Editing Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act

{{Short description|Statute of the United States}}
{{External links|date=November 2024}}
The '''Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act''' ('''ANCSA''') was signed into law by [[U.S. President|President]] [[Richard Nixon]] on December 18, 1971, constituting what is still the largest land claims settlement in [[United States history]].<ref name=thomas>{{cite web|last1=Thomas|first1=Monica E.|title=The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act: Conflict and Controversy|url=http://www.alaskool.org/projects/ancsa/articles/mthomas/ancsa_conflict.htm|website=alaskool.org|publisher=Polar Record, 23(142): 27-36 (1986). Cambridge University Press.|access-date=26 November 2014}}</ref><ref name=navajo>{{cite web|last1=Kroerner|first1=Claudia|title=U.S. To Pay Navajo Nation $554 Million In Largest Tribal Settlement In History|url=https://www.buzzfeed.com/claudiakoerner/us-to-pay-navajo-nation-554-million-in-largest-tribal-settle|website=buzzfeed.com|date=25 September 2014 |access-date=26 November 2014}}</ref> ANCSA was intended to resolve long-standing issues surrounding aboriginal land claims in Alaska, as well as to stimulate economic development throughout [[Alaska]].<ref name=thomas1>"Recognition of aboriginal land rights in Alaska was a sharp departure from American Indian policy in other parts of the US. Observers believe this was more a result of slow economic development within Alaska than rejection of Indian policy," citing Cooley, R.A. 1983. "Evolution of Alaska land policy." in Morehouse, T. A. (editor). ''Alaskan Resources Development: Issues of the 1980s''. Boulder: Westview Press, pp. 13-49.</ref>

The settlement established [[Alaska Native]] claims to the land by transferring titles to twelve [[Alaska Native Regional Corporations|Alaska Native regional corporations]] and over 200 local village corporations.<ref name=thomas/> A thirteenth regional corporation was later created for Alaska Natives who no longer resided in [[Alaska]].<ref name=thomas/> The act is codified in chapter 33 of title 43 of the [[United States Code|US Code]].<ref name=chapter33>{{cite web|url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/43/chapter-33|title=43 U.S. Code Chapter 33 |website=Legal Information Institute|publisher=Cornell University Law School|access-date=27 November 2014}}</ref>

==Background==
===Alaskan statehood===
[[File:Jay Greenfield, Ted Stevens & Emil Notti, 1969.jpg|thumb|left|350px|Jay Greenfield, U.S. Senator [[Ted Stevens]] and AFN President [[Emil Notti]] discussing ANCSA in the Senate TV Studio in 1969.]]
When Alaska became a state in 1959, section 4 of the [[Alaska Statehood Act]] provided that any existing Alaska Native land claims would be unaffected by statehood and held in status quo.<ref name=jones>{{cite web|last1=Jones|first1=Richard S.|title=Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act of 1971 (Public Law 92-203): History and Analysis Together With Subsequent Amendments Report No. 81-127 GOV|url=http://www.alaskool.org/projects/ancsa/reports/rsjones1981/ANCSA_History71_Ftnts.htm#28|publisher=alaskool.org (June 1, 1981)|access-date=29 November 2014}}</ref><ref name=statehood>{{cite web|title=Alaska Statehood Act Public Law 85-508, 72 Stat. 339, July 7, 1958|url=https://ancsa.lbblawyers.com/state6.htm|website=ancsa.lbblawyers.com|access-date=29 November 2014}}</ref> Yet while section 4 of the act preserved Native land claims until later settlement, section 6 allowed for the state government to claim lands deemed vacant.<ref name=statehood/> Section 6 granted the state of Alaska the right to select lands then in the hands of the federal government, with the exception of Native territory. As a result, nearly {{convert|104.5|e6acre|km2}} from the public domain would eventually be transferred to the state.<ref name=statehood/><ref name=jones2>{{cite web|last1=Richard S.|first1=Jones|title=Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act of 1971 (Public Law 92-203): History and Analysis Together With Subsequent Amendments: Introduction|url=http://www.alaskool.org/projects/ancsa/reports/rsjones1981/ancsa_history71.htm|publisher=alaskool.org|access-date=29 November 2014}}</ref> The state government also attempted to acquire lands under section 6 of the Statehood Act that were subject to Native claims under section 4, and that were currently occupied and used by Alaska Natives.<ref name=jones2/> The federal [[Bureau of Land Management]] began to process the Alaska government's selections without taking into account the Native claims and without informing the affected Native groups.<ref name=jones2/>

It was against this backdrop that the original language for a land claims settlement was developed.<ref name=ray>{{cite web|title=Statement of Ray Christiansen, State Senator for District K|url=http://www.alaskool.org/projects/ancsa/testimony/ancsa_hearings/r_christiansen.html|website=alaskool.org|access-date=29 November 2014}}</ref>

A [[1964 Alaska earthquake|9.2-magnitude earthquake]] struck the state in 1964.<ref name=earthquake>{{cite web|title=The Great Alaska Earthquake of 1964|url=http://www.aeic.alaska.edu/quakes/Alaska_1964_earthquake.html|publisher=Alaska Earthquake Center|access-date=29 November 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110706212449/http://www.aeic.alaska.edu/quakes/Alaska_1964_earthquake.html|archive-date=6 July 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref> Recovery efforts drew the attention of the federal government.<ref name=ray/> The Federal Field Committee for Development Planning in Alaska decided that Natives should receive $100 million and 10% of revenue{{clarify|reason=Revenue from what? Revenue is not mentioned in the source.|date=March 2019}} as a royalty.<ref name=ray/> Nothing was done with this proposal, however, and a freeze on land transfers remained in effect.<ref name=tanana>{{cite web|last1=Grabinska|first1=Kornelia|title=Excerpts from History of Events Leading to the Passage of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act|url=http://www.alaskool.org/projects/ancsa/tcc2/tananachiefs.html#B.%20Campaigns%20in%20the%20Congress,%201967-1971|publisher=Tanana Chiefs Conference, Inc.|access-date=29 November 2014}}</ref>

===Founding of the Alaska Federation of Natives (AFN)===
In 1966, [[Emil Notti]] called for a statewide meeting inviting numerous leaders around Alaska to gather and create the first meeting of a committee. The historic meeting was held October 18, 1966 - on the 99th anniversary of the transfer of Alaska from Russia. Notti presided over the three-day conference as it discussed matters of land recommendations, claims committees, and political challenges the act would have in getting through congress. Many respected politicians and businessmen attended the meeting and delegates were astonished at the attention which they received from well-known political figures of the state. The growing presence and political importance of Natives was evidenced when members were able to gain election to seven of the sixty seats in the legislature.

