Editing Aircraft

{{short description|Vehicle or machine that is able to fly by gaining support from the air}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2025}}
[[File:Cessna 172S Skyhawk ‘G-JMKE’ (45077563364).jpg|thumb|The [[Cessna 172 Skyhawk]] is the [[List of most-produced aircraft|most produced aircraft]] in history.]]
[[File:RAN squirrel helicopter at melb GP 08.jpg|thumb|A [[Eurocopter AS350 Écureuil]] [[helicopter]].]]

An '''aircraft''' ({{plural form}} aircraft) is a [[vehicle]] that is able to [[flight|fly]] by gaining support from the [[Atmosphere of Earth|air]].<!-- English word "aircraft" is singular and plural with no "s". See also the link to Wiktionary below. --> It counters the force of gravity by using either [[Buoyancy|static lift]] or the [[Lift (force)|dynamic lift]] of an [[airfoil]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/aircraft|title=Aircraft&nbsp;— Define Aircraft at Dictionary.com|work=Dictionary.com|access-date=1 April 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150328141634/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/aircraft|archive-date=28 March 2015}}</ref> or, in a few cases, direct [[Powered lift|downward thrust]] from its engines. Common examples of aircraft include [[airplane]]s, [[rotorcraft]] (including [[helicopter]]s), [[airship]]s (including [[blimp]]s), [[Glider (aircraft)|gliders]], [[Powered paragliding|paramotors]], and [[hot air balloon]]s.<ref name="wingsoverkansas">{{Cite web|title=Different Kinds & Types of Aircraft|url=http://www.wingsoverkansas.com/features/a1037/|website=wingsoverkansas.com|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161121165354/http://www.wingsoverkansas.com/features/a1037/|archive-date=21 November 2016}}</ref> Part 1<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.ecfr.gov/current/title-14/chapter-I/subchapter-A/part-1 | title=14 CFR Part 1 -- Definitions and Abbreviations }}</ref> (Definitions and Abbreviations) of Subchapter A of Chapter I of Title 14 of the U. S. Code of Federal Regulations states that aircraft "means a device that is used or intended to be used for flight in the air."

The human activity that surrounds aircraft is called ''[[aviation]]''. The science of aviation, including designing and building aircraft, is called ''[[aeronautics]].'' [[Aircrew|Crewed]] aircraft are flown by an onboard [[Aircraft pilot|pilot]], whereas [[unmanned aerial vehicle]]s may be remotely controlled or self-controlled by onboard [[computer]]s. Aircraft may be classified by different criteria, such as lift type, [[Powered aircraft#Methods of propulsion|aircraft propulsion]] (if any), usage and others.

== History ==
{{More citations needed section|date=April 2025}}
{{Main|History of aviation}}
{{See also|Timeline of aviation}}
[[File:Aviation (Nouveaau Larousse,c. 1900) DSCN2832.jpg|thumb|alt=An illustration showcasing various 19th-century aviation prototypes and designs.|Aviation in 19th century]]
The history of aviation spans over two millennia, from the earliest innovations like [[kite]]s and attempts at tower jumping to [[Supersonic speed|supersonic]] and [[hypersonic flight]] in powered, [[heavier-than-air flight|heavier-than-air]] [[jet aircraft]]. Kite flying in China, dating back several hundred years BC, is considered the earliest example of man-made flight.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=Kite {{!}} Aeronautics, History & Benefits |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/kite-aeronautics |access-date=2024-12-05 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> In the 15th-century [[Leonardo da Vinci]] created flying machine designs incorporating aeronautical concepts, but they were unworkable due to the limitations of contemporary knowledge.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Botelho Parra |first=Rogerio |date=14 September 2018 |title=Leonardo da Vinci Interdisciplinarity |url=https://www.icas.org/icas_archive/ICAS2018/data/papers/ICAS2018_0301_paper.pdf |journal=31st Congress of the International Council of the Aeronautical Sciences |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=10 |via=ICAS}}</ref>

In the late 18th century, the [[Montgolfier brothers]] invented the [[Hot air balloon|hot-air balloon]] which soon led to manned flights. At almost the same time, the discovery of [[hydrogen]] gas led to the invention of the [[hydrogen balloon]].<ref name="wings-tom">{{cite book |last1=Crouch |first1=Tom |title=Wings: A History of Aviation from Kites to the Space Age |publisher=W.W. Norton & Co |year=2004 |location=New York, New York |isbn=0-393-32620-9}}</ref> Various theories in [[mechanics]] by physicists during the same period, such as [[fluid dynamics]] and [[Newton's laws of motion]], led to the development of modern [[aerodynamics]]; most notably by [[Sir George Cayley]]. Balloons, both free-flying and tethered, began to be used for military purposes from the end of the 18th century, with France establishing balloon companies during the [[French Revolution]].<ref name="hallion">Hallion (2003)</ref>

In the 19th century, especially the second half, experiments with gliders provided the basis for learning the dynamics of winged aircraft; most notably by Cayley, [[Otto Lilienthal]], and [[Octave Chanute]]. By the early 20th century, advances in engine technology and aerodynamics made controlled, powered, manned heavier-than-air flight possible for the first time. In 1903, following their pioneering research and experiments with wing design and aircraft control, the [[Wright brothers]] successfully incorporated all of the required elements to create and fly the first aeroplane.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/special_report/1998/11/98/great_balloon_challenge/299568.stm "Flying through the ages"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141021044458/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/special_report/1998/11/98/great_balloon_challenge/299568.stm |date=21 October 2014 }} ''BBC News''. Retrieved 2024-10-18.</ref> In 1906 [[Charles Frederick Page]] was granted the first patent for an aircraft in the United States.<ref>{{cite news |title=Louisiana figures fly out of aviation history |url=https://www.newspapers.com/article/the-times-louisiana-figures-fly-out-of-a/154560643/ |access-date=18 May 2025 |work=The Times |date=1 August 2020 |pages=A1}}</ref> The basic configuration with its characteristic [[cruciform tail]] was established by 1909, followed by rapid design and performance improvements aided by the development of more powerful engines.

