[Emperor of Russia]], [[Congress Poland|King of Congress Poland]] and [[Grand Duke of Finland]] from 13 March 1881 until his death in 1894.<ref>13 March [O.S. 1 March] 1881{{snd}}1 November [O.S. 20 October] 1894.</ref> He was highly [[reactionary]] in domestic affairs and reversed some of the [[Liberalism|liberal reforms]] of his father, [[Alexander II of Russia|Alexander II]], a policy of "counter-reforms" ({{langx|ru|контрреформы}}). Under the influence of [[Konstantin Pobedonostsev]] (1827–1907), he acted to maximize his [[Autocracy|autocratic powers]].{{Citation needed|date=June 2024}}

During his reign, Russia fought no major wars, and he came to be known as '''The Peacemaker''' ({{langx|ru|Миротворец|Mirotvorets}} 
{{IPA|ru|mʲɪrɐˈtvorʲɪt͡s|[Russian] ipa}}), with the laudatory title of ''Tsar’-Mirotvorets'' enduring into 21st century historiography.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Fedyashin |first=Anton |date=2023 |title=Book Review: Istoriia rossiiskogo gosudarstva. Tsar'-osvoboditel' i tsar'-mirotvorets. Lekarstvo dlia imperii [History of the Russian State. The Tsar-Liberator and the Tsar-Peacemaker. Medicine for the Empire] by Boris Akunin |journal=European History Quarterly |language=en |volume=53 |issue=4 |pages=698–700 |doi=10.1177/02656914231199945a|s2cid=263705950 }}</ref> His major foreign policy achievement was the [[Franco-Russian Alliance]], a major shift in [[Foreign policy of the Russian Empire|international relations]] that eventually embroiled Russia in [[World War I]]. His political legacy represented a direct challenge to the European cultural order set forth by [[Germany|German]] statesman [[Otto von Bismarck]], intermingling Russian influences with the shifting [[Balance of power (international relations)|balances of power]].<ref>{{cite book | url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctv141649s | jstor=j.ctv141649s | title=The Decline of Bismarck's European Order | last1=Kennan | first1=George F. | year=1979 | publisher=Princeton University Press | doi=10.2307/j.ctv141649s | s2cid=241648947 }}</ref>

==Early life==

Grand Duke Alexander Alexandrovich was born on 10 March 1845 at the [[Winter Palace]] in [[Saint Petersburg]], [[Russian Empire]], the second son and third child of [[Alexander II of Russia|Tsesarevich Alexander]] (Future Alexander II) and his first wife [[Maria Alexandrovna (Marie of Hesse)|Maria Alexandrovna]] (née Princess Marie of [[Grand Duchy of Hesse|Hesse and by Rhine]]). He was born during the reign of his grandfather [[Nicholas I of Russia|Nicholas I]].

Though he was destined to be a strongly counter-reforming emperor, Alexander had little prospect of succeeding to the throne during the first two decades of his life, as he had an elder brother, [[Grand Duke Nicholas Alexandrovich of Russia|Nicholas]], who seemed of robust constitution. Even when Nicholas first displayed symptoms of delicate health, the notion that he might die young was never taken seriously, and he was betrothed to [[Dagmar of Denmark (Maria Feodorovna)|Princess Dagmar of Denmark]], daughter of [[King Christian IX of Denmark]] and [[Louise of Hesse-Kassel|Queen Louise of Denmark]], and whose siblings included [[Frederick VIII of Denmark|King Frederik VIII of Denmark]], [[Queen Alexandra of the United Kingdom]] and [[King George I of Greece]]. Great solicitude was devoted to the education of Nicholas as [[tsesarevich]], whereas Alexander received only the training of an ordinary Grand Duke of that period. This included acquaintance with [[French language|French]], English and [[German language|German]], and [[Foot drill|military drill]].{{sfn|Wallace|1911|p=562}}

==As Tsesarevich==
[[File:Alexander III and Maria Fedorovna's coronation by G.Becker (1888, Hermitage).jpg|thumb|right|300px|Grand painting by artist Georges Becker of the coronation of Emperor Alexander III and [[Maria Feodorovna (Dagmar of Denmark)|Empress Maria Fyodorovna]], which took place on {{OldStyleDate|27 May|1883|15 May}} at the [[Cathedral of the Dormition|Uspensky Sobor]] of the [[Moscow Kremlin]]. On the left of the [[dais]] can be seen his young son and heir, [[Nicholas II of Russia|the Tsarevich Nicholas]], and behind Nicholas can be seen a young [[Grand Duke George Alexandrovich of Russia|Grand Duke George]].]]
Alexander became [[tsesarevich]] upon Nicholas's sudden death in 1855. He had been very close to his older brother, and he was devastated. When he became [[tsar]], he reflected that "no one had such an impact on my life as my dear brother and friend Nixa [Nicholas]"<ref>Simon Sebag Montefiore, ''The Romanovs,'' p. 407</ref> and lamented that "a terrible responsibility fell on my shoulders" when Nicholas died.

As [[tsesarevich]], Alexander began to study the principles of law and administration under [[Konstantin Pobedonostsev]], then a professor of [[Private law|civil law]] at [[Moscow State University]] and later (from 1880) [[chief procurator]] of the [[Holy Synod]] of the Orthodox Church in Russia. Pobedonostsev instilled into the young man's mind the belief that zeal for [[Russian Orthodox Church|Russian Orthodox]] thought was an essential factor of Russian [[patriotism]] to be cultivated by every right-minded emperor. While he was [[heir apparent]] from 1865 to 1881 Alexander did not play a prominent part in public affairs, but allowed it to become known that he had ideas which did not coincide with the principles of the existing government.{{sfn|Wallace|1911|p=562}}

On his deathbed, Nicholas allegedly expressed the wish that his fiancée, Princess Dagmar of Denmark, should marry Alexander.{{sfn|Wallace|1911|p=562}} Alexander's parents encouraged the match. On 2 June 1866, Alexander went to Copenhagen to visit Dagmar. When they were looking at photographs of the deceased Nicholas, Alexander proposed to Dagmar.<ref>Simon Sebag Montefiore, ''The Romanovs'', p. 409</ref> On {{OldStyleDate|9 November|1866|28 October}} in the [[Grand Church of the Winter Palace]] in [[St. Petersburg]], Alexander wed Dagmar, who converted to Orthodox Christianity and took the name [[Maria Feodorovna (Dagmar of Denmark)|Maria Feodorovna]]. The union proved a happy one to the end; unlike many of his predecessors since Peter I, there was no adultery in his marriage.

Alexander and his father became estranged due to their different political views. In 1870, Alexander II supported Prussia in the [[Franco-Prussian War]], which angered the younger Alexander. Influenced by his Danish wife Dagmar, Alexander criticized the "shortsighted government" for helping the "Prussian pigs".<ref>Simon Sebag Montefiore, ''The Romanovs,'' p. 415</ref>

Alexander resented his father for having a long-standing relationship with Princess [[Catherine Dolgorukov]]a (with whom he had several illegitimate children) while his mother, the [[Marie Alexandrovna, Tsarina of Russia|Empress]], was suffering from chronic ill-health.<ref>Van Der Kiste, John ''The Romanovs: 1818–1959 ''(Sutton Publishing, 2003) p. 94</ref> Two days after Empress Marie died, his father told him, "I shall live as I wish, and my union with Princess Dolgorukova is definite" but assured him that "your rights will be safeguarded."<ref>Simon Sebag Montefiore, ''The Romanovs,'' p. 441</ref> Alexander was furious over his father's decision to marry Catherine a month after his mother's death, which he believed "forever ruined all the dear good memories of family life."<ref>Simon Sebag Montefiore, ''The Romanovs,'' p. 442</ref> His father threatened to disinherit him if he left court out of protest against the marriage.<ref>Simon Sebag Montefiore, ''The Romanovs,'' p. 445</ref> He privately denounced Catherine as "the outsider" and complained that she was "designing and immature".<ref>John Van der Kiste, ''The Romanovs 1818–1959'', p. 86</ref> After his father's assassination, he reflected that his father's marriage to Catherine had caused the tragedy: "All the scum burst out and swallowed all that was holy. The guardian angel flew away and everything turned to ashes, finally culminating in the dreadful incomprehensible 1 March."<ref>Simon Sebag Montefiore, ''The Romanovs,'' p. 451</ref>