When the group met a second time early in 1967, it emerged with a new name, The [[Alaska Federation of Natives]] (AFN), and a new full-time President, Emil Notti. AFN went on to profoundly change the human rights and economic stability of the Alaska Native population.

===Native Land Claims Task Force===
In 1967, Governor [[Walter Hickel]] summoned a group of Indigenous leaders and politicians to work out a settlement that would be satisfactory to Natives.<ref name="Miner, 1967">{{cite news |title=37 Named to Land Claims Task Force |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/5848136/fairbanks-daily-news-miner/ |access-date=11 October 2022 |work=[[Fairbanks Daily News-Miner]] |date=11 November 1967 |location=Fairbanks, Alaska |page=6 |via=[[Newspapers.com]]}}</ref>{{#tag:ref|Among the appointees were politicians Raymond C. Christiansen, [[Willie Hensley]], [[Carl E. Moses]], [[John Sackett|John C. Sackett]], and [[Jules Wright (politician)|Jules Wright]]. Indigenous members included [[George Attla]], Cecil Barnes, Laura Bergt, [[John Borbridge Jr|John Borbridge]], [[Alice E. Brown|Alice Brown]], Harry Carter, Jerry Crow, Jeff David, Frank Degnan, Andrew Demonski, Mark Ewan, Richard Frank, Charles Franz, Tom Gregoroff, [[Eben Hopson]], Axel Johnson, Flore Lekanoff, Tony Lewis, [[Byron Mallott]], Emil McCord, Elva Naanes, Hugh Nicholls, [[Emil Notti]], George Olson, [[Howard Rock]], Harvey Samuelson, [[Walter Soboleff]], Seraphim Stephan, Richard Stitt, George Trigg, [[Don Wright (politician)|Donald R. Wright]] and Lula Young.<ref name="Miner, 1967" />|group="Notes"}} The group met for ten days and asked for $20 million in exchange for requested lands.<ref name=ray/> Among the other task force proposals were an outright grant of 1,000 acres per native village resident; a revenue-sharing program for state land claims and national mineral development projects; secured hunting and fishing rights on public lands; and a Native Commission to administrate state and federal compliance with the provisions of the claims settlement.<ref name="Miner, 1968">{{cite news |title=Hickel Sees Satisfactory Settling of Land Claims |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/111118818/fairbanks-daily-news-miner/ |access-date=11 October 2022 |work=[[Fairbanks Daily News-Miner]] |date=12 January 1968 |location=Fairbanks, Alaska |page=7 |via=[[Newspapers.com]]}}</ref> They proposed receiving 10% of federal mineral lease revenue for ten years,<ref name=frigid>{{cite book|last1=Haycox|first1=Stephen W.|author-link=Stephen Haycox|title=Frigid Embrace: Politics, Economics, and Environment in Alaska|date=2002|publisher=Oregon University Press|isbn=0870715364|pages=99–112|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZQUYAAAAYAAJ&q=ten+percent|access-date=29 November 2014}}</ref> once the freeze which had been placed on land patents to allow oil exploration was lifted.<ref name="Berry, 1975" >{{cite book |last1=Berry |first1=Mary Clay |title=The Alaska Pipeline: The Politics of Oil and Native Land Claims |url=https://archive.org/details/alaskapipelinepo00berr/page/49/mode/1up |date=1975 |publisher=[[Indiana University Press]] |location=Bloomington, Indiana |isbn=978-0-253-10064-1}}</ref>{{rp|49}}

===Oil===
[[File:Cliff Groh.jpg|thumb|160px|Cliff Groh was one of a number of non-Native lawyers who assisted various Native organizations and AFN's president Emil Notti in achieving passage of ANCSA.]]
In 1968, the [[ARCO|Atlantic-Richfield Company]] discovered oil at [[Prudhoe Bay Oil Field|Prudhoe Bay]] on the [[Arctic Ocean|Arctic]] coast, catapulting the issue of [[land ownership]] into headlines.<ref>{{cite news|last=Coile |first=Zachery |newspaper=San Francisco Chronicle |url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/c/a/2005/08/29/MNGLGEEKSF1.DTL |title=Arctic Oil: Oil is the lifeblood of Alaska, with residents ready to drill |date=August 9, 2005 |access-date=2005-09-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20051003231635/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=%2Fc%2Fa%2F2005%2F08%2F29%2FMNGLGEEKSF1.DTL |archive-date=3 October 2005 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=banet>{{cite journal|last1=Banet (Jr.) |first1=Arthur C. |title=Oil and Gas Development on Alaska's North Slope: Past Results and Future Prospects |journal=Open File Reports: Bureau of Land Management |date=March 1991 |pages=6, 22 |url=http://www.blm.gov/pgdata/etc/medialib/blm/ak/aktest/ofr.Par.49987.File.dat/OFR_34.pdf |access-date=30 November 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923231432/http://www.blm.gov/pgdata/etc/medialib/blm/ak/aktest/ofr.Par.49987.File.dat/OFR_34.pdf |archive-date=23 September 2015 }}</ref> In order to lessen the difficulty of drilling at such a remote location and transporting the oil to the [[lower 48 states]], the oil companies proposed building a pipeline to carry the oil across Alaska to the port of [[Valdez, Alaska|Valdez]].<ref name=banet/><ref name=naske2>{{cite book|last1=Naske|first1=Claus-M.|title=Alaska: A History of the 49th State|date=1994|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|isbn=080612573X|pages=241–269|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-xhQl1WDWa0C&q=Hickel+worked+with+the+AFN,+negotiating+between+Natives+and+Alaska|access-date=30 November 2014}}</ref> At Valdez, the oil would be loaded onto tankers and shipped to the contiguous states.<ref name=naske2/>