The first vessels of the air were the rigid steerable balloons pioneered by [[Ferdinand von Zeppelin]] that became synonymous with [[airship]]s and dominated long-distance flight until the 1930s, when large [[flying boat]]s became popular for trans-oceanic routes. After [[World War II]], the flying boats were in turn replaced by airplanes operating from land, made far more capable first by improved [[propeller engine]]s, then by [[jet engine]]s, which revolutionized both civilian air travel and [[military aviation]].

In the latter half of the 20th century, the development of [[digital electronics]] led to major advances in flight instrumentation and "[[fly-by-wire]]" systems. The 21st century has seen the widespread use of [[pilotless drone]]s for military, commercial, and recreational purposes. With computerized controls, inherently unstable aircraft designs, such as [[flying wing]]s, have also become practical.

== Methods of lift ==
=== Lighter-than-air ===
{{Main|Aerostat}}Lighter-than-air aircraft or ''[[aerostat]]s'' use [[buoyancy]] to float in the air in much the same way that ships float on the water. They are characterized by one or more large cells or canopies, filled with a [[lifting gas]] such as [[helium]], [[hydrogen]] or [[Hot air balloon|hot air]], which is less [[Density|dense]] than the surrounding air. Other gases lighter than air also theoretically work, however, such gases also needs to be same for human use (non-flammable, non-toxic).<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-01-12 |title=What Is a Lifting Gas? - National Aviation Academy |url=https://www.naa.edu/lifting-gas/ |access-date=2025-04-26 |language=en-US}}</ref>

Small hot-air balloons, called [[sky lantern]]s, were first invented in ancient China prior to the 3rd century BC and used primarily in cultural celebrations, although they also had military purposes.<ref>{{Cite web |date=26 May 2024 |title=The Fascinating History of Hot Air Balloons: From Ancient Sky Lanterns to Modern Marvels |work=History Tools |url=https://www.historytools.org/stories/the-fascinating-history-of-hot-air-balloons-from-ancient-sky-lanterns-to-modern-marvels |access-date=26 April 2025}}</ref> They, along with [[kite]]s, were two forms of [[Unmanned aerial vehicle|unmanned]] aircraft that originated from China.<ref>{{Cite web |last=MAK |date=2025-01-22 |title=The Origin of Kites in Ancient China - CS Kites |url=https://cskites.com/blog/the-origin-of-kites-in-ancient-china/ |access-date=2025-04-26 |language=en-US}}</ref> Kites were also used in the military, but unlike sky lanterns, their flight is caused by the differences of air pressure beneath and above the kite.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ashish |date=2016-08-02 |title=Why Is It Difficult To Fly Kites On Non-Windy Days? |url=https://www.scienceabc.com/pure-sciences/physics-kite-flying-how-to-make-aerodynamic-structure.html#:~:text=Kites%20fly%20because%20of%20the%20aerodynamic%20forces%20of,of%20the%20kite%20is%20balanced%20by%20the%20lift. |access-date=2025-04-26 |website=ScienceABC |language=en-US}}</ref>[[File:Colorado Springs Hot Air Balloon Competition.jpg|thumb|Hot air [[Balloon (aeronautics)|balloons]]]]
[[File:USS Akron (ZRS-4) in flight over Manhattan, circa 1931-1933.jpg|thumb|Airship [[USS Akron|USS ''Akron'']] over Manhattan in the 1930s]]A [[balloon (aeronautics)|balloon]] was originally any aerostat, while the term [[airship]] was used for large, powered aircraft designs&nbsp;— usually fixed-wing.<ref>[http://texashistory.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metapth172915/ US patent 467069] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140223070653/http://texashistory.unt.edu/ark%3A/67531/metapth172915/ |date=23 February 2014}} "Air-ship" referring to a compound aerostat/rotorcraft.</ref><ref>[[Ezekiel Airship]] (1902) [http://www.wright-brothers.org/History_Wing/History_of_the_Airplane/History_of_the_Airplane_Intro/History_of_the_Airplane_Intro.htm wright-brothers.org] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203131729/http://www.wright-brothers.org/History_Wing/History_of_the_Airplane/History_of_the_Airplane_Intro/History_of_the_Airplane_Intro.htm |date=3 December 2013}}[http://altereddimensions.net/2012/burrell-cannon-flies-first-airplane altereddimensions.net] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222065900/http://altereddimensions.net/2012/burrell-cannon-flies-first-airplane |date=22 February 2014}} "airship," – referring to an HTA aeroplane.</ref><ref>[http://gustavewhitehead.org/news_journalism/1901_-_flying.html The Bridgeport Herald, August 18, 1901] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130803021718/http://gustavewhitehead.org/news_journalism/1901_-_flying.html |date=3 August 2013}} – "air ship" referring to Whitehead's aeroplane.</ref><ref>Cooley Airship of 1910, also called the Cooley monoplane.{{Cite web|url=http://www.wright-brothers.org/History_Wing/Aviations_Attic/UFOs/UFOs.htm|title=Unbelievable Flying Objects|access-date=10 February 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131102031147/http://www.wright-brothers.org/History_Wing/Aviations_Attic/UFOs/UFOs.htm|archive-date=2 November 2013}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.xpolet.eu.org|title=Round Aircraft Designs|access-date=7 September 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402075442/http://celticowboy.com/Round%20Aircraft%20Designs.htm|archive-date=2 April 2012}} – a heavier-than-air monoplane.</ref><ref>Frater, A.; ''The Balloon Factory'', Picador (2009), p. 163. Wright brothers' "airship."</ref><ref>[http://www.technovelgy.com/ct/content.asp?Bnum=879 George Griffith, ''The angel of the Revolution'', 1893] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140222154830/http://www.technovelgy.com/ct/content.asp?Bnum=879 |date=22 February 2014}}&nbsp;— "air-ship," "vessel" referring to a VTOL compound rotorcraft (not clear from the reference if it might be an aerostat hybrid.)</ref> In 1919, [[Frederick Handley Page]] was reported as referring to "ships of the air," with smaller passenger types as "Air yachts."<ref>[http://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/cgi-bin/paperspast?a=d&d=AS19190224.2.104 Auckland Star, 24 February 1919] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140324163806/http://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/cgi-bin/paperspast?a=d&d=AS19190224.2.104 |date=24 March 2014}} "Ships of the air," "Air yachts" – passenger landplanes large and small</ref> In the 1930s, large intercontinental flying boats were also sometimes referred to as "ships of the air" or "flying-ships".<ref>[http://nla.gov.au/nla.news-article17455790 The Sydney Morning Herald, Monday 11 April 1938] – "ship of the airs," "flying-ship," referring to a large flying-boat.</ref><ref>[http://airandspace.si.edu/exhibitions/america-by-air/online/innovation/innovation16.cfm Smithsonian, America by air] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140118135217/http://airandspace.si.edu/exhibitions/america-by-air/online/innovation/innovation16.cfm |date=18 January 2014}} "Ships of the Air" referring to Pan Am's Boeing Clipper flying-boat fleet.</ref>