==Reign==
{{Conservatism in Russia|Politicians}}
On 13 March 1881 (N.S.) Alexander's father, [[Alexander II of Russia|Alexander II]], was [[Assassination of Alexander II of Russia|assassinated]] by members of the organization [[Narodnaya Volya]]. As a result, Alexander ascended to the Russian imperial throne in the village of [[Ninasi|Nennal]]. He and Maria Feodorovna were officially crowned and anointed at the [[Assumption Cathedral in Moscow]] on 27 May 1883. Alexander's ascension to the throne was followed by an outbreak of [[Pogroms in the Russian Empire#1881|anti-Jewish riots]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/1132-alexander-iii-alexandrovich-emperor-of-russia|title=Alexander III., Alexandrovich, Emperor of Russia |website=www.JewishEncyclopedia.com}}</ref><ref>[http://anno.onb.ac.at/cgi-content/annoshow?call=dib|18830607|1|100.0|0 "Die Judenverfolgung in Rußland in der Krönungswoche"] (in German), ''[[Das interessante Blatt]]'', 7 June 1883.</ref><ref>[https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1883/06/01/102825816.pdf "Rioting and Politics in Russia"], ''[[The New York Times]]'', 1 June 1883.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.yivoencyclopedia.org/article.aspx/Pogroms|title=YIVO – Pogroms|website=www.yivoencyclopedia.org}}</ref>

Alexander III disliked the extravagance of the rest of his family. It was also expensive for the Crown to pay so many grand dukes each year. Each one received an annual salary of 250,000 rubles, and grand duchesses received a [[dowry]] of a million rubles when they married. He limited the title of grand duke and duchess to only children and male-line grandchildren of emperors. The rest would bear a princely title and the style of [[Serene Highness]]. He also forbade [[morganatic marriage]]s, as well as those outside of the Orthodox Church.<ref>Sebag Montefiore, p. 668</ref>

===Domestic policies===
[[File:Alexander III reception by Repin.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.3|Alexander receiving rural district elders in the yard of [[Petrovsky Palace]] in Moscow; painting by [[Ilya Repin]]]]

On the day of his assassination, Alexander II signed an [[ukaz]] setting up consultative commissions to advise the monarch. On ascending to the throne, however, Alexander III took Pobedonostsev's advice and cancelled the policy before its publication. He made it clear that his [[autocracy]] would not be limited.

All of Alexander III's internal reforms aimed to reverse the liberalization from his father's reign. The new Emperor believed that the principles of [[Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationality]], introduced by his grandfather [[Nicholas I of Russia|Nicholas I]], would quell revolutionary agitation and save Russia.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-11-21 |title=Alexander III of Russia - Biography, Policies & Significance |url=https://study.com/academy/lesson/the-rule-of-alexander-iii-of-russia.html |access-date=2024-07-13 |website=Study.com. History courses - help and review}}</ref>

[[File:Keisarintalo Lappeenranta.jpg|thumb|left|Photograph about arriving of Alexander III at the Fontell House (also known as "The House of Emperor") for the first time on August 4, 1885, in [[Lappeenranta]], [[Grand Duchy of Finland|Finland]].]]
Alexander weakened the power of the ''[[zemstvo]]'' (elective local administrative bodies) and placed the administration of peasant communes under the supervision of land-owning proprietors appointed by his government, "land captains" (''zemskiye nachalniki''). This weakened the nobility and peasantry and strengthed the Emperor's personal control. In such policies Alexander III followed the advice of [[Konstantin Pobedonostsev]], who retained control of the Church in Russia through his long tenure as Procurator of the [[Holy Synod]] (from 1880 to 1905) and who became tutor to Alexander's son and heir, Nicholas. (Pobedonostsev appears as "Toporov" in Tolstoy's novel ''Resurrection''.){{citation needed|date=October 2020}} Other conservative advisors included Count [[Dmitry Tolstoy|D. A. Tolstoy]] (minister of education, and later of internal affairs) and [[Ivan Durnovo|I. N. Durnovo]] (D. A. Tolstoy's successor in the latter post). Journalists such as [[Mikhail Katkov]] supported the emperor's autocracy policies.{{citation needed|date=August 2019}}

[[File:5 Roubles à l'effigie du Tsar d'Alexandre III, 1888.jpg|thumb|5-ruble coin of Alexander III, 1888]]

The government was overwhelmed in dealing with the [[Russian famine of 1891–92]] and the ensuing [[cholera]] epidemic, which caused 375,000 to 500,000 deaths, and some liberal activity was tolerated, and the zemstvos were recruited to help with relief. Among others, [[Leo Tolstoy]] helped with relief efforts on his estate and through the British press,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kelly|first=Luke|date=November 2016|title=British humanitarianism and the Russian famine, 1891–2|journal=Historical Research|volume=89| issue = 246|pages=824–845|doi=10.1111/1468-2281.12140|via=EBSCO}}</ref> and [[Anton Chekhov|Chekhov]] directed anti-cholera precautions in several villages.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Czar Aleksandr III - Trivia |url=https://www.imdb.com/name/nm1640169/trivia/ |access-date=2024-06-04 |website=IMDb |language=en-US}}</ref>

Alexander had the political goal of [[Russification]], which involved homogenizing the language and religion of Russia's people. He implemented changes such as teaching only the [[Russification|Russian language in Russian schools in Germany, Poland, and Finland]]. He also patronized [[Eastern Orthodox]]y and dissolved German, Polish, and Swedish cultural and religious institutions.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Florinsky |first=Michael T. |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |title=Alexander III |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Alexander-III-emperor-of-Russia |access-date=5 September 2019 |date=6 March 2019 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica, inc.}}</ref>

Alexander was hostile to Jews, and his reign witnessed a sharp deterioration in their economic, social, and political condition. His policy was eagerly implemented by tsarist officials in the [[May Laws]] of 1882. These laws encouraged open anti-Jewish sentiment and dozens of [[Pogrom|pogroms]] across the western part of the empire. As a result, many Jews emigrated to Western Europe and the United States.<ref>I. Michael Aronson,  "The Attitudes of Russian Officials in the 1880s toward Jewish Assimilation and Emigration." ''Slavic Review'' 34.1 (1975): 1–18. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2495871 online]</ref> The laws banned Jews from inhabiting rural areas and [[shtetl]]s (even within the [[Pale of Settlement]]) and restricted the occupations in which they could engage.<ref>{{cite news|title= This day, May 15, in Jewish history|url= http://www.clevelandjewishnews.com/cjnconnect/blogs/article_057a78b4-3f44-5375-a20d-a850a62b2194.html|newspaper= Cleveland Jewish News|access-date= 18 May 2014|archive-date= 19 May 2014|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140519165352/http://www.clevelandjewishnews.com/cjnconnect/blogs/article_057a78b4-3f44-5375-a20d-a850a62b2194.html|url-status= dead}}</ref><ref>I. Michael Aronson,  "The Prospects for the Emancipation of Russian Jewry during the 1880s." ''Slavonic and East European Review'' (1977): 348–369. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/4207496 online]</ref>

Encouraged by its successful assassination of Alexander II, the [[Narodnaya Volya]] movement began planning the murder of Alexander III. The [[Okhrana]] uncovered the plot and five of the conspirators, including [[Aleksandr Ulyanov]], the older brother of [[Vladimir Lenin]], were captured and hanged in May 1887.

===Foreign policy===
{{More citations needed section|date=October 2020}}
[[File:Borki cathedral.jpg|thumb|The Borki Cathedral was one of many churches built to commemorate the Tsar's miraculous survival in [[Borki train disaster|the 1888 train crash]]]]
{{Main|Foreign policy of the Russian Empire}}

The general negative consensus about the tsar's foreign policy follows the conclusions of the British Prime Minister [[Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury|Lord Salisbury]] in 1885:
:It is very difficult to come to any satisfactory conclusion as to the real objects of Russian policy. I am more inclined to believe there are none; that the Emperor is really his own Minister, and so bad a Minister that no consequent or coherent policy is pursued; but that each influential person, military or civil, snatches from him as opportunity offers the decisions which such person at the moment wants and that the mutual effect of these decisions on each other is determined almost exclusively by chance.<ref>Margaret Maxwell, "A Re-examination of the Role of N. K. Giers as Russian Foreign Minister under Alexander III" pp. 352–353.</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=S. C. M. Paine|title=Imperial Rivals: China, Russia, and Their Disputed Frontier|publisher=M.E. Sharpe|url=https://archive.org/details/imperialrivalsch00pain|url-access=registration|year=1996|page=[https://archive.org/details/imperialrivalsch00pain/page/248 248]|isbn=9781563247248}}</ref>

In foreign affairs Alexander III was a man of peace, but not at any price, and held that the best means of averting war is to be well-prepared for it. Diplomat [[Nikolay Girs]], scion of a rich and powerful family, served as his Foreign Minister from 1882 to 1895 and established the peaceful policies for which Alexander has been given credit.{{citation needed|date=October 2020}} Girs was an architect of the [[Franco-Russian Alliance]] of 1891, which was later expanded into the [[Triple Entente]] with the addition of Great Britain. That alliance brought France out of diplomatic isolation, and moved Russia from the German orbit to a coalition with France, one that was strongly supported by French financial assistance to Russia's economic modernisation.{{citation needed|date=October 2020}} Girs was in charge of a diplomacy that featured numerous negotiated settlements, treaties and conventions. These agreements defined Russian boundaries and restored equilibrium to dangerously unstable situations. The most [[Panjdeh incident|dramatic success came in 1885]], settling [[The Great Game|long-standing tensions]] with Great Britain, which was fearful that Russian expansion to the south would be a threat to India.<ref>Raymond A. Mohl, "Confrontation in Central Asia, 1885", ''History Today'' (1969) 119#3 pp. 176–183.</ref> Girs was usually successful in restraining the aggressive inclinations of Tsar Alexander convincing him that the very survival of the Tsarist system depended on avoiding major wars. With a deep insight into the tsar's moods and views, Girs was usually able to shape the final decisions by outmaneuvering hostile journalists, ministers, and even the Tsarina, as well as his own ambassadors.