The plan had been approved<!-- by whom? EIS dones? -->, but a permit to construct the pipeline, which would cross lands involved in the land claims dispute, could not be granted until the Native claims were settled.<ref name=naske2/> Hearings were held for the first time before the [[United States House]]'s Subcommittee on Indian Affairs in July 1968. Among those who attended the hearings were officials and legislators, as well as [[Laura Bergt]], Roger Connor, Thoda Forslund, Cliff Groh, Barry Jackson, Flore Lekanof, Notti, and Morris Thompson.<ref>{{cite news |ref={{harvid|''Fairbanks Daily News-Miner''|1968}}|author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Native Land Claims Hearing |url=https://newspaperarchive.com/politics-clipping-jul-17-1968-3493383/ |access-date=October 4, 2022 |work=[[Fairbanks Daily News-Miner]] |date=July 17, 1968 |location=Fairbanks, Alaska |page=20 |via=[[Newspaperarchive.com]]}}</ref>

===Government negotiations and policy===
[[File:Secretary of the Interior Hickel walking around Independence National Historical Park. (7201cca18187402a84e9cccba546100f) (cropped).jpg|205px|thumb|Alaska Governor [[Walter Hickel]] was appointed as [[Richard Nixon|President Nixon]]'s [[United States Secretary of the Interior|Interior Secretary]].]]
In 1969, President Nixon appointed Hickel as [[United States Secretary of the Interior|Secretary of the Interior]].<ref name=ray/><ref name=sealaska>{{cite web|title=1 Testimony of Sealaska Corporation Native Regional Corporation for Southeast Alaska's Tlingit, Haida, and Tsimshian People May 16, 2013|url=http://docs.house.gov/meetings/ii/ii24/20130516/100839/hhrg-113-ii24-wstate-mallottb-20130516.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://docs.house.gov/meetings/ii/ii24/20130516/100839/hhrg-113-ii24-wstate-mallottb-20130516.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|publisher=pp.41-66|access-date=29 November 2014}}</ref> The Alaska Federation of Natives (AFN) protested against Hickel's nomination, but he was eventually confirmed.<ref name=ray/><ref name=sealaska/> He worked with the AFN, negotiating with Native leaders and state government over the disputed lands. Offers went back and forth, with each rejecting the other's proposals.<ref name=naske>{{cite book|last1=Naske|first1=Claus-M.|title=Alaska: A History of the 49th State|date=1994|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|isbn=080612573X|pages=202–205|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-xhQl1WDWa0C&q=Hickel+worked+with+the+AFN%2C+negotiating+between+Natives+and+Alaska&pg=PA205|access-date=29 November 2014}}</ref> The AFN wanted rights to land, while then-Governor [[Keith Harvey Miller|Keith Miller]] believed Natives did not have legitimate claims to state land in light of the provisions of the [[Alaska Statehood Act]].<ref name=naske/> On July 8, 1970, Nixon delivered a speech reversing the [[Indian termination policy]] in favor of allowing tribal [[Self-determination#United States|self-determination]].<ref name="Berry, 1975" />{{rp|153}}<ref name="Peroff, 2006" >{{cite book |last1=Peroff |first1=Nicholas C. |author-link=Nicholas Peroff |title=Menominee Drums: Tribal Termination and Restoration, 1954-1974 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9iiiCmDGDr4C&pg=PA7 |date=2006 |edition=Pbk. |publisher=[[University of Oklahoma Press]] |location=Norman, Oklahoma |isbn=978-0-8061-3777-3}}</ref>{{rp|7}}<ref>{{cite news |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Natives Approve Federal Plan to Alter Role of Government |url=https://newspaperarchive.com/politics-clipping-oct-03-1970-3491867/ |access-date=October 5, 2022 |work=[[Fairbanks Daily News-Miner]] |date=October 3, 1970 |location=Fairbanks, Alaska |page=1 |via=[[Newspaperarchive.com]]}}</ref> The following month, he established the [[National Council on Indian Opportunity]], headed by Vice President [[Spiro Agnew]],<ref name="newspaperarchive.com">{{cite news |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.--> |title=Laura Bergt on Council |url=https://newspaperarchive.com/politics-clipping-aug-25-1970-3491730/ |access-date=October 3, 2022 |work=[[Fairbanks Daily News-Miner]] |date=August 25, 1970 |location=Fairbanks, Alaska |page=3 |via=[[Newspaperarchive.com]]}}</ref> which included eight Native leaders: Frank Belvin (Choctaw), Bergt (Iñupiat), [[Betty Mae Jumper]] (Seminole), Earl Old Person (Blackfeet), John C. Rainer (Taos Pueblo), Martin Seneca Jr. (Seneca), Harold Shunk (Yankton-Sioux), and Joseph C. "Lone Eagle" Vasquez (Apache-Sioux).<ref>{{cite journal |title=President Appoints New Indian Council Members |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dHnjAAAAMAAJ&pg=PP4 |journal=NCIO News |volume=1 |issue=1 |date=December 1970 |publisher=[[National Council on Indian Opportunity]] |location=Washington, D.C. |pages=2, 5 |oclc=2264644}}</ref><ref name="newspaperarchive.com"/><ref>{{cite report |last1=Taylor |first1=Theodore W. |title=The States and Their Indian Citizens |url=https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED087583.pdf |publisher=[[Brookings Institution]] |access-date=October 6, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220320204530/https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED087583.pdf |archive-date=March 20, 2022 |location=Washington, D.C. |date=1972 |id=ED-087-583 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|157}}