=== Heavier-than-air{{Anchor|Heavier than air}} ===
Heavier-than-air aircraft or ''aerodynes'' are denser than air and thus must find some way to obtain enough [[Lift (physics)|lift]] that can overcome the aircraft's weight. There are two ways to produce dynamic upthrust — [[aerodynamic lift]] by having air flowing past an [[aerofoil]] (such dynamic interaction of aerofoils with air is the origin of the term "aerodyne"), or [[powered lift]] in the form of [[Reaction (physics)|reactional]] lift from downward engine [[thrust]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Laurent |date=2023-11-15 |title=Understanding the Aerodynamic Forces in Flight |url=https://www.studyflight.com/understanding-the-aerodynamic-forces-in-flight/ |access-date=2025-04-26 |website=Study flight |language=fr-FR}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=13 May 2021 |title=Rocket Principles |url=https://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/k-12/rocket/TRCRocket/rocket_principles.html |access-date=26 April 2025 |website=NASA}}</ref>

Aerodynamic lift involving [[wing]]s is the most common, and can be achieved via two methods. [[Fixed-wing aircraft]] ([[airplane]]s and [[Glider (aircraft)|gliders]]) achieve airflow past the wings by having the entire aircraft moving forward through the air, while [[rotorcraft]] ([[helicopter]]s and [[autogyro]]s) do so by having [[Rotor wing|mobile, elongated wings]] spinning rapidly around a mast in an assembly known as the [[Helicopter rotor|rotor]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-12-20 |title=2.1.2: Rotorcraft |url=https://eng.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Aerospace_Engineering/Fundamentals_of_Aerospace_Engineering_(Arnedo)/02:_Generalities/2.01:_Classification_of_aerospace_vehicles/2.1.02:_Rotorcraft |access-date=2025-04-26 |website=Engineering LibreTexts |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":0" />

==== Fixed-wing Aircraft ====
{{Main|Fixed-wing aircraft}}
[[Glider (sailplane)|Gliders]] were one of the first forms of a fixed wing aircraft. They are a special type of aircraft that doesn't require an engine.<ref>{{Cite news |title=Gliders {{!}} Glenn Research Center {{!}} NASA |url=https://www1.grc.nasa.gov/beginners-guide-to-aeronautics/gliders/ |archive-url=http://web.archive.org/web/20250308232351/https://www1.grc.nasa.gov/beginners-guide-to-aeronautics/gliders/ |archive-date=2025-03-08 |access-date=2025-04-26 |work=Glenn Research Center {{!}} NASA |language=en-US}}</ref> The first person to successfully build a human-carrying glider was [[George Cayley]], who also was the first to discover the four major aerodynamic forces.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Pioneers : An Anthology : Sir George Cayley Bt. (1773 - 1857) |url=https://ctie.monash.edu.au/hargrave/cayley.html |access-date=2025-04-26 |website=ctie.monash.edu.au}}</ref> The first powered aircraft ([[Airplane]]) was invented by [[Wright brothers|Wilbur and Orville Wright]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2003-12-01 |title=Who Invented the Airplane? (Grades K-4) - NASA |url=https://www.nasa.gov/learning-resources/for-kids-and-students/who-invented-the-airplane-grades-k-4/ |access-date=2025-04-26 |language=en-US}}</ref>