[[File:Russo-French alliance.jpg|thumb|left|180px|Alexander III and French President [[Marie François Sadi Carnot]] forge an alliance]]
Though Alexander was indignant at the conduct of German chancellor [[Otto von Bismarck]] towards Russia, he avoided an open rupture with Germany—even reviving the [[League of Three Emperors]] for a period of time and in 1887, signed the [[Reinsurance Treaty]] with the Germans. However, in 1890, the expiration of the treaty coincided with the dismissal of Bismarck by the new German emperor, [[Kaiser Wilhelm II]] (for whom the Tsar had an immense dislike), and the unwillingness of Wilhelm II's government to renew the treaty. In response Alexander III then began cordial relations with France, eventually entering into an [[Franco-Russian Alliance|alliance]] with the French in 1892.<ref>Van Der Kiste, John ''The Romanovs: 1818–1959 ''(Sutton Publishing; 2003) p. 162</ref>

Despite chilly relations with Berlin, the Tsar nevertheless confined himself to keeping a large number of troops near the German frontier. With regard to Bulgaria he exercised similar self-control. The efforts of [[Alexander, Prince of Bulgaria|Prince Alexander]] and afterwards of [[Stefan Stambolov|Stambolov]] to destroy Russian influence in the principality roused his indignation, but he vetoed all proposals to intervene by force of arms.<ref>Charles Jelavich, "Russo-Bulgarian relations, 1892–1896: with particular reference to the problem of the bulgarian succession". ''Journal of Modern History'' 24.4 (1952): 341–351. {{JSTOR|2936115}}.</ref>

In [[Central Asia]]n affairs he followed the traditional policy of gradually extending Russian domination without provoking conflict with the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|United Kingdom]] (see [[Panjdeh incident]]), and he never allowed the bellicose partisans of a forward policy to get out of hand. His reign cannot be regarded as an eventful period of [[History of Russia|Russian history]]; but under his hard rule the country made considerable progress.{{sfn|Wallace|1911|p=563}}

[[File:Александр III и Мария Федоровна на крыльце своего дома в Лангинкоски в Финляндии.jpg|thumb|Alexander III and Maria Feodorovna in the family circle on the porch of his home in [[Langinkoski]], [[Finland]] in summer 1889.]]
Alexander and his wife regularly spent their summers at [[Langinkoski]] manor along the [[Kymi River]] near [[Kotka]] on the [[Finland|Finnish]] coast, where their children were immersed in a Nordic lifestyle.

Alexander rejected foreign influence, German influence in particular, thus the adoption of local national principles was deprecated in all spheres of official activity, with a view to realizing his ideal of a Russia homogeneous in language, administration and religion.{{citation needed|date=October 2020}} These ideas conflicted with those of his father, who had German sympathies despite being a patriot; Alexander II often used the German language in his private relations, occasionally ridiculed the [[Slavophiles]] and based his foreign policy on the Prussian alliance.{{sfn|Wallace|1911|p=562}}
[[File:France-russe1896.jpg|thumb|Alexander III and Nicholas II on French stamps, {{Circa|1896}}]]
Some differences between father and son had first appeared during the Franco-Prussian War, when Alexander II supported the cabinet of [[Berlin]] while the [[Tsesarevich]] made no effort to conceal his sympathies for the French.{{citation needed|date=October 2020}} These sentiments would resurface during 1875–1879, when the [[Eastern question]] excited Russian society. At first, the Tsesarevich was more Slavophile than the Russian government.{{how|date=October 2020}} However, his [[phlegmatic]] nature restrained him from many exaggerations, and any popular illusions he may have imbibed were dispelled by personal observation in [[Bulgaria]] where he commanded the left wing of the invading army. Never consulted on political questions, Alexander confined himself to military duties and fulfilled them in a conscientious and unobtrusive manner. After many mistakes and disappointments, the army reached [[Constantinople]] and the [[Treaty of San Stefano]] was signed, but much that had been obtained by that important document had to be sacrificed at the [[Congress of Berlin]].{{sfn|Wallace|1911|p=562}}

[[Otto von Bismarck|Bismarck]] failed to do what was expected of him by the Russian emperor. In return for the Russian support which had enabled him to create the [[German Empire]],<ref>{{Cite book|last=Baynes|first=Thomas Spencer|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p_uSlufwlUQC&q=Bismarck+failed+to+do+what+was+expected+of+him+by+the+Russian+emperor.+In+return+for+the+Russian+support+which+had+enabled+him+to+create+the+German+Empire%2C+-wikipedia&pg=PA260|title=The Encyclopædia Britannica: A Dictionary of Arts, Sciences, and General Literature|date=1902|publisher=Little, Brown|pages=260|language=en}}</ref> it was thought that he would help Russia to solve the Eastern question in accordance with Russian interests, but to the surprise and indignation of the cabinet of Saint Petersburg he confined himself to acting the part of "honest broker" at the Congress, and shortly afterwards contracted an [[Dual Alliance (1879)|alliance with Austria-Hungary]] for the purpose of counteracting Russian designs in [[Eastern Europe]].{{sfn|Wallace|1911|p=562}}

The Tsesarevich could refer to these results as confirmation of the views he had expressed during the Franco-Prussian War; he concluded that for Russia, the best thing was to recover as quickly as possible from her temporary exhaustion, and prepare for future contingencies by military and naval reorganization. In accordance with this conviction, he suggested that certain reforms should be introduced.{{sfn|Wallace|1911|p=562}}

===Trade and Industry===

Alexander III took initiatives to stimulate the development of trade and industry, as his father did before him. Russia's economy was still challenged by the [[Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)|Russian-Turkish war]] of 1877–1878, which created a deficit, so he imposed customs duties on imported goods. To further alleviate the budget deficit, he implemented increased frugality and accounting in state finances. Industrial development increased during his reign.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://russia.rin.ru/guides_e/7022.html |title=The Economical Policy of Alexander III |access-date=14 August 2020}}</ref> Also during his reign, construction of the [[Trans-Siberian Railway|Trans Siberian Railway]] was started.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Trans-Siberian Railway |url=https://www.historytoday.com/archive/months-past/trans-siberian-railway |website=History Today}}</ref>

=== Family life ===
[[File:Tzar Alexander III and members of the Royal family.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Left to Right: Emperor Alexander III, Prince George (later [[George V|George V of the United Kingdom]]), [[Maria Feodorovna (Dagmar of Denmark)|Marie Feodorovna]], [[Princess Maria of Greece and Denmark|Maria of Greece]], Tsesarevich Nicholas (later Emperor [[Nicholas II of Russia]]). Probably taken on the imperial yacht near Denmark, {{c.}} 1893.]]

Following his father's assassination, Alexander III was advised that it would be difficult for him to be kept safe at the [[Winter Palace]], and he relocated his family to the [[Gatchina Palace]] {{convert|20|mi|km|sigfig=1|order=flip}} south of [[St. Petersburg]]. The palace was surrounded by moats, watch towers, and trenches, and soldiers were on guard night and day.<ref>Carolly Erickson, ''Alexandra: The Last Tsarina,'' p. 19</ref> Under heavy guard, he would make occasional visits into St. Petersburg, but even then he would stay in the [[Anichkov Palace]], not the Winter Palace.<ref>Kennan, George F. (1979) ''The Decline of Bismarck's European Order: Franco-Russian Relations, 1875-1890,'' caption to plate 15: "...where Alexander III and Dagmar usually stayed when in Petersburg"</ref> Alexander resented having to take refuge at [[Gatchina]]. [[Grand Duke Alexander Mikhailovich of Russia|Grand Duke Alexander Mikhailovich]] remembered hearing the tsar say, "To think that after having faced the guns of the Turks I must retreat now before these skunks."<ref>Alexander Mikhailovich, ''Once a Grand Duke,'' p. 65</ref>

In the 1860s, Alexander fell in love with his mother's lady-in-waiting, [[Mariya Meshcherskaya|Princess Maria Elimovna Meshcherskaya]]. Dismayed to learn that Prince zu [[Sayn-Wittgenstein-Sayn]] had proposed to her in early 1866, he told his parents that he was prepared to give up his rights of succession in order to marry his beloved "Dusenka". In 1866 after tsesarevich Nicholas's death, tsar Alexander II informed the new tsesarevich Alexander that Russia had come to a marriage agreement with the parents of Princess Dagmar of Denmark, who had been Nicholas' fiancée. Initially, the tsesarevich refused to travel to Copenhagen because he wanted to marry Maria. Enraged, the tsar ordered him to go straight to Denmark and propose to Princess Dagmar. The young Alexander wrote in his diary "Farewell, dear Dusenka."