[[File:Ted Stevens 1979.jpg|205px|thumb|left|alt=Senator Ted Stevens in 1979, wearing a black suit & dark tie. The image is in black & white. Wikipedia caption reads "Ted Stevens was key in the bill's passage.".|[[Ted Stevens]] was key in the bill's passage.]]During the state administration of Governor [[William A. Egan]] positions were staked out upon which the AFN and other stakeholders could largely agree.<ref name=haycox2>{{cite book|last1=Haycox|first1=Stephen|title=Alaska: An American Colony|date=2006|publisher=University of Washington Press|isbn=0295986298|pages=271–287|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=natRq6WCu4oC&q=land+selection|access-date=29 November 2014}}</ref> Native leaders, in addition to Alaska's congressional delegation and the state's newly elected Governor Egan, eventually reached the basis for presenting an agreement to Congress.<ref name=naske/><ref name=haycox2/> Bergt attended a March 1971 conference of the [[National Congress of American Indians]] in [[Kansas City, Missouri]] and was able to persuade Agnew there to meet with national officials, herself, Christiansen, an Alaska State Senator; [[Al Ketzler]], chair of the [[Tanana Chiefs Conference]]; and [[Don Wright (politician)|Don Wright]], president of the Alaska Federation of Natives a week later.<ref name="Berry, 1975" />{{rp|153}}<ref name="Tundra, 1971">{{cite news |author=<!--Staff writer(s); no by-line.-->  |title=Drama Tinges Meeting on Claims between Agnew, Native Leaders |url=https://newspaperarchive.com/politics-clipping-mar-17-1971-3493083/ |access-date=October 5, 2022 |work=[[Tundra Times]] |date=March 17, 1971 |location=Fairbanks, Alaska |pages=[https://newspaperarchive.com/politics-clipping-mar-17-1971-3493083/ 1], [https://newspaperarchive.com/politics-clipping-mar-17-1971-3493095/ 6] |via=[[Newspaperarchive.com]]}}</ref> That meeting held on March 12, marked a turning-point in negotiations with the various parties.<ref name="Tundra, 1971" /> The proposed settlement terms faced challenges in both houses but found a strong ally in Senator [[Henry M. Jackson]] from [[Washington (state)|Washington state]].<ref name=haycox2/> The most controversial issues that continued to hold up approval were methods for determining land selection by Alaska Natives and financial distribution.<ref name=haycox2/>

With major petroleum dollars on the line, pressure mounted to achieve a definitive legislative resolution at the federal level.<ref name=morehouse>{{cite web|last1=Morehouse|first1=Thomas A.|title=Native Claims and Political Development: A Comparative Analysis|url=http://www.alaskool.org/projects/ancsa/international/tmwrsa1.html|date=1987|publisher=alaskool.org|access-date=30 November 2014}}</ref> In 1971, the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act was signed into law by President Nixon.<ref name=thomas/> It abrogated Native claims to aboriginal lands except those that are the subject of the law.<ref name=thomas/><ref name=fws>{{cite web | title= Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act | publisher = U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service | url= http://laws.fws.gov/lawsdigest/alasnat.html | access-date= 2005-09-01| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20050831174048/http://laws.fws.gov/lawsdigest/alasnat.html| archive-date= 31 August 2005 | url-status= live}}</ref> In return, Natives retained up to {{convert|44|e6acre|km2}} of land and were paid $963 million.<ref name=thomas/><ref name=fws/> The land and money were to be divided among regional, urban, and village tribal corporations established under the law, often recognizing existing leadership.<ref name=dixie>{{cite journal|last1=Dixie|first1=Dayo|title=Institutional innovation in less than ideal conditions: management of commons by an Alaska Native village corporation|journal=International Journal of the Commons|date=2010|volume= 4| issue = 1|url=http://www.thecommonsjournal.org/index.php/ijc/article/view/146|access-date=30 November 2014}}</ref><ref name=urban>{{cite web|title= 43 U.S.C. § 1602(o), "Urban Corporation" |url=https://ancsa.lbblawyers.com/1602.htm |access-date=30 November 2014}}</ref>

Alaskan officials were originally divided on the bill, though by 1970, with Interior Secretary [[Walter Hickel]], Governor [[William A. Egan|William Egan]], Representative [[Nick Begich Sr.|Nick Begich]] & Senators [[Ted Stevens]] & [[Mike Gravel]] all backing the bill, the opposition died down. Stevens was particularly strongminded, and was key in the bill's passage. Stevens, a freshman Senator for most of the fight, would later remark:<ref name="tsancsa">{{cite web|url=https://tedstevensfoundation.org/ts_and_ancsa/|author=Ted Stevens Foundation|title=Ted Stevens and the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act|date=3 May 2019 }}</ref>
{{blockquote|text=ANCSA was my baptism of fire as a Senator from Alaska{{nbsp}}.... It didn't occur to me that some Senators had the opportunity to ease into their jobs. Life in the Senate for me was fast-paced from the beginning{{nbsp}}.... With my experience working in the Department of the Interior and with the Statehood Act, and my faith in the determination and unity of purpose of Alaska's Native people, I believed from the beginning that a settlement could be achieved{{nbsp}}.... My memories of the Congressional action as ANCSA took shape aren't of a battle as much as they are of long hours of tough, hard negotiating, often two steps forward and one step back{{nbsp}}....}}

==Effect of land conveyances==
In 1971, barely one million acres of land in Alaska were in private hands.<ref name=nyt/> ANCSA, together with section 6 of [[Alaska Statehood Act]], which the new act allowed to come to fruition, affected ownership to about {{convert|148.5|e6acre|km2}} of land in Alaska once wholly controlled by the federal government.<ref name=nyt/> That is larger by {{convert|6|e6acre|km2}} than the combined areas of [[Maine]], [[Vermont]], [[New Hampshire]], [[Massachusetts]], [[Rhode Island]], [[Connecticut]], [[New York (state)|New York]], [[New Jersey]], [[Pennsylvania]], [[Delaware]], [[Maryland]] and [[Virginia]].<ref name=nyt>{{cite news|title=Areas As Vast As Whole States Now Change Hands In Alaska |work=[[The New York Times]] |date=October 8, 1982 |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9D05E3DA163BF93BA35753C1A964948260&scp=15&sq=Alaska%20native%20corporations&st=cse}}</ref>

When the bill passed in 1971, it included provisions that had never before been attempted in previous United States settlements with Native Americans.<ref name=haycox2/> The newly passed Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act created twelve Native regional economic development corporations.<ref name=haycox2/> Each corporation was associated with a specific region of Alaska and the Natives who had traditionally lived there.<ref name=haycox2/> This innovative approach to native settlements engaged the tribes in corporate capitalism.<ref name=haycox2/><ref name=linxwiler4a>{{cite journal|last1=Linxwiler|first1=James D.|title=Chapter 12 The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act at 35: Delivering on the Promise|journal=ANCSA at 35|date=2007|pages=3–5|url=http://www.lbblawyers.com/ancsa/ANCSA%20at%2035%20Delivering%20on%20the%20Promise%20Proof%2010-25-07.pdf|access-date=1 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141206162456/http://www.lbblawyers.com/ancsa/ANCSA%20at%2035%20Delivering%20on%20the%20Promise%20Proof%2010-25-07.pdf|archive-date=6 December 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>