==== Rotorcraft ====
{{Main|Rotorcraft}}{{More citations needed section|date=April 2025}}
A ''rotary-wing aircraft'', ''rotorwing aircraft'' or ''rotorcraft'' is a heavier-than-air aircraft with [[Rotor wing|rotary wings]] that spin around a vertical mast to generate [[Lift (force)|lift]]. The assembly of several rotor blades mounted on a single mast is referred to as a [[Helicopter rotor|rotor]]. The [[International Civil Aviation Organization]] (ICAO) defines a rotorcraft as "supported in flight by the reactions of the air on one or more rotors".<ref>"ICAO Annex 7." Retrieved on 30 September 2009.</ref>

Rotorcraft generally include aircraft where one or more rotors provide lift throughout the entire flight, such as [[helicopter]]s, [[gyroplane]]s, [[autogyro]]s, and [[gyrodyne]]s Compound rotorcraft augment the rotor with additional thrust engines, propellers, or static lifting surfaces. Some types, such as helicopters, are capable of [[VTOL|vertical takeoff and landing]]. An aircraft which uses rotor lift for vertical flight but changes to solely fixed-wing lift in horizontal flight is not a rotorcraft but a [[convertiplane]].[[File:Mil Mi-8P, Baltic Airlines (cropped).jpg|thumb|The [[Mil Mi-8]] is the most produced rotorcraft.]]

==== Other methods of lift ====
{{Further|Lifting body}}

* A [[lifting body]] is an aircraft which produces lift through the shape of its body, rather than its wings or rotors, like conventional aircraft. Lifting bodies were first experimented by NASA in the 1960s-70s, but the idea was already conceived in the 1950s.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2014-02-28 |title=Lifting Bodies - NASA |url=https://www.nasa.gov/aeronautics/aircraft/lifting-bodies/ |access-date=2025-04-27 |language=en-US}}</ref>
* A [[powered lift]] aircraft is one which has the capability of vertical [[takeoff]] and [[landing]]. These aircraft must transition from vertical to lateral movement, which is considered the most dangerous phases of a flight.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Powered-Lift Aircraft {{!}} SKYbrary Aviation Safety |url=https://skybrary.aero/articles/powered-lift-aircraft |access-date=2025-04-27 |website=skybrary.aero}}</ref> Classes of powered lift types include [[VTOL]] jet aircraft (such as the [[Harrier jump jet]]) and [[tiltrotor]]s, such as the [[Bell Boeing V-22 Osprey]], among others.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Siminski |first=Jacek |date=2013-04-11 |title=Harrier: The Story Of The "Jump Jet" That Helped Margaret Thatcher Win The Falklands War |url=https://theaviationist.com/2013/04/11/harrier-story/ |access-date=2025-04-27 |website=The Aviationist |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=V-22 Osprey |url=https://www.aviation.marines.mil/About/Aircraft/Tilt-Rotor/pubDate/20250423/ |access-date=27 April 2025 |website=Marines}}</ref>
* An [[ornithopter]] is an aircraft that produces lift through the movement of its wings, akin to how a bird flies.<ref>{{Cite news |date=2010-09-24 |title='World's first' ornithopter takes flight |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-11410410 |access-date=2025-04-27 |work=BBC News |language=en-GB}}</ref>

== Size and speed extremes ==
=== Size ===
{{Main|List of large aircraft}}The largest aircraft by dimensions and volume (as of 2016) is the {{cvt|302|ft|m}} long British [[Airlander 10]], a hybrid blimp, with helicopter and fixed-wing features, and reportedly capable of speeds up to {{cvt|90|mph|km/h kn}}, and an airborne endurance of two weeks with a payload of up to {{cvt|22050|lbs|kg}}.<ref name="telegraph">[https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/08/17/worlds-largest-aircraft-the-airlander-takes-first-flight/ "World's largest aircraft the Airlander makes maiden flight in UK,"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161122224818/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2016/08/17/worlds-largest-aircraft-the-airlander-takes-first-flight/ |date=22 November 2016}} 16 August 2016, London 'Daily Telegraph' via Telegraph.co.uk. Retrieved 22 November 2016.</ref><ref name="airlander_cbs">"Airlander 10, the world's largest aircraft, takes off for the first time," 19 August 2016, CBS News (TV) retrieved 22 November 2016.</ref><ref name="crash_cnn">Kottasova, Ivana [https://money.cnn.com/2016/08/24/technology/worlds-largest-aircraft-crash-airlander-10/ "The world's largest aircraft crashes after 2nd test flight"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161122224325/https://money.cnn.com/2016/08/24/technology/worlds-largest-aircraft-crash-airlander-10/ |date=22 November 2016}}, 24 August 2016, ''CNN Tech'' on [[CNN]], the Cable News Network. Retrieved 22 November 2016.</ref>