Despite his initial reluctance, Alexander grew fond of Dagmar, by the end of his life they loved each other deeply. A few weeks after their wedding, he wrote in his diary: "God grant that... I may love my darling wife more and more... I often feel that I am not worthy of her, but even if this was true, I will do my best to be."<ref>Julia P. Gelardi, ''From Splendor to Revolution'', p. 29</ref> When she left his side, he missed her bitterly and complained: "My sweet darling Minny, for five years we've never been apart and Gatchina is empty and sad without you."<ref>Simon Sebag Montefiore, ''The Romanovs,'' p. 459</ref> In 1885, he commissioned [[Peter Carl Fabergé]] to produce the first [[Fabergé egg|jeweled Easter egg]]s for her, and she was so delighted that Alexander gave her an egg every Easter. After Alexander died, his heir Nicholas doubled the tradition, every Easter commissioning an egg for his wife Alexandra Feodorovna, and one for his mother Dagmar. When Dagmar nursed him in his final illness, Alexander told her, "Even before my death, I have known an angel."<ref>''The Romanovs'', p. 483</ref> He died in Dagmar's arms, and his daughter Olga wrote that "my mother still held him in her arms" long after he died.<ref>''The Romanovs'', p. 484</ref>

Alexander had six children by Dagmar, five of whom survived into adulthood: [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas]] (b. 1868), [[Grand Duke George Alexandrovich of Russia|George]] (b. 1871), [[Grand Duchess Xenia Alexandrovna of Russia|Xenia]] (b. 1875), [[Grand Duke Michael Alexandrovich of Russia|Michael]] (b. 1878) and [[Grand Duchess Olga Alexandrovna of Russia|Olga]] (b. 1882). He told Dagmar that "only with [our children] can I relax mentally, enjoy them and rejoice, looking at them."<ref>The Romanovs, p. 460</ref> He wrote in his diary that he "was crying like a baby"<ref>Miranda Carter, ''George, Nicholas, and Wilhelm: Three Royal Cousins and the Road to World War I,'' p. 54</ref> when Dagmar gave birth to their first child, Nicholas. He was much more lenient with his children than most European monarchs, and he told their tutors, "I do not need porcelain, I want normal healthy Russian children."<ref>John Curtis Perry, ''The Flight of the Romanovs'', p. 54</ref> General Cherevin believed that the clever George was "the favourite of both parents". Alexander enjoyed a more informal relationship with his youngest son Michael and doted on his youngest daughter, Olga.

Alexander was concerned that his heir-apparent, Nicholas, was too gentle and naive to become an effective Emperor. When Witte suggested that Nicholas participate in the Trans-Siberian Committee, Alexander said, "Have you ever tried to discuss anything of consequence with His Imperial Highness the Grand Duke? Don't tell me you never noticed the Grand Duke is ... an absolute child. His opinions are utterly childish. How could he preside over such a committee?"<ref>''The Romanovs,'' p. 475</ref> He was worried that Nicholas had no experiences with women and arranged for the Polish ballerina [[Mathilde Kschessinska|Mathilde Kschessinskaya]] to become his son's mistress.<ref>''The Romanovs'', p. 477</ref> Even at the end of his life, he considered Nicholas a child and told him, "I can't imagine you as a fiancé – how strange and unusual!"<ref>''The Romanovs'', p. 479</ref>

[[File:Alexander-Maria.jpg|thumb|Alexander and his wife [[Maria Feodorovna (Dagmar of Denmark)|Empress Maria Fyodorovna]] on holiday in [[Copenhagen]] in 1893.]]
Each summer his parents-in-law, [[King Christian IX of Denmark|King Christian IX]] and [[Louise of Hesse-Kassel|Queen Louise]], held family reunions at the Danish royal palaces of [[Fredensborg Palace|Fredensborg]] and [[Bernstorff Palace|Bernstorff]], bringing Alexander, Maria and their children to Denmark.<ref name=":0">Van Der Kiste, John ''The Romanovs: 1818–1959'' (Sutton Publishing, 2003), p. 151</ref> His sister-in-law, the [[Queen Alexandra|Princess of Wales]], would come from Great Britain with some of her children, and his brother-in-law and cousin-in-law, [[King George I of Greece]], his wife, [[Queen Olga of Greece|Queen Olga]], who was a first cousin of Alexander and a Romanov Grand Duchess by birth, came with their children from Athens.<ref name=":0" /> In contrast to the strict security observed in Russia, Alexander and Maria revelled in the relative freedom that they enjoyed in Denmark, Alexander once commenting to the Prince and Princess of Wales near the end of a visit that he envied them being able to return to a happy home in England, while he was returning to his Russian prison.<ref name="Van Der Kiste, p. 152">Van Der Kiste, p. 152</ref> In Denmark, he was able to enjoy joining his children, nephews and nieces, in muddy ponds looking for tadpoles, sneaking into his father-in-law's orchard to steal apples, and playing pranks, such as turning a water hose on the visiting [[Oscar II of Sweden|King Oscar II of Sweden]].<ref name="Van Der Kiste, p. 152"/>

Alexander had an extremely poor relationship with his brother [[Grand Duke Vladimir Alexandrovich of Russia|Grand Duke Vladimir]]. At a restaurant, Vladimir had brawled with the French actor [[Lucien Guitry]] when the latter kissed his wife, [[Duchess Marie of Mecklenburg-Schwerin]].<ref name="Kiste, 1959, p. 121">John Van der Kiste, ''The Romanovs 1818–1959'', p. 121</ref> The prefect of [[St. Petersburg]] needed to escort Vladimir out of the restaurant.<ref name="Kiste, 1959, p. 121"/> Alexander was so furious that he temporarily exiled Vladimir and his wife and threatened to exile them permanently to Siberia.<ref name="Kiste, 1959, p. 121"/> When Alexander and his family survived the [[Borki train disaster]] in 1888, Alexander joked, "I can imagine how disappointed Vladimir is going to be when he learns that we all stayed alive!"<ref>Julia P. Gelardi, ''From Splendor to Revolution,'' p. 128</ref> This tension was reflected in the rivalry between Maria Feodorovna and Vladimir's wife Marie Pavlovna.<ref>Van Der Kiste, p. 141</ref>

Alexander had better relationships with his other brothers [[Grand Duke Alexei Alexandrovich of Russia|Alexei]] (who he made rear admiral and then grand admiral of the Russian Navy), [[Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich of Russia|Sergei]] (who he made governor of Moscow) and [[Grand Duke Paul Alexandrovich of Russia|Paul]].

Despite the antipathy that Alexander had towards his stepmother, [[Catherine Dolgorukova|Catherine Dolgorukov]], he nevertheless allowed her to remain in the Winter Palace for some time after his father's assassination and to retain keepsakes such Alexander II's blood-soaked uniform and his reading glasses.<ref>Van Der Kiste, p. 118</ref>

Even though he disliked their mother, Alexander was kind to his half-siblings. His youngest half-sister [[Catherine Yurievskaya|Princess Catherine Alexandrovna Yurievskaya]] remembered when he would play with her and her siblings: "The Emperor... seemed a playful and kind Goliath among all the romping children."<ref>Van Der Kiste, p. 119</ref>

On {{OldStyleDate|29 October|1888|17 October}} the Imperial train [[derailment|derailed]] in an [[Borki train disaster|accident]] at [[Birky, Chuhuiv Raion|Borki]]. At the moment of the crash, the imperial family was in the dining car. Its roof collapsed, and Alexander held its remains on his shoulders as the children fled outdoors. The onset of Alexander's kidney failure was later attributed to the blunt trauma suffered in this incident.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.alexanderpalace.org/palace/alexbio.html|title=Diaries and Letters – Alexander III|author=Scott Malsom|work=Alexander Palace Time Machine|access-date=1 February 2018}}</ref>{{Self-published inline|date=November 2021|certain=y}}