The idea originated with the AFN, who believed that the Natives would have to become a part of the capitalist system in order to survive.<ref name=haycox2/> As stockholders in these corporations, the Natives could earn some income and stay in their traditional villages.<ref name=kirk>{{cite book|last1=Dombrowski|first1=Kirk|title=Against Culture: Development, Politics, and Religion in Indian Alaska|date=2001|publisher=U of Nebraska Press|isbn=0803266324|pages=75|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-Snl8E4H5RUC&q=ANCSA+remain+in+villages&pg=PA75|access-date=1 December 2014}}</ref> If the corporations were managed properly, they could make profits that would enable individuals to stay, rather than having to leave Native villages to find better work.<ref name=haycox2/><ref name=kirk/> This was intended to help preserve Native culture.<ref name=haycox2/><ref name=frigid2>{{cite book|last1=Haycox|first1=Stephen W.|title=Frigid Embrace: Politics, Economics, and Environment in Alaska|date=2002|publisher=Oregon University Press|isbn=0870715364|pages=132–133|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ZQUYAAAAYAAJ&q=ten+percent|access-date=29 November 2014}}</ref>

==Native and state land selection==
Alaska Natives had three years from passage of ANCSA to make land selections of the {{convert|44|e6acre|km2}} granted under the act.<ref name=section1611>{{cite web|title=43 U.S. Code § 1611 - Native land selections|url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/43/1611|publisher=Legal Information Institute|access-date=30 November 2014}}</ref> In some cases Native corporations received outside aid in surveying the land.<ref name=haynes/> For instance, [[Doyon, Limited]] (one of the 13 [[Alaska native corporation|regional corporations]]) was helped by the Geophysical Institute of the [[University of Alaska]].<ref name=haynes/> The Institute determined which land contained resources such as minerals and coal.<ref name=haynes/> [[NASA]] similarly provided satellite imagery to aid in Native corporations finding areas most suited for vegetation and their traditional subsistence culture.<ref name=haynes/> The imagery showed locations of caribou and moose, as well as forests with marketable timber.<ref name=haynes/> In total about {{convert|7|e6acre|km2}} were analyzed for Doyon.<ref name=haynes/> Natives were able to choose tens of thousands of acres of land rich with timber while Doyon used mineral analysis to attract businesses.<ref name=haynes>{{cite journal|last1=Haynes|first1=James B.|title=Land Selection and Development under the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act|journal=Arctic Institute of North America|date=September 1975|volume=28 |issue=3|pages=201–208|url=http://pubs.aina.ucalgary.ca/arctic/Arctic28-3-201.pdf|access-date=30 November 2014}}</ref>

The state of Alaska to date has been granted approximately 85% or {{convert|90|e6acre|km2}} of the land claims it has made under ANCSA.<ref name=dnr>{{cite web|title=Fact Sheet Title: Land Ownership In Alaska (March 2000)|url=http://dnr.alaska.gov/mlw/factsht/land_own.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://dnr.alaska.gov/mlw/factsht/land_own.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|publisher=Alaska Department of Natural Resources|access-date=30 November 2014}}</ref> The state is entitled to a total of {{convert|104.5|e6acre|km2}} under the terms of the Statehood Act.<ref name=section6/> Originally the state had 25 years after passage of the [[Alaska Statehood Act]] to file claims under section 6 of the act with the [[Bureau of Land Management]] (BLM).<ref name=section6>{{cite web|title=Alaska Statehood Act: Selection of public lands, fish and wildlife, public schools, mineral permits, mineral grants, confirmation of grants, internal improvements, submerged lands (Section 6)|url=http://www.lbblawyers.com/ancsa/state6.htm|access-date=30 November 2014}}</ref> Amendments to ANCSA extended that deadline until 1994, with the expectation that BLM would complete processing of land transfers subject to overlapping Native claims by 2009.<ref name=note>{{cite web|title=118 Stat. 3594 (Public Law 108–452—DEC. 10, 2004) 43 USC 1635 note|url=http://www.blm.gov/wo/st/en/info/regulations/alaska_specific_legislation.-WidePar-35782-DownloadFile.tmp/PL108-2-452.pdf|access-date=30 November 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150616103958/http://www.blm.gov/wo/st/en/info/regulations/alaska_specific_legislation.-WidePar-35782-DownloadFile.tmp/PL108-2-452.pdf|archive-date=2015-06-16|url-status=dead}}</ref> Nonetheless, some Native and state selections under ANCSA remained unresolved as late as December 2014.<ref name=ruskin>{{cite web|last1=Ruskin|first1=Liz|title=Sealaska Selections in Tongass Added to Defense Bill|date=4 December 2014 |url=http://www.alaskapublic.org/2014/12/03/sealaska-selections-in-tongass-added-to-defense-bill/|publisher=Alaska Public Media|access-date=4 December 2014}}</ref>

==Criticism of ANCSA==
There was largely positive reaction to ANCSA, although not entirely.<ref name=brown>{{cite web|title=Interview of Margie Brown|url=http://www.litsite.org/index.cfm?section=History-and-Culture&page=ANCSA-at-30&cat=Interviews&viewpost=2&ContentId=742|website=LitSite Alaska|publisher=University of Alaska Anchorage|access-date=1 December 2014}}</ref><ref name=saga470>{{cite book|last1=Borneman|first1=Walter R.|title=Alaska: Saga of a Bold Land|date=2009|publisher=Zondervan|isbn=978-0061865275|pages=470–472|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A9QXxo-MeUEC&q=ANCSA|access-date=1 December 2014}}</ref> The act was supported by Natives as well as non-Natives, and likewise enjoyed bipartisan support.<ref name=brown/><ref name=audubon>{{cite web|last1=Myers|first1=Eric F.|title=Letter to Rep. Don Young dated May 15, 2013|url=http://ak.audubon.org/sites/default/files/documents/representative_young_-_sealaska_hr_740_5-15-13_final.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://ak.audubon.org/sites/default/files/documents/representative_young_-_sealaska_hr_740_5-15-13_final.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|publisher=Audubon Alaska|access-date=1 December 2014}}</ref> Natives were heavily involved in the legislative process, and the final draft of the act used many AFN ideas.<ref name=AFN>{{cite web|title=History|url=http://www.nativefederation.org/about-afn/history/|website=Alaska Federation of Natives|access-date=1 December 2014}}</ref>