The largest aircraft by weight and largest regular fixed-wing aircraft ever built, {{as of|2016|lc=y}}, was the [[Antonov An-225 Mriya|Antonov An-225 ''Mriya'']]. That Soviet-built ([[Ukrainian SSR]]) six-engine transport of the 1980s was {{cvt|84|m|ft}} long, with an {{cvt|88|m|ft}} wingspan. It holds the world payload record, after transporting {{cvt|428834|lbs|kg}} of goods, and has flown {{cvt|100|t|lbs}} loads commercially. With a maximum loaded weight of {{cvt|550-700|t|lbs}}, it was also the heaviest aircraft built to date. It could cruise at {{cvt|500|mph|km/h kn}}.<ref>{{Cite web|last1=July|first1=Dyre|title=Fly Drive Aanbiedingen|url=https://www.flydrivereizen.nl/aanbiedingen/|website=flydrivereizen.nl|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161104014121/https://www.flydrivereizen.nl/aanbiedingen/|archive-date=4 November 2016}}</ref><ref name="biggest_fox">[https://www.foxnews.com/tech/watch-the-worlds-biggest-plane-land-in-australia/ "Watch the world's biggest plane land in Australia,"]  16 May 2016, Fox News. Retrieved 22 November 2016.</ref><ref name="biggest_chron">{{cite news|last=Rumbaugh|first=Andrea|url=http://www.chron.com/business/article/World-s-largest-airplane-lands-at-Bush-airport-10622046.php#item-38488|title=World's biggest airplane lands at Bush airport|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161123052928/http://www.chron.com/business/article/World-s-largest-airplane-lands-at-Bush-airport-10622046.php|archive-date=23 November 2016|date=18 November 2016|work=Houston Chronicle}}</ref><ref name="worlds_largest_might_lose_smithsonian_2015">Lewis, Danny, [http://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/worlds-largest-aircraft-might-lose-its-title-blimp-180956677/ "The World's Largest Aircraft Might Lose its Title to a Blimp,"], 18 September 2015, ''Smart News'', Smithsonian.com, [[Smithsonian Institution]], Washington, D.C.. Retrieved 22 November 2016.</ref><ref name="largest_aero">[http://www.aerospaceweb.org/question/design/q0188.shtml "Ask Us – Largest Plane in the World,"] Aerospaceweb.org. Retrieved 22 November 2016.</ref> The aircraft was destroyed during the [[Russo-Ukrainian War]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Shead|first=Sam|title=Photos show world's largest cargo plane destroyed in Ukraine|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2022/04/04/antonov-an-225-wreckage-worlds-largest-plane-destroyed-in-ukraine.html|access-date=25 January 2023|website=CNBC|date=4 April 2022}}</ref>

The largest military airplanes are the Ukrainian [[Antonov An-124 Ruslan|Antonov An-124 ''Ruslan'']] (world's second-largest airplane, also used as a civilian transport),<ref name="2nd_nasa">[https://www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/multimedia/imagegallery/image_feature_028_Antonov.html "World's Second Largest Aircraft,"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161122222701/https://www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/multimedia/imagegallery/image_feature_028_Antonov.html |date=22 November 2016}} 28 July 2013, [[NASA]]. Retrieved 22 November 2016.</ref> and American [[Lockheed C-5 Galaxy]] transport, weighing, loaded, over {{cvt|380|t|lbs}}.<ref name="largest_aero" /><ref name="wide_nasa">Loftin, Laurence K., Jr., [https://history.nasa.gov/SP-468/ch13-5.htm "Wide-Body Transports"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130607034616/http://history.nasa.gov/SP-468/ch13-5.htm |date=7 June 2013}}, in Chapter 13, "Jet Transports," in Part II, "The Jet Age," in ''Quest for Performance: The Evolution of Modern Aircraft'', NASA SP-468, 1985, Scientific and Technical Information Branch, [[NASA]], Washington, D.C., Updated: 6 August 2004. Retrieved 22 November 2016.</ref> The 8-engine, piston/propeller [[Hughes H-4 Hercules|Hughes H-4 ''Hercules'']] "Spruce Goose"&nbsp;— an American [[World War II]] wooden flying boat transport with a greater wingspan (94m/260&nbsp;ft) than any current aircraft and a tail height equal to the tallest (Airbus A380-800 at 24.1m/78&nbsp;ft)&nbsp;— flew only one short hop in the late 1940s and never flew out of [[Ground effect (aerodynamics)|ground effect]].<ref name="largest_aero" />

The largest civilian airplanes, apart from the above-noted An-225 and An-124, are the [[Airbus Beluga]] cargo transport derivative of the [[Airbus A300]] jet airliner, the [[Boeing Dreamlifter]] cargo transport derivative of the [[Boeing 747]] jet airliner/transport (the 747-200B was, at its creation in the 1960s, the heaviest aircraft ever built, with a maximum weight of over {{cvt|400|t|lbs}}),<ref name="wide_nasa" /> and the double-decker [[Airbus A380]] "super-jumbo" jet airliner (the world's largest passenger airliner).<ref name="largest_aero" /><ref name="airbus_times">[https://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/29/business/worldbusiness/29iht-airbus.4.12438349.html "Airbus reviews A380 schedule,"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202002211/http://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/29/business/worldbusiness/29iht-airbus.4.12438349.html |date=2 February 2017}} 29 April 2008, ''[[The New York Times]]''. Retrieved 22 November 2016.</ref>