==Illness and death==
[[File:Valentin Serov - Alexander III in Danish Royal Life Guards Uniform.jpg|thumb|Alexander III in the uniform of the [[Royal Life Guards (Denmark)|Danish Royal Life Guards]], 1894]]
In 1894, Alexander III became ill with terminal kidney disease ([[nephritis]]). His first cousin, [[Olga Constantinovna of Russia|Queen Olga of Greece]], offered to let him stay at her villa [[Mon Repos, Corfu|Mon Repos]], on the island of [[Corfu]], in the hope that it might improve the Tsar's condition.<ref>King, Greg ''The Court of the Last Tsar: Pomp, Power and Pageantry in the Reign of Nicholas II'' (John Wiley & Sons, 2006) p. 325</ref> By the time that they reached [[Crimean Peninsula|Crimea]], they stayed at the Maly Palace in [[Livadia Palace|Livadia]], as Alexander was too weak to travel any farther.<ref>King, p. 325</ref> Recognizing that the Tsar's days were numbered, various imperial relatives began to descend on Livadia. Clergyman [[John of Kronstadt]] paid a visit and administered Communion to the Tsar.<ref>John Perry & Constantine Pleshakov ''The Flight of the Romanovs: a Family Saga'' (Basic Books, 1999) p. 62</ref> On 21 October, Alexander received Nicholas's fiancée, [[Alexandra Feodorovna (Alix of Hesse)|Princess Alix of Hesse-Darmstadt]], who had come from her native [[Darmstadt]] to receive the Tsar's blessing.<ref>King, p. 326</ref> Despite being exceedingly weak, Alexander insisted on receiving Alix in full dress uniform, an event that left him exhausted.<ref>King, p. 327</ref> Soon after, his health began to deteriorate more rapidly. He died in the arms of his wife, and in the presence of his physician, [[Ernst Viktor von Leyden]], at [[Livadia Palace|Maly Palace]] in Livadia on the afternoon of {{OldStyleDate|1 November|1894|20 October}} at the age of 49, and was succeeded by his eldest son Tsesarevich Nicholas, who took the throne as [[Nicholas II]]. After leaving Livadia on 6 November and traveling to St. Petersburg by way of Moscow, his remains were interred on 18 November at the [[Peter and Paul Fortress]], with his funeral being attended by numerous foreign relatives, including King Christian IX of Denmark, the Prince and Princess of Wales, and [[George V|Duke of York]], and [[Alfred, Duke of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha|Duke]] and [[Grand Duchess Maria Alexandrovna of Russia|Duchess]] of [[Saxe-Coburg and Gotha|Saxe-Coburg-Gotha]], and his daughter-in-law to be, Alix of Hesse, and her brother, [[Ernest Louis, Grand Duke of Hesse|Grand Duke Ernst Ludwig of Hesse]].

==Personality==
[[File:Tsarevitch Alexander later Alexander III 1865 by Sergei Levitsky.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Alexander III as [[Tsesarevich]], by [[Sergei Lvovich Levitsky]], 1865]]

In disposition, Alexander bore little resemblance to his soft-hearted, liberal father, and still less to his refined, philosophic, sentimental, chivalrous, yet cunning great-uncle [[Emperor Alexander I]]. Although an enthusiastic amateur musician and patron of the [[ballet]], Alexander was seen as lacking refinement and elegance. Indeed, he rather relished the idea of being of the same rough texture as some of his subjects. His straightforward, abrupt manner savoured sometimes of gruffness, while his direct style of expression matched his rough-hewn, immobile features and somewhat sluggish movements. His education was not such as to soften these peculiarities.{{sfn|Wallace|1911|pp=561–562}}

Alexander was extremely strong. He tore packs of cards in half with his bare hands to entertain his children.<ref name="Kiste, 1959, p. 101">John Van der Kiste, ''The Romanovs 1818–1959'', p. 101</ref> When the Austrian ambassador threatened that [[Austro-Hungarian Empire|Austria]] would mobilize two or three army corps against Russia, he twisted a silver fork into a knot and threw it onto the plate of the ambassador.<ref name="Kiste, 1959, p. 132">John Van der Kiste, ''The Romanovs 1818–1959'', p. 132</ref> He said, "That is what I am going to do to your two or three army corps."<ref name="Kiste, 1959, p. 132"/>

Unlike his extroverted [[Maria Feodorovna (Dagmar of Denmark)|wife]], Alexander disliked social functions and avoided St. Petersburg. At palace balls, he was impatient for the events to end. He would order each musician of the orchestra to leave and turn off the lights until the guests left.<ref name="Kiste, 1959, p. 132"/>

After an unpleasant childhood experience on a bad-tempered mount, he developed a lifelong fear of horses.<ref name="Kiste, 1959, p. 133">John Van der Kiste, ''The Romanovs 1818–1959'', p. 133</ref> His wife once convinced him to go on a carriage ride with her, but as he reluctantly entered the carriage, the ponies reared back. He immediately left the carriage and no amount of pleading from his wife could convince him to get back in.<ref name="Kiste, 1959, p. 133"/>

An account from the memoirs of the artist [[Alexander Benois]] gives one impression of Alexander III:

<blockquote>After a performance of the ballet ''[[Tsar Kandavl or Le Roi Candaule|Tsar Kandavl]]'' at the [[Mariinsky Theatre]], I first caught sight of the Emperor. I was struck by the size of the man, and although cumbersome and heavy, he was still a mighty figure. There was indeed something of the [[muzhik]] ''[Russian peasant]'' about him. The look of his bright eyes made quite an impression on me. As he passed where I was standing, he raised his head for a second, and to this day I can remember what I felt as our eyes met. It was a look as cold as steel, in which there was something threatening, even frightening, and it struck me like a blow. The Tsar's gaze! The look of a man who stood above all others, but who carried a monstrous burden and who every minute had to fear for his life and the lives of those closest to him. In later years I came into contact with the Emperor on several occasions, and I felt not the slightest bit timid. In more ordinary cases Tsar Alexander III could be at once kind, simple, and even almost homely.</blockquote>

==Monuments==
[[File:Marble Palace (oriental frontage).jpg|thumb|The equestrian statue of Alexander III, by Prince [[Paolo Troubetzkoy]], shows the Emperor sitting heavily on the back of a ponderous horse]]
[[File:The monument of Russian Emperor Alexander III.jpg|thumb|right|Memorial dedicated to Alexander III in Pullapää, [[Estonia]]]]
In 1909, a bronze [[equestrian statue]] of Alexander III sculpted by [[Paolo Troubetzkoy]] was placed in [[Znamenskaya Square]] in front of the [[Moskovsky Rail Terminal (Saint Petersburg)|Moscow Rail Terminal]] in [[St. Petersburg]]. Both the horse and rider were sculpted in massive form, leading to the nickname of "hippopotamus". Troubetzkoy envisioned the statue as a [[caricature]], jesting that he wished "to portray an animal atop another animal", and it was quite controversial at the time, with many, including the members of the Imperial Family, opposed to the design, but it was approved because the [[Maria Feodorovna (Dagmar of Denmark)|Empress Dowager]] unexpectedly liked the monument. Following the [[Russian Revolution|Revolution of 1917]], the statue remained in place as a symbol of tsarist autocracy until 1937 when it was placed in storage. In 1994, it was again put on public display, although in a different place – in front of the [[Marble Palace]].<ref>{{cite book|first=Orlando|last=Figes|page=15|title=A People's Tragedy|isbn=0-7126-7327-X|year=1997|publisher=Pimlico }}</ref> Another pre-revolutionary memorial is located in the city of [[Irkutsk]] at the [[Angara River|Angara]] embankment.

For Alexander's role in forging the [[Franco-Russian Alliance]], the French Republic commissioned a bridge named in his honour, [[Pont Alexandre III]]. It was opened by his son, Nicholas II, and exists to this day.

On 18 November 2017, [[Vladimir Putin]] unveiled a bronze monument to Alexander III on the site of the former Maly Livadia Palace in Crimea. The four-meter monument by Russian sculptor [[Andrey Kovalchuk]] depicts Alexander III sitting on a stump, his stretched arms resting on a sabre. An inscription says "Russia has only two allies: the Army and the Navy", although historians dispute whether the Tsar actually said those words.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://tass.com/society/976333|title=Putin unveils monument to Russia's Tsar Alexander III in Crimea |date=18 November 2017 |publisher=TASS |access-date=19 November 2017}}</ref><ref name="BM">{{cite book |first1=Alexander Mikhailovich |last1=Grand Duke Alexander Mikhailovich of Russia |title=Book of Memories |date=1933 |publisher=Illustrated Russia |url=http://www.rummuseum.ru/lib_a/al_mih05.php |access-date=12 May 2021 |author1-link=Grand Duke Alexander Mikhailovich of Russia |archive-date=17 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220117094024/http://www.rummuseum.ru/lib_a/al_mih05.php |url-status=dead }}</ref> Alexander III is believed to be one of Putin's admired historic leaders, along with [[Joseph Stalin]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://eurasianet.org/the-royal-role-model-historical-revisionism-in-russia|first=Igor|last=Torbakov|title=The Royal Role Model: Historical Revisionism in Russia|newspaper=Eurasianet|date=12 January 2018|access-date=9 April 2021}}</ref> On 5 June 2021, he unveiled another monument to Alexander on the site of [[Gatchina Palace]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=5 June 2021 |title=Unveiling of monument to Emperor Alexander III |url=http://en.kremlin.ru/events/president/news/65751 |access-date= |website=[[Kremlin.ru]] |language=en}}</ref>

There remains a [[:pl:Pomnik ku czci ocalenia Aleksandra III w Zaczerlanach|monument dedicated to Alexander III]] in [[Zaczerlany]], [[Poland]].