Some Natives have argued that ANCSA has hastened cultural genocide of Alaska Natives.<ref name=haycoxprologue>{{cite book|last1=Haycox|first1=Steven|title=Alaska: An American Colony|date=2006|publisher=University of Washington Press|isbn=0295986298|pages=xiii|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=natRq6WCu4oC&q=genocide&pg=PR13|access-date=1 December 2014}}</ref><ref name=williams>{{cite book|last1=Williams|first1=Maria Sháa Tláa|title=The Alaska Native Reader: History, Culture, Politics|date=2009|publisher=Duke University Press|isbn=978-0822390831|pages=180–181|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1qe5vzMqJW0C&q=ANCSA&pg=PA388|access-date=1 December 2014}}</ref> Some Natives critiqued ANCSA as an illegitimate treaty since only tribal leaders were involved and the provisions of the act were not voted on by indigenous populations.<ref name=williams/> One native described it as a social and political experiment.<ref name=williams/> Critics have also argued that Natives so feared massacre or incarceration that they offered no resistance to the act.<ref name=williams/>

Others have argued that the settlement was arguably the most generous afforded by the United States to a Native group. They note that some of the largest and most profitable corporations in the state are the twelve created by ANCSA.<ref name=linxwiler4/><ref name=saga528>{{cite book|last1=Borneman|first1=Walter R.|title=Alaska: Saga of a Bold Land|date=2009|publisher=Zondervan|isbn=978-0061865275|pages=528–529|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A9QXxo-MeUEC&q=ANCSA|access-date=1 December 2014}}</ref> Other critics attacked the act as "Native welfare" and such complaints continue to be expressed.<ref name=saga470/>

The corporation system has been critiqued, as in some cases stockholders have sold land to outside corporations that have leveled forests and extracted minerals.<ref name=rude>{{cite web|title=Robert W. Rude|url=http://www.litsite.org/index.cfm?section=History-and-Culture&page=ANCSA-at-30&cat=Interviews&viewpost=2&ContentId=734|website=LitSite Alaska|publisher=University of Alaska Anchorage|access-date=1 December 2014}}</ref> But supporters of the system argue that it has provided economic benefits for indigenous peoples that outweigh these problems.<ref name=rdc>{{cite web|title=Alaska's Native Corporations|url=http://www.akrdc.org/issues/nativecorporations/overview.html|publisher=Resource Development Council for Alaska, Inc.|access-date=1 December 2014}}</ref><ref name=do>{{cite book|last1=Roderick (Ed.)|first1=Libby|title=Do Alaska Native People Get Free Medical Care?|date=2008|publisher=University of Alaska Anchorage and Alaska Pacific University|isbn=978-1-4276-3215-9|pages=24|url=http://www.uaa.alaska.edu/books-of-the-year/year08-09/upload/Book108-09.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.uaa.alaska.edu/books-of-the-year/year08-09/upload/Book108-09.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|access-date=1 December 2014}}</ref>

==Selected provisions of ANCSA==
* [[Alaska Native|Native]] claims in Alaska were extinguished by means of section 4 of ANCSA.<ref name=linxwiler>{{cite journal|last1=Linxwiler|first1=James D.|title=Chapter 12 The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act at 35: Delivering on the Promise|journal=ANCSA at 35|date=2007|pages=5|url=http://www.lbblawyers.com/ancsa/ANCSA%20at%2035%20Delivering%20on%20the%20Promise%20Proof%2010-25-07.pdf|access-date=1 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141206162456/http://www.lbblawyers.com/ancsa/ANCSA%20at%2035%20Delivering%20on%20the%20Promise%20Proof%2010-25-07.pdf|archive-date=6 December 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* In exchange for abrogating Native claims, approximately one-ninth of the state's land plus $962.5 million were distributed to more than 200 local Alaska Native [[Alaska Native Regional Corporations|"village corporations"]] established under section 8, in addition to 12 land-owning for-profit Alaska Native [[Alaska Native Regional Corporations|"regional corporations"]] and a non-land-owning thirteenth corporation for Alaska Natives who had left the state established under section 6.<ref name=linxwiler2>{{cite journal|last1=Linxwiler|first1=James D.|title=Chapter 12 The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act at 35: Delivering on the Promise|journal=ANCSA at 35|date=2007|pages=2–6|url=http://www.lbblawyers.com/ancsa/ANCSA%20at%2035%20Delivering%20on%20the%20Promise%20Proof%2010-25-07.pdf|access-date=1 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141206162456/http://www.lbblawyers.com/ancsa/ANCSA%20at%2035%20Delivering%20on%20the%20Promise%20Proof%2010-25-07.pdf|archive-date=6 December 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* Of the compensation monies, $462.5 million was to come from the federal treasury and the rest from oil revenue-sharing.<ref name=linxwiler4>{{cite journal|last1=Linxwiler|first1=James D.|title=Chapter 12 The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act at 35: Delivering on the Promise|journal=ANCSA at 35|date=2007|pages=16–17|url=http://www.lbblawyers.com/ancsa/ANCSA%20at%2035%20Delivering%20on%20the%20Promise%20Proof%2010-25-07.pdf|access-date=1 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141206162456/http://www.lbblawyers.com/ancsa/ANCSA%20at%2035%20Delivering%20on%20the%20Promise%20Proof%2010-25-07.pdf|archive-date=6 December 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=madden/>
* Settlement benefits would accrue to those with at least one-fourth Native ancestry under sections 3(b) and 5(a).<ref name=linxwiler3>{{cite journal|last1=Linxwiler|first1=James D.|title=Chapter 12 The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act at 35: Delivering on the Promise|journal=ANCSA at 35|date=2007|pages=6 (note 21)|url=http://www.lbblawyers.com/ancsa/ANCSA%20at%2035%20Delivering%20on%20the%20Promise%20Proof%2010-25-07.pdf|access-date=1 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141206162456/http://www.lbblawyers.com/ancsa/ANCSA%20at%2035%20Delivering%20on%20the%20Promise%20Proof%2010-25-07.pdf|archive-date=6 December 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* Of the approximately 80,000 Natives enrolled under ANCSA, those living in villages (approximately two-thirds of the total) would receive 100 shares in both a village and a regional corporation.<ref name=madden>{{cite book|last1=Madden|first1=Ryan|title=Alaska: On-the-road histories|date=2005|publisher=Interlink Books|isbn=1566565669|pages=250|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=trCsJ_AhtgYC&pg=PA250 |access-date=1 December 2014}}</ref>
* The remaining one-third would be "at large" shareholders with 100 shares in a [[The 13th Regional Corporation|regional corporation]] with additional rights to revenue from regional mineral and timber resources.<ref name=madden/>
* The [[Alaska Native Allotment Act]] was revoked but with the proviso that pending claims under that act would continue to be processed under section 18.<ref name=linxwiler5>{{cite journal|last1=Linxwiler|first1=James D.|title=Chapter 12 The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act at 35: Delivering on the Promise|journal=ANCSA at 35|date=2007|pages=33–34|url=http://www.lbblawyers.com/ancsa/ANCSA%20at%2035%20Delivering%20on%20the%20Promise%20Proof%2010-25-07.pdf|access-date=1 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141206162456/http://www.lbblawyers.com/ancsa/ANCSA%20at%2035%20Delivering%20on%20the%20Promise%20Proof%2010-25-07.pdf|archive-date=6 December 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> Successful applicants would be excluded under ANCSA by section 14(h)(5) from land to be used for a primary residence.<ref name=linxwiler5/>
* The twelve regional corporations within the state would administer the settlement.<ref name=madden/>
* A [[The 13th Regional Corporation|thirteenth corporation]] composed of Natives who had left the state would receive compensation but not land.<ref name=madden/>
* Surface rights to {{convert|44|e6acre|km2}} were patented to the Native village and regional corporations under sections 12(c), as well as 14(h)(1) and (8).<ref name=linxwiler6>{{cite journal|last1=Linxwiler|first1=James D.|title=Chapter 12 The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act at 35: Delivering on the Promise|journal=ANCSA at 35|date=2007|pages=27|url=http://www.lbblawyers.com/ancsa/ANCSA%20at%2035%20Delivering%20on%20the%20Promise%20Proof%2010-25-07.pdf|access-date=1 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141206162456/http://www.lbblawyers.com/ancsa/ANCSA%20at%2035%20Delivering%20on%20the%20Promise%20Proof%2010-25-07.pdf|archive-date=6 December 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* The surface rights to the patented land were granted to the village corporations and the subsurface right to the land were granted to the regional corporation, creating a [[split estate]] pursuant to section 14(f).<ref name=linxwiler6/>