=== Speeds ===
{{Main|Flight airspeed record}}
The fastest fixed-wing aircraft and fastest glider, is the [[Space Shuttle]], which re-entered the atmosphere at nearly Mach 25 or {{cvt|17,500|mph|km/h}}<ref name="regimes">{{cite web|editor=Benson, Tom|url=https://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/BGH/hihyper.html|title=Speed Regimes: Hypersonic Re-Entry|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161123052843/https://www.grc.nasa.gov/WWW/BGH/hihyper.html|archive-date=23 November 2016|url-status=live|publisher=Glenn Research Center, [[NASA]]}}</ref>

The fastest recorded powered aircraft flight and fastest recorded aircraft flight of an air-breathing powered aircraft was of the [[NASA X-43]]A ''Pegasus'', a [[scramjet]]-powered, [[Hypersonic speed|hypersonic]], [[lifting body]] experimental research aircraft, at [[Mach number|Mach]] 9.68 or {{cvt|6,755|mph|sigfig=4}} on 16 November 2004.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/fastest-aircraft-air-breathing-engine|title=Fastest aircraft, air-breathing engine: X-43|date=16 November 2004|work=Guinness World Records}}</ref>

Prior to the X-43A, the fastest recorded powered airplane flight, and still the record for the fastest manned powered airplane, was the [[North American X-15]], rocket-powered airplane at Mach 6.7 or 7,274&nbsp;km/h (4,520&nbsp;mph) on 3 October 1967.<ref name="manned_guinness">{{cite web|url=https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/78491-fastest-aircraft-rocket-powered|title=Fastest speed in a non-spacecraft aircraft|work=Guinness World Records|date=3 October 1967}}</ref>

The fastest manned, air-breathing powered airplane is the [[Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird]], a U.S. [[reconnaissance]] jet fixed-wing aircraft, having reached {{cvt|3529.56|km/h|adj=ri0|sigfig=4}} on 28 July 1976.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fai.org/record/8879|date=28 July 1976|title=current record, Powered Aeroplanes, Absolute, Speed|publisher=[[Fédération Aéronautique Internationale|FAI]]}}</ref>

== Propulsion and steering ==
=== Unpowered aircraft ===
{{Main|Unpowered aircraft}}The main feature of unpowered aircraft is the inability to directly provide thrust through its engines. This means that all unpowered aircraft rely on the [[Wind|environment]] for sustained flight. Gliders, for example, take advantage of their aerodynamic properties to enable them to travel long distances. Techniques such as thermal circling, where gliders fly into warm air which allows them to rise, prolongs flight time.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Understanding the Principles of Glider Flight |url=https://physicscore.com/articles/principles-of-glider-flight/ |access-date=27 April 2025}}</ref>

Due to the lack of an engine, initial propulsion assistance is usually necessary to ensure flight. A common glider launching method is aerotowing, where another aircraft tows the glider to an altitude from which sustained flight is possible.<ref>{{Cite web |last=cwarrior |title=How Gliders Fly - Beverley Soaring Society - West Australia Gliding Club |url=https://www.beverley-soaring.org.au/about-gliding/how-gliders-fly/#:~:text=Unlike%20pelicans,%20glider%20wings%20don%E2%80%99t%20flap,%20so%20they,a%20ground-based%20winch%20and%20a%20very%20long%20cable. |access-date=2025-04-27 |website=Beverley Soaring Society |language=en-US}}</ref> Steering for a glider is also rudimentary, while more complex gliders like sailplanes usually have joysticks for steering, more basic aircraft like [[Hang gliding|hang gliders]] rely on the pilot's physical coordination to change the centre of gravity.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Team |first=Enviroliteracy |date=2025-04-21 |title=Can you steer a glider? |url=https://enviroliteracy.org/can-you-steer-a-glider/ |access-date=2025-04-27 |website=The Environmental Literacy Council |language=en-US}}</ref>[[File:PH-1274 Rolladen-Schneider LS-4b.JPG|thumb|Sailplane ([[Rolladen-Schneider LS4]])]]

=== Powered aircraft ===
{{Main|Aircraft engine}}
A powered aircraft is an aircraft with a source of mechanical power, used to produce thrust. Such sources are generally [[engine]]s, as is the case with airplanes, but can be human-powered in more extreme cases.<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 May 2021 |title=How does a jet engine work? |url=https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/UEET/StudentSite/engines.html |access-date=27 April 2025 |website=NASA}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Paleja |first=Ameya |title=Human-powered aircraft: A plane with 'impossible engineering' and no engine |url=https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/lazarus-human-powered-aircraft?group=test_b |access-date=2025-04-27 |website=Interesting Engineering |language=en}}</ref>

==== Propeller aircraft ====
Propeller aircraft, as their name suggests, rely on propellers to produce thrust for the airplane.{{Citation needed|date=May 2025}}[[File:WestCoastAirFloatplane.jpg|thumb|A [[turboprop]]-engined [[De Havilland Canada DHC-6 Twin Otter|DeHavilland Twin Otter]] adapted as a [[floatplane]]]]

==== Jet aircraft ====
{{Main|Jet aircraft}}
[[File:Lockheed Martin F-22A Raptor JSOH.jpg|thumb| [[Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor|Lockheed Martin F-22A Raptor]]]]