==Honours==
'''Domestic'''<ref name="Army">[http://regiment.ru/bio/A/3.htm Russian Imperial Army – Emperor Alexander III of Russia] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181217110927/http://regiment.ru/bio/A/3.htm |date=17 December 2018 }} (In Russian)</ref>{{self-published inline|date=January 2021}}
* [[Order of St. Andrew|Knight of St. Andrew]], ''10 March 1845''
* [[Order of St. Alexander Nevsky|Knight of St. Alexander Nevsky]], ''10 March 1845''
* [[Order of St. Anna|Knight of St. Anna]], 1st Class, ''10 March 1845''
* [[Order of the White Eagle (Russian Empire)|Knight of the White Eagle]], ''10 March 1845''
* [[Order of St. Vladimir|Knight of St. Vladimir]], 4th Class, ''1864''; 3rd Class, ''1870''
* [[Order of Saint Stanislaus (Imperial House of Romanov)|Knight of St. Stanislaus]], 1st Class, ''1865''
* [[Order of St. George|Knight of St. George]], 2nd Class, ''1877''

'''Foreign'''<ref name="Army"/>
{{columns-list|colwidth=25em|
* {{flag|Austrian Empire}}: Grand Cross of the Royal Hungarian [[Order of St. Stephen of Hungary|Order of St. Stephen]], ''1866''<ref>[http://tornai.com/rendtagok.htm "A Szent István Rend tagjai"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101222022855/http://tornai.com/rendtagok.htm|date=22 December 2010}}</ref>
* {{flag|Baden}}:<ref>''Hof- und Staats-Handbuch des Großherzogtum Baden'' (1876), "Großherzogliche Orden" [https://digital.blb-karlsruhe.de/blbihd/periodical/pageview/1874639 pp. 58], [https://digital.blb-karlsruhe.de/blbihd/periodical/pageview/1874652 71]</ref>
** Knight of the [[House Order of Fidelity]], ''1872''
** [[Order of the Zähringer Lion|Grand Cross of the Zähringer Lion]], ''1872''
* {{flag|Kingdom of Bavaria}}: [[Order of St. Hubert|Knight of St. Hubert]], ''1865''<ref name="Bayern1867">{{cite book|author=Bayern|title=Hof- und Staatshandbuch des Königreichs Bayern: 1867|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_nTBRAAAAcAAJ|year=1867|publisher=Landesamt|page=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_nTBRAAAAcAAJ/page/n35 10]}}</ref>
* {{flag|Belgium}}: Grand Cordon of the [[Order of Leopold (Belgium)|Order of Leopold]] (military), ''7 June 1865''<ref>{{citation|chapter-url=https://archives.bruxelles.be/almanach/watch/AR/ALMANACH%20ROYAL%20OFFICIEL_1866_R%20208/ALMANACH%20ROYAL%20OFFICIEL_1866_R%20208#page/26|title=Almanach Royal Officiel|year=1866|chapter=Liste des Membres de l'Ordre de Léopold|language=fr|via=Archives de Bruxelles|page=52}}</ref>
* {{flag|Empire of Brazil}}:
** [[Order of the Southern Cross|Grand Cross of the Southern Cross]], ''14 January 1866''
** Grand Cross of the [[Order of Pedro I]], ''15 September 1868''
* {{flag|Principality of Bulgaria}}: [[Order of Bravery]], 1st Class<ref>{{cite web|title=Knights of the Order of Bravery| date=13 October 2024 |url=http://www.boiniznamena.com/?action=article&id=155|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100203221313/http://www.boiniznamena.com/?action=article&id=155|url-status=usurped|archive-date=3 February 2010|language=bg}}</ref>
* {{flag|Denmark}}:<ref name="DanskStatskalender">{{cite book |year=1894 |orig-year=1st pub.:1801 |editor1-last=Bille-Hansen |editor1-first=A. C. |editor2-last=Holck |editor2-first=Harald |title=Statshaandbog for Kongeriget Danmark for Aaret 1894 |trans-title=State Manual of the Kingdom of Denmark for the Year 1894 |url=https://dis-danmark.dk/bibliotek/918036.pdf#page=34 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://dis-danmark.dk/bibliotek/918036.pdf#page=34 |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |series=Kongelig Dansk Hof- og Statskalender |language=da |location=Copenhagen |publisher=J.H. Schultz A.-S. Universitetsbogtrykkeri |pages=3, 6 |access-date=16 September 2019 |via=[[:da:DIS Danmark]]}}</ref>
** [[Order of the Elephant|Knight of the Elephant]], ''29 June 1865''
** [[Cross of Honour of the Order of the Dannebrog]], ''3 July 1866''
** [[Grand Commander of the Dannebrog]], ''9 November 1891''
** Commemorative Medal for the Golden Wedding of King Christian IX and Queen Louise, ''1892''
* {{flagicon|Saxe-Coburg and Gotha}} {{flagicon|Saxe-Altenburg}} {{flagicon|Saxe-Meiningen}} [[Ernestine duchies]]: Grand Cross of the [[Saxe-Ernestine House Order]], ''1884''<ref>''[https://zs.thulb.uni-jena.de/rsc/viewer/jportal_derivate_00243753/Sachsen_Coburg_Gotha_166999342_1890_0057.tif?logicalDiv=jportal_jparticle_00484309 Staatshandbücher für das Herzogtum Sachsen-Coburg und Gotha]'' (1890), "Herzogliche Sachsen-Ernestinischer Hausorden" p. 46</ref>
* {{flagcountry|French Third Republic}}: Grand Cross of the [[Legion of Honour]], ''9 June 1878''<ref>{{cite book| author = M. & B. Wattel. | title = Les Grand'Croix de la Légion d'honneur de 1805 à nos jours. Titulaires français et étrangers |location= Paris |date = 2009 |publisher= Archives & Culture | page = 516 | isbn = 978-2-35077-135-9| ref = M. et B. Wattel}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Greece|royal}} [[Kingdom of Greece]]: [[Order of the Redeemer|Grand Cross of the Redeemer]], ''15 July 1866''
* {{Flag|Kingdom of Hawaii}}: Grand Cross of the [[Royal Order of Kamehameha I (decoration)|Order of Kamehameha I]], ''1881''<ref>Kalakaua to his sister, 12 July 1881, quoted in Greer, Richard A. (editor, 1967) "[https://evols.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/10524/186/JL05085.pdf The Royal Tourist—Kalakaua's Letters Home from Tokio to London] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191019083943/https://evols.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/10524/186/JL05085.pdf |date=19 October 2019 }}", ''Hawaiian Journal of History'', vol. 5, p. 96</ref>
* {{Flag|Kingdom of Hanover}}:<ref name="Hannover1865">{{cite book|author=Staat Hannover|title=Hof- und Staatshandbuch für das Königreich Hannover: 1865|url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_bAFTAAAAcAAJ|year=1865|publisher=Berenberg|pages=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_bAFTAAAAcAAJ/page/n56 38], [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_bAFTAAAAcAAJ/page/n99/mode/2up 81]}}</ref>
** [[Order of St. George (Hanover)|Knight of St. George]], ''1865''
** Grand Cross of the [[Royal Guelphic Order]], ''1865''
* {{Flag|Grand Duchy of Hesse}}: Grand Cross of the [[Ludwig Order]], ''8 June 1857''<ref>''Hof- und Staats-Handbuch des Großherzogtum Hessen'' (1879), "Großherzogliche Orden und Ehrenzeichen" [https://archive.org/details/hofundstaatshan00gergoog/page/n36 p. 11]</ref>
* {{Flag|Kingdom of Italy}}: [[Supreme Order of the Most Holy Annunciation|Knight of the Annunciation]], ''5 July 1865''<ref>''Calendario reale per l'anno 1887'', Vincenzo Bona, Torino, 1886, p. 136.</ref>
* {{Flag|Sovereign Military Order of Malta}}: Bailiff Grand Cross of Honour and Devotion, ''12 January 1876''
* {{Flag|Empire of Japan}}:
** [[Order of the Rising Sun|Grand Cordon of the Rising Sun]], ''28 August 1879''
** Grand Cordon of the [[Order of the Chrysanthemum]], ''20 May 1880''<ref>{{cite book|author=刑部芳則|title=明治時代の勲章外交儀礼|url=http://meijiseitoku.org/pdf/f54-5.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://meijiseitoku.org/pdf/f54-5.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|year=2017|publisher=明治聖徳記念学会紀要|language=ja|page=143}}</ref>
* {{Flag|Mecklenburg}}:
** [[House Order of the Wendish Crown|Grand Cross of the Wendish Crown]], with Crown in Ore, ''4 July 1865''<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/hof-und-staats-handbuch-des-grossherzogthums-mecklenburg-strelitz-fur-1878/page/n1/mode/2up |title=Hof- und Staatshandbuch des Großherzogtums Mecklenburg-Strelitz: 1878 |chapter=Großherzogliche Orden und Ehrenzeichen |location=Neustrelitz |publisher=Druck und Debit der Buchdruckerei von G. F. Spalding und Sohn |date=1878 |page=[https://archive.org/details/hof-und-staats-handbuch-des-grossherzogthums-mecklenburg-strelitz-fur-1878/page/n27/mode/2up 11]|language=German }}</ref>
** Cross for Distinction in War ([[Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz|Strelitz]]), ''3 December 1877''
* {{Flagicon image|Imperial Standard of Mexico (1864-1867).svg}} [[Second Mexican Empire|Mexican Empire]]: [[Mexican Imperial Orders#Order of the Mexican Eagle|Grand Cross of the Mexican Eagle, with Collar]], ''10 April 1866''
* {{flag|Monaco}}: [[Order of Saint-Charles|Grand Cross of St. Charles]], ''14 August 1883''<ref>[https://journaldemonaco.gouv.mc/var/jdm/storage/original/application/505473bccdc532327b8aa787bca014ab.pdf Sovereign Ordonnance of 14 August 1883]</ref>
* {{Flag|Principality of Montenegro}}: Grand Cross of the [[Order of Prince Danilo I]], ''4 January 1867''
* {{Flag|Netherlands}}:
** [[Order of the Netherlands Lion|Grand Cross of the Netherlands Lion]], ''19 May 1865''
** Grand Cross of the [[Military William Order]], ''17 March 1881''<ref name="Military William Order">{{cite web|url=https://www.defensie.nl/onderwerpen/onderscheidingen/dapperheidsonderscheidingen/databank-dapperheidsonderscheidingen/1881/03/17/romanov-aleksandr-iii-aleksandrovitsj |title=Militaire Willems-Orde: Romanov, Aleksandr III Nikolajevitsj |trans-title=Military William Order: Romanov, Alexander III Alexandrovich |website=Ministerie van Defensie|language=nl|access-date=12 March 2016|date=17 March 1881}}</ref>
* {{Flag|Oldenburg}}: [[House and Merit Order of Peter Frederick Louis|Grand Cross of the Order of Duke Peter Friedrich Ludwig]], with Golden Crown, ''28 July 1860''<ref name="Oldenburg1873">{{cite book|author=Staat Oldenburg|title=Hof- und Staatshandbuch des Großherzogtums Oldenburg: für ... 1872/73|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NpBYAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA29|year=1873|publisher=Schulze|page=29}}</ref>
* {{Flag|Ottoman Empire}}:
** [[Order of Osmanieh]], 1st Class, ''1 April 1866''
** [[Order of Distinction (Ottoman Empire)|Order of Distinction]], ''3 December 1884''
* {{flag|Kingdom of Portugal}}:<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bragança |first1=Jose Vicente de |last2=Estrela |first2=Paulo Jorge |date=2017 |title=Troca de Decorações entre os Reis de Portugal e os Imperadores da Rússia |url=https://www.academia.edu/35782766 |language=pt |trans-title=Exchange of Decorations between the Kings of Portugal and the Emperors of Russia |journal=Pro Phalaris |volume=16 |page=10 |access-date=19 March 2020 |archive-date=23 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211123145805/https://www.academia.edu/35782766 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
** [[Order of the Tower and Sword|Grand Cross of the Tower and Sword]], ''22 June 1865''
** Grand Cross of the [[Sash of the Two Orders]], ''1 May 1873''; [[Sash of the Three Orders|Three Orders]], ''25 May 1881''
* {{Flagicon image|Early 20th Century Qajar Flag.svg}} [[Qajar Iran|Persian Empire]]: Order of the August Portrait, ''15 December 1869''
* {{flagicon image|Flag of the Kingdom of Prussia (1803-1892).svg}} [[Kingdom of Prussia]]:<ref name="prus">{{citation|title=Königlich Preussische Ordensliste|journal=Preussische Ordens-Liste|volume=1|url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015049878831&view=1up&seq=5&skin=2021|pages=[https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015049878831&view=1up&seq=13&skin=2021 5], [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015049878831&view=1up&seq=23&skin=2021 15], [https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015049878831&view=1up&seq=1006&skin=2021 934]|language=German|location=Berlin|year=1886}}</ref>
** [[Order of the Black Eagle|Knight of the Black Eagle]], ''10 March 1855''; with Collar, ''1868''
** Grand Commander's Cross of the Royal [[House Order of Hohenzollern]], ''25 September 1872''
** [[Pour le Mérite]] (military), ''27 December 1877''
* {{Flag|Kingdom of Romania}}:
** [[Order of the Star of Romania|Grand Cross of the Star of Romania]], ''15 November 1877''
** [[Military Virtue Medal]], ''17 January 1878''
** [[Crossing of the Danube Cross]] (military), ''10 May 1879''
* {{Flag|Kingdom of Saxony}}: [[Order of the Rue Crown|Knight of the Rue Crown]], ''1866''<ref>''Staatshandbuch für den Freistaat Sachsen (1867)'' (in German), "Königliche Ritter-Orden", p. 4</ref>
* {{Flag|Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach}}: [[Order of the White Falcon|Grand Cross of the White Falcon]], ''3 October 1864''<ref>''Staatshandbuch für das Großherzogtum Sachsen / Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach'' (1869), "Großherzogliche Hausorden" p. [https://zs.thulb.uni-jena.de/rsc/viewer/jportal_derivate_00183908/Staatshandbuch_Film_Nr_14_0018.tif 12] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200608124432/https://zs.thulb.uni-jena.de/rsc/viewer/jportal_derivate_00183908/Staatshandbuch_Film_Nr_14_0018.tif |date=8 June 2020 }}</ref>
* {{Flag|Principality of Serbia}}:
** [[Order of the Cross of Takovo|Grand Cross of the Cross of Takovo]], ''26 March 1878''
** Bronze Commemorative Medal for the Russo-Turkish War, ''17 April 1878''
** [[Order of the White Eagle (Serbia)|Grand Cross of the White Eagle]], ''29 April 1883''
* {{Flagicon image|Flag_of_Siam_(1855).svg}} [[Siam]]: Knight of the [[Order of the Royal House of Chakri]], ''15 July 1891''
* {{Flagcountry|Restoration (Spain)}}: [[Order of the Golden Fleece|Knight of the Golden Fleece]], ''6 September 1865''<ref>{{cite book|chapter-url=http://hemerotecadigital.bne.es/issue.vm?id=0000941464&search=&lang=es|chapter=Caballeros de la insigne orden del toisón de oro|title=Guía Oficial de España|date=1887|access-date=21 March 2019|page=146|language=es}}</ref>
* {{flagicon|Sweden|1844}} {{flagicon|Norway|1844}} [[Sweden-Norway]]:
** [[Order of the Seraphim|Knight of the Seraphim]], ''2 June 1865''<ref>{{citation|title=Sveriges och Norges Statskalender |year=1866|page=435|url=https://runeberg.org/sonkal/1866/0471.html|via=runeberg.org|access-date=20 February 2019|language=sv}}</ref>
** [[Order of St. Olav|Grand Cross of St. Olav]], ''25 August 1879''<ref>{{citation|title=Norges Statskalender |year=1890|page=595|url=https://runeberg.org/norkal/1890/0356.html|via=runeberg.org|access-date=6 January 2018|language=no}}</ref>
* {{Flagcountry|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland}}: [[Order of the Garter|Stranger Knight Companion of the Garter]], ''2 April 1881''<ref name=p60>Shaw, Wm. A. (1906) ''The Knights of England'', '''I''', London, [https://archive.org/stream/cu31924092537418#page/n155/mode/2up p. 66]</ref>
* {{Flag|Württemberg}}: [[Order of the Crown (Württemberg)|Grand Cross of the Württemberg Crown]], ''1864''<ref>{{cite book|title=Hof- und Staats-Handbuch des Königreichs Württemberg: 1866|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=R1wAAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA31|year=1866|page=31|author1 = Württemberg}}</ref>
}}

===Arms===
[[File:Lesser CoA of the empire of Russia.svg|230px|center|thumb|Lesser Coat of Arms of the Russian Empire]]

==Issue==
{{Further information|Descendants of Christian IX of Denmark#Children of Dagmar and Alexander III}}

[[File:1888. Семья императора Александра III.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Alexander III with his wife and their children]]

Alexander III had six children (five of whom survived to adulthood) of his marriage with [[Maria Feodorovna (Dagmar of Denmark)|Princess Dagmar of Denmark]], also known as Marie Feodorovna.