===Alaska Native regional corporations===
{{main|Alaska Native Regional Corporations}}
[[Image:ANCSA Regional Corporations Map.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Regional corporations established by the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act.]]
The following thirteen regional corporations were created under ANCSA:
* [[Ahtna, Incorporated]]
* [[The Aleut Corporation]] 
* [[Arctic Slope Regional Corporation]] 
* [[Bering Straits Native Corporation]] 
* [[Bristol Bay Native Corporation]] 
* [[Calista Corporation]]
* [[Chugach Alaska Corporation]]
* [[Cook Inlet Region, Inc.]] 
* [[Doyon, Limited]]
* [[Koniag, Incorporated]]
* [[NANA Regional Corporation]] 
* [[Sealaska Corporation]]
* [[The 13th Regional Corporation]]

Additionally, most regions and some villages have created their own nonprofits providing social services and health care through grant funding and federal compacts. The objectives of these nonprofits are varied, but focus generally on cultural and educational activities.<ref name="csq">{{cite journal|date=Fall 2001|title=Reconstructing Sovereignty in Alaska|url=http://www.culturalsurvival.org/ourpublications/csq/article/reconstructing-sovereignty-alaska|journal=Cultural Survival Quarterly|last1=Worl|first1=Rosita|access-date=30 November 2014}}</ref> These include scholarships for Native students, sponsorship of cultural and artistic events, preservation efforts for Native languages, and protection of sites with historic or religious importance.<ref name=csq/>

===Alaska Native village and urban corporations===
ANCSA created about 224 village and urban corporations.<ref name=dnr/><ref name=dnr3>{{cite web|title=Search Page for Alaska Native Region - Village - Corporation Index|url=http://dnr.alaska.gov/mlw/trails/17b/corpindex.cfm|publisher=Alaska Department of Natural Resources|access-date=1 December 2014}}</ref> Below is a representative list of village and urban corporations created under ANCSA:
* [[Ukpeaġvik Iñupiat Corporation]], village corporation for [[Utqiaġvik]]
* [http://www.bnc-alaska.com Bethel Native Corporation], village corporation for [[Bethel, Alaska|Bethel]]
* [http://www.capefoxcorp.com Cape Fox Corporation], village corporation for [[Saxman, Alaska|Saxman]]
* [http://www.deloycheet.com/ Deloycheet, Inc.], village corporation for [[Holy Cross, Alaska|Holy Cross]]
* [[Huna Totem Corporation]], village corporation for [[Hoonah, Alaska|Hoonah]]
* [http://www.haidacorporation.com Haida Corporation], village corporation for [[Hydaburg, Alaska|Hydaburg]]
* [http://www.goldbelt.com/ Goldbelt, Inc.], urban corporation for [[Juneau, Alaska|Juneau]]
* [http://www.pvil.com Paug-Vik, Inc. Ltd.], village corporation for [[Naknek]]
* [http://www.chenega.com Chenega Corporation], village corporation for [[Chenega, Alaska|Chenega]]
* [http://www.afognak.com/ Afognak Native Corporation], village corporation for [[Afognak]] and [[Port Lions]]
* [http://www.kavilco.com/ Kavilco Incorporated], village corporation for [[Kasaan]]
* [http://www.adn.com/article/20120810/klukwan-files-bankruptcy Klukwan, Inc.], village corporation for [[Klukwan]]
* [http://www.kuskokwim.com/ The Kuskokwim Corporation] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100815111002/http://www.kuskokwim.com/ |date=2010-08-15 }}, village corporation for [[Aniak, Alaska|Aniak]], [[Crooked Creek, Alaska|Crooked Creek]], [[Georgetown, Alaska|Georgetown]], [[Upper Kalskag, Alaska|Kalskag]], [[Lower Kalskag]], [[Napaimute]], [[Red Devil, Alaska|Red Devil]], [[Russian Mission, Alaska|Russian Mission]], [[Sleetmute]] and [[Stony River, Alaska|Stony River]]
* [http://www.nativesofkodiak.com/ Natives of Kodiak, Inc.], urban corporation for [[Kodiak, Alaska|Kodiak]]
* [[Ounalashka Corporation]], village corporation for [[Unalaska]]
* [http://www.ouzinkienativecorporation.com/ Ouzinkie Native Corporation], village corporation for [[Ouzinkie]]
* [http://www.sheeatika.com/ Shee Atika, Incorporated], urban corporation for [[Sitka, Alaska|Sitka]]