Compared to engines using propellers, jet engines can provide much higher thrust, higher speeds and, above about {{Convert|40000|ft|m|abbr=on}}, greater efficiency.<ref name="hist8">{{Cite web|url=http://www.hq.nasa.gov/pao/History/SP-468/ch10-3.htm|title=ch10-3|publisher=Hq.nasa.gov|access-date=26 March 2010|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100914184628/http://www.hq.nasa.gov/pao/History/SP-468/ch10-3.htm|archive-date=14 September 2010}}</ref>

==== Rotorcraft ====
{{Main|Rotorcraft}}{{Empty section|date=April 2025}}

== Design and construction ==
The key parts of an aircraft are generally divided into three categories:
* The ''structure'' ("[[airframe]]"<ref name="websters_3rd_new_intl_dictionary">Gove, P.B., editor: ''Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged,'' 1993, Merriam-Webster, Springfield, Mass., USA</ref><ref name="asa_dictionary_3rd_ed">Crane, D., editor: ''Dictionary of Aeronautical Terms,'' Third Edition, ASA (Aviation Supplies & Academics), Newcastle, Washington, USA</ref><ref name="far_amt_2012_faa">''2012 Federal Aviation Regulations for Aviation Maintenance Technicians,'' 2012, Federal Aviation Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation</ref><ref name="janes_dictionary_1980">[[Bill Gunston|Gunston, Bill]], editor: ''Jane's Aerospace Dictionary'' 1980, Jane's, London / New York / Sydney</ref>) comprises the main load-bearing elements and associated equipment, as well as flight controls.
* The ''propulsion system'' ("[[powerplant]]"<ref name="websters_3rd_new_intl_dictionary" /><ref name="asa_dictionary_3rd_ed" /><ref name="phak_glossary_faa_gov">[https://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/handbooks_manuals/aviation/phak/media/21_phak_glossary.pdf "Glossary"] in ''Pilot's Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge'' (PHAK), [[Federal Aviation Administration]], Washington, D.C., retrieved 12 September 2022</ref>) (if it is powered) comprises the power source and associated equipment, as described above.
* The ''[[avionics]]'' comprise the electrical and electronic control, navigation and communication systems.<ref name="websters_3rd_new_intl_dictionary" /><ref name="asa_dictionary_3rd_ed" /><ref name="janes_dictionary_1980" /><ref name="dictionary_of_aviation_1974_fell">Wragg, David W. editor: ''A Dictionary of Aviation,'' 1974, Frederick Fell, New York</ref>

=== Structure ===
==== Aerostats ====
{{Main|Aerostat}}

[[File:OAM_Aerostat_TARS_Deming_New_Mexico_(16715553462).jpg|thumb|A modern aerostat used by the [[U.S. Department of Homeland Security]], the [[Tethered Aerostat Radar System]] (TARS)]]

An ''aerostat'' or ''lighter-than-air aircraft'' relies on [[buoyancy]] to maintain [[flight]]. Aerostats include unpowered [[balloon (aircraft)|balloon]]s (free-flying or [[moored balloon|tethered]]) and [[aircraft engine|powered]] [[airship]]s. The [[relative density]] of an aerostat as a whole is lower than that of the surrounding [[atmospheric]] [[air]] (hence the name "lighter-than-air"). Its main component is one or more gas capsules made of lightweight [[skin (aeronautics)|skin]]s, containing a [[lifting gas]] (hot air, or any gas with lower density than air, typically [[hydrogen]] or [[helium]]) that [[displacement (fluid)|displace]]s a large volume of air to generate enough buoyancy to overcome its own [[weight]]. [[Payload]] (passengers and cargo) can then be carried on attached components such as a [[basket]], a [[gondola (airship)|gondola]], a [[cabin (aircraft)|cabin]] or various [[hardpoint]]s.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pz2ORay2HWoC|title=The Chambers Dictionary|last=Chambers|first=Allied|date=1998|publisher=Allied Publishers|isbn=9788186062258|page=541|language=en|quote=the gas-bag of a balloon or airship}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |title=The Oxford Illustrated Dictionary |page=281 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1976 |orig-year=1975 |location=Great Britain |quote=fabric enclosing gas-bags of airship}}</ref> With airships, which need to be able to fly against wind, the lifting gas capsules are often protected by a more rigid outer envelope or an [[airframe]], with other gasbags such as [[ballonet]]s to help modulate buoyancy.

Aerostats are so named because they use [[aerostatic]] buoyant force that does not require any forward movement through the surrounding air mass, resulting in the inherent ability to [[levitation (physics)|levitate]] and perform [[vertical takeoff and landing]]. This contrasts with the heavier-than-air [[aircraft#Heavier-than-air|aerodyne]]s that primarily use [[aerodynamic]] [[lift (force)|lift]], which must have consistent airflow over an [[aerofoil]] ([[wing]]) surface to stay airborne. The term has also been used in a narrower sense, to refer to the statically [[tethered balloon]] in contrast to the free-flying airship.<ref>{{cite book |title=A Dictionary of Aviation |first=David W. |last=Wragg |isbn=9780850451634 |edition=first |publisher=Osprey |year=1973 |page=8}}</ref> This article uses the term in its broader sense.