(Note: all dates prior to 1918 are in the [[Old Style]] Calendar)

{| border=1 style="border-collapse: collapse;"
|- bgcolor=cccccc
!Name!!Birth!!Death!!Notes
|-
|[[Nicholas II of Russia|His Imperial Majesty Emperor Nicholas II of Russia]]<!-- (Last Czar of Russia) -->||18 May 1868||[[Murder of the Romanov family|17 July 1918]]||married 26 November 1894, [[Alexandra Feodorovna (Alix of Hesse)|Princess Alix of Hesse]] (1872–1918); had five children
|-
|[[Grand Duke Alexander Alexandrovich of Russia]]||7 June 1869||2 May 1870||died of [[meningitis]], aged 10 months and 26 days
|-
|[[Grand Duke George Alexandrovich of Russia]]||9 May 1871||10 July 1899||died of [[tuberculosis]], aged 28; had no issue
|-
|[[Grand Duchess Xenia Alexandrovna of Russia]]||6 April 1875||20 April 1960||married 6 August 1894, [[Grand Duke Alexander Mikhailovich of Russia]] (1866–1933); had seven children
|-
|[[Grand Duke Michael Alexandrovich of Russia]]||4 December 1878||13 June 1918||married 16 October 1912, [[Natalia Brasova|Natalia Sergeyevna Wulfert]] (1880–1952); had one child
|-
|[[Grand Duchess Olga Alexandrovna of Russia]]||13 June 1882||24 November 1960||married 9 August 1901, [[Duke Peter Alexandrovich of Oldenburg]] (1868–1924); div. 16 October 1916; had no issue.
married 16 November 1916, [[Nikolai Kulikovsky|Colonel Nikolai Kulikovsky]] (1881–1958); had two children
|}

==Ancestors==
{{ahnentafel
| collapsed=yes |align=center
| boxstyle_1=background-color: #fcc;
| boxstyle_2=background-color: #fb9;
| boxstyle_3=background-color: #ffc;
| boxstyle_4=background-color: #bfc;
| 1= 1. '''Alexander III of Russia'''
| 2= 2. [[Alexander II of Russia]]
| 3= 3. [[Princess Marie of Hesse and by Rhine]]
| 4= 4. [[Nicholas I of Russia]]
| 5= 5. [[Alexandra Feodorovna (Charlotte of Prussia)|Princess Charlotte of Prussia]]
| 6= 6. [[Louis II, Grand Duke of Hesse and by Rhine]]
| 7= 7. [[Princess Wilhelmine of Baden]]
| 8= 8. [[Paul I of Russia]]
| 9= 9. [[Duchess Sophie Dorothea of Württemburg]]
| 10= 10. [[Frederick William III of Prussia]]
| 11= 11. [[Duchess Louise of Mecklenburg-Strelitz]]
| 12= 12. [[Louis I, Grand Duke of Hesse and by Rhine]]
| 13= 13. [[Princess Louise of Hesse-Darmstadt (1761–1829)|Princess Louise of Hesse-Darmstadt]]
| 14= 14. [[Charles Louis, Hereditary Prince of Baden]]
| 15= 15. [[Princess Amalie of Hesse-Darmstadt]]
}}

==See also==
{{Portal|History|Politics|Russia}}
* [[Russian America]]
* [[Tsars of Russia family tree]]
* [[List of Russian monarchs]]
* [[Emperor of all the Russias]]
* [[President of the Soviet Union]]

==References==
{{notelist}}
{{reflist}}
* {{EB1911|wstitle=Alexander III. (tsar)|display=Alexander III.|volume=1|pages=561–563|first=Donald Mackenzie|last=Wallace|author-link=Donald Mackenzie Wallace}}

==Bibliography==
{{See also|Bibliography of Russian history (1613–1917)}}
* Dorpalen, Andreas. "Tsar Alexander III and the Boulanger Crisis in France." ''Journal of Modern History'' 23.2 (1951): 122–136. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1872056 online]
* Etty, John. "Alexander III, Tsar of Russia 1881–1889." ''History Review'' 60 (2008): 1–5. [https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&pid=sites&srcid=ZGVmYXVsdGRvbWFpbnxpYmhpc3RvcnlydXNzaWF8Z3g6N2I4ZmVlMzkwM2RkNzU5ZQ online]
* Hutchinson, John F. ''Late Imperial Russia: 1890–1917''
* Lincoln, W. Bruce. ''The Romanovs : autocrats of all the Russias'' (1981) [https://archive.org/details/romanovsautocr00linc online free to borrow]
* Lowe, Charles.  ''Alexander III of Russia'' (1895) [https://archive.org/details/cu31924068919814 online free] full-length old biography
* Nelipa, M., ''Alexander III His Life and Reign'' (2014), Gilbert's Books
* Polunov, A. Iu. "Konstantin Petrovich Pobedonostsev – Man and Politician". ''Russian Studies in History'' 39.4 (2001): 8–32. [http://www.academia.edu/download/31220668/Pobed.pdf online]{{dead link|date=January 2025|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}, by a leading scholar
*Polunov, A. Iu. "The Orthodox Church in the Baltic Region and the Policies of Alexander Ill's Government." ''Russian Studies in History'' 39.4 (2001): 66–76. [http://www.academia.edu/download/31220675/Baltic.pdf online]{{dead link|date=January 2025|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}
* Suny, Ronald Grigor.  "Rehabilitating Tsarism: The Imperial Russian State and Its Historians. A Review Article" '' Comparative Studies in Society and History'' 31#1 (1989) pp.&nbsp;168–179 [https://www.jstor.org/stable/178799 online]
* Thomson, Oliver. ''Romanovs: Europe's Most Obsessive Dynasty'' (2008) ch 13
* Whelan, Heide W. ''Alexander III & the State Council: bureaucracy & counter-reform in late imperial Russia'' (Rutgers UP, 1982).

==External links==
{{Commons category|Alexander III of Russia}}
{{Wikiquote}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20170503063351/http://diaryrh.ru/historical-photos/alexander-iii/ Alexander III. Historical photos.]
* [http://www.alexanderpalace.org/palace/alexbio.html A short biography]
*{{YouTube|zM297O4V6Sg|Romanovs. The eighth film. Alexander III; Nicholas II.}} – Historical reconstruction "The Romanovs". StarMedia. Babich-Design(Russia, 2013)

{{s-start}}
{{S-hou|[[House of Romanov|House of Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov]]|13 March|1845|1 November|1894|[[House of Oldenburg]] }}
{{S-reg}}
{{S-bef|before=[[Alexander II of Russia|Alexander II]]}}
{{S-ttl|title=[[Emperor of Russia]]<br>[[Grand Duke of Finland]]<br>[[King of Poland]]|years=13 March 1881–1 November 1894}}
{{S-aft|after=[[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{Russian emperors}}
{{Russian tsareviches}}
{{Russian grand dukes}}
{{Monarchs of Poland}}
{{Russification}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Alexander 03 of Russia}}
[[Category:Emperors of Russia]]
[[Category:1845 births]]
[[Category:1894 deaths]]
[[Category:Royalty from Saint Petersburg]]
[[Category:People from Sankt-Peterburgsky Uyezd]]
[[Category:Alexander III of Russia| ]]
[[Category:House of Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov]]
[[Category:19th-century Russian monarchs]]
[[Category:19th-century Polish monarchs]]
[[Category:Heads of state of Finland]]
[[Category:Grand dukes of Russia]]
[[Category:Tsesarevichs of Russia]]
[[Category:Russification]]
[[Category:Children of Alexander II of Russia]]
[[Category:Sons of Russian emperors]]
[[Category:Russian military personnel of the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)]]
<!-- Honours -->
[[Category:Recipients of the Order of the White Eagle (Russia)]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Order of St. Anna, 1st class]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Order of St. Vladimir, 3rd class]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Order of St. George of the Second Degree]]
[[Category:Grand Crosses of the Order of Saint Stephen of Hungary]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Order of Bravery, 1st class]]
[[Category:Grand Commanders of the Order of the Dannebrog]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Cross of Honour of the Order of the Dannebrog]]
[[Category:Grand Cross of the Legion of Honour]]
[[Category:Bailiffs Grand Cross of Honour and Devotion of the Sovereign Military Order of Malta]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Order of the Netherlands Lion]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Military Order of William]]
[[Category:Grand Crosses of the Order of Christ (Portugal)|3]]
[[Category:Grand Crosses of the Order of Aviz|3]]
[[Category:Grand Crosses of the Order of Saint James of the Sword|3]]
[[Category:Grand Crosses of the Order of the Star of Romania]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (military class)]]
[[Category:Knights of the Golden Fleece of Spain]]
[[Category:Extra Knights Companion of the Garter]]
[[Category:Grand Crosses of the Order of Saint-Charles]]
[[Category:Deaths from nephritis]]
[[Category:Burials at Saints Peter and Paul Cathedral, Saint Petersburg]]