==See also==
*[[Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act]]
*[[Alaska Statehood Act]]
*[[Alaska Native Allotment Act]]
*[[Alaska Land Transfer Acceleration Act]]
*[[Emil Notti]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=Notes}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
*Borneman, Walter R. [https://books.google.com/books?id=A9QXxo-MeUEC&q=Saga+of+a+Bold+Land ''Alaska: Saga of a Bold Land'']. Harper Perennial. (2004)
*Dombrowski, Kirk. [https://books.google.com/books?id=-Snl8E4H5RUC&dq=ANCSA+remain+in+villages&pg=PA75 ''Against Culture: Development, Politics, and Religion in Indian Alaska''] U of Nebraska Press. (2001)
*Haycox, Stephen. [https://books.google.com/books?id=natRq6WCu4oC&q=land+selection ''Alaska: An American Colony'']. University of Washington Press. (2006)
*Haycox, Stephen. [https://books.google.com/books?id=ZQUYAAAAYAAJ&q=ten+percent ''Frigid Embrace: Politics, Economics, and Environment in Alaska''] Oregon University Press. (2002) 
*Haynes, James B. [http://pubs.aina.ucalgary.ca/arctic/Arctic28-3-201.pdf "Land Selection and Development under the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act," ''Arctic Institute of North America''], Vol. 28–3, pp.&nbsp;201–208 (September 1975)
*Linxwiler, James D. [https://web.archive.org/web/20141204222219/http://www.lbblawyers.com/ancsa/ANCSA%20Paper%20with%20Table%20of%20Contents%201992.pdf "The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act: The First Twenty Years," ''Proceedings from the 38th Annual Rocky Mountain Mineral Law Institute'']. (1992)
*Roderick, Libby. [https://books.google.com/books?id=l571YST99fIC ''Alaska Native Cultures and Issues: Responses to Frequently Asked Questions'']. University of Alaska Press. (2010)
*Williams, Maria Sháa Tláa. [https://books.google.com/books?id=1qe5vzMqJW0C&pg=PA388 ''The Alaska Native Reader: History, Culture, Politics'']. Duke University Press. (2009). 
*Worl, Rosita. [http://www.culturalsurvival.org/ourpublications/csq/article/reconstructing-sovereignty-alaska "Reconstructing Sovereignty in Alaska," ''Cultural Survival Quarterly'']. (Fall 2001)

==Further reading==
*Arnold, Robert D. [[Alaska Native Land Claims]], (Alaska Native Foundation 1978).
*Berry, Mary Clay. [[The Alaska Pipeline: The Politics of Oil and Native Land Claims]], (Indiana University Press 1975).
*Berger, Thomas R. [[Village Journey: The Report of the Alaska Native Review Commission]], (Farrar, Straus and Giroux 1985).
*Case, David S. [[Alaska Natives and American Laws]], (University of Alaska Press 3d ed. 2012)
*[http://www.gao.gov/new.items/d06399.pdf ''GAO Report: Increased Use of Alaska Native Corporations’ Special 8(a) Provisions Calls for Tailored Oversight''] (April 2006)
*Kentch, Gavin. [http://mississippilawjournal.org/2012/04/a-corporate-culture-the-environmental-justice-challenges-of-the-alaska-native-claims-settlement-act/ "A Corporate Culture? The Environmental Justice Challenges of the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act"]. 81 Miss. L.J. 813 (2012)
*Lazarus, Arthur Jr. [http://scholarship.law.duke.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3475&context=lcp "The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act: A Flawed Victory," ''Law and Contemporary Problems'']. (Winter 1976)
*London, J. Tate. [http://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/staev8&div=10&id=&page= "The "1991 Amendments" to the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act: Protection for Native Lands?"], 8 Stan. Envtl. L.J. 200. (1989)
*Mitchell, Donald Craig. [[Sold American: The Story of Alaska Natives and Their Land, 1867-1959]], (University of Alaska Press 2003).
*Mitchell, Donald Craig. [[Take My Land Take My Life: The Story of Congress's Historic Settlement of Alaska Native Land Claims, 1960-1971]], (University of Alaska Press 2001).
*Morgan, Lael. [[Art and Eskimo Power: The Life and Times of Alaskan Howard Rock]], (Epicenter Press 1988).
*Senungetuk, Joseph E. [[Give or Take a Century: An Eskimo Chronicle]], (The Indian Historian Press 1971). 
*"Settling the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act", 38 Stan. L. Rev. 227 (1985).

==External links==
* [http://www.lbblawyers.com/ancsa/ The Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act Resource Center]
* [http://arcticcircle.uconn.edu/SEEJ/Landclaims Alaska Native Land Claims Settlement Act of 1971]
* [http://www.alaskool.org/projects/ancsa/ancsaindx.htm Revisiting the Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act (ANCSA)]
* [http://fairbanks-alaska.com/alaska-native-corporations.htm Alaska Native Corporation Links]

{{Alaska history footer}}
{{Aboriginal title in the United States}}
{{Native American rights}}
{{Presidency of Richard Nixon}}
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[[Category:Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act| ]]
[[Category:United States federal legislation articles without infoboxes]]
[[Category:1971 in Alaska]]
[[Category:1971 in American law]]
[[Category:91st United States Congress]]
[[Category:Ted Stevens]]