==== Aerodynes ====
[[File:Merlin Airframe Material.jpg|thumb|Airframe diagram for an [[AgustaWestland AW101]] [[helicopter]]]]{{Empty section|date=March 2025}}

=== Power ===
{{Main|Propulsion}}
The source of motive power for an aircraft is normally called the ''[[powerplant]],'' and includes [[engine]] or [[motor]], [[propeller]] or [[Helicopter rotor|rotor]], (if any), [[jet nozzle]]s and [[thrust reverser]]s (if any), and accessories essential to the functioning of the engine or motor (e.g.: [[Starter motor|starter]], [[ignition system]], [[intake|intake system]], [[exhaust system]], [[Aircraft fuel system|fuel system]], [[lubrication]] system, [[engine cooling system]], and [[engine controls]]).<ref name="websters_3rd_new_intl_dictionary" /><ref name="asa_dictionary_3rd_ed" /><ref name="phak_glossary_faa_gov"/>

Powered aircraft are typically powered by [[internal combustion engine]]s ([[piston engine|piston]]<ref name="internal_combustion_engine_grc_nasa_gov">[https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/icengine.html "Internal Combustion Engine,"] Glenn Research Center, [[National Aeronautics and Space Administration]] (NASA), retrieved 12 September 2022</ref> or [[gas turbine engine|turbine]]<ref name="engines_grc_nasa_gov">[https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/icengine.html "Engines,"] Glenn Research Center, [[National Aeronautics and Space Administration]] (NASA), retrieved 12 September 2022</ref>) burning [[fossil fuels]]—typically [[gasoline]] ([[avgas]]) or [[jet fuel]]. A very few are powered by [[rocket engine|rocket power]], [[ramjet]] propulsion, or by [[electric motors]], or by internal combustion engines of other types, or using other fuels. A very few have been powered, for short flights, by [[human-powered aircraft|human muscle energy]] (e.g.: [[Gossamer Condor]]).<ref name="natl_air_and_space_museum_bryan">Bryan, C.D.B.: ''The National Air and Space Museum,'' 1979 / 1984, Abrams, New York</ref><ref name="janes_encyclopedia_of_aviation">Taylor, Michael J.H., editor: ''Jane's Encyclopedia of Aviation,'' 1989 ed., Portland House / Random House, New York</ref><ref name="electrified_aircraft_nasa_gov">[https://www1.grc.nasa.gov/aeronautics/eap/ "Electrified Aircraft Propulsion" (EAP)], Glenn Research Center, [[National Aeronautics and Space Administration]] (NASA), retrieved 12 September 2022</ref>

=== Avionics ===
{{Main|Avionics}}
The avionics comprise any ''electronic'' [[aircraft flight control system]]s and related equipment, including electronic [[cockpit]] instrumentation, navigation, [[radar]], monitoring, and [[communications system]]s.<ref name="websters_3rd_new_intl_dictionary" /><ref name="asa_dictionary_3rd_ed" /><ref name="janes_dictionary_1980" /><ref name="dictionary_of_aviation_1974_fell"/>

== Flight characteristics ==
=== Flight envelope ===
{{Main|Flight envelope}}
The flight envelope of an aircraft refers to its approved design capabilities in terms of [[airspeed]], [[Load factor (aeronautics)|load factor]] and altitude.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/text-idx?type=simple;c=ecfr;cc=ecfr;sid=a8f38006e777ba46ba8000f7c2fe6641;region=DIV1;q1=23.335;rgn=div8;view=text;idno=14;node=14%3A1.0.1.3.10.3.70.8|title=eCFR&nbsp;— Code of Federal Regulations|work=gpoaccess.gov|access-date=1 April 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120402202400/http://ecfr.gpoaccess.gov/cgi/t/text/text-idx?type=simple%3Bc%3Decfr%3Bcc%3Decfr%3Bsid%3Da8f38006e777ba46ba8000f7c2fe6641%3Bregion%3DDIV1%3Bq1%3D23.335%3Brgn%3Ddiv8%3Bview%3Dtext%3Bidno%3D14%3Bnode%3D14%3A1.0.1.3.10.3.70.8|archive-date=2 April 2012}}</ref><ref>https://web.archive.org/web/20100601204507/http://www.access.gpo.gov/ecfr/graphics/pdfs/ec28se91.001.pdf</ref>

=== Range ===
{{Main|Range (aeronautics)}}
[[File:Boeing 777-200LR banking over mountain.jpg|thumb|The [[Boeing 777#777-200LR|Boeing 777-200LR]] is one of the longest-range airliners, capable of flights of more than halfway around the world.]]
The maximal total ''range'' is the maximum distance an aircraft can fly between [[takeoff]] and [[landing]]. [[Powered aircraft]] range is limited by the [[aviation fuel]] energy storage capacity (chemical or electrical) considering both weight and volume limits.<ref>{{cite book |title=A Dictionary of Aviation |first=David W. |last=Wragg |isbn=9780850451634 |edition=first |publisher=Osprey |date=1973 |page=221 }}</ref> [[Unpowered aircraft]] range depends on factors such as cross-country speed and environmental conditions. The range can be seen as the cross-country [[ground speed]] multiplied by the maximum time in the air. The fuel time limit for powered aircraft is fixed by the available fuel (considering reserve fuel requirements) and rate of consumption. The [[Airbus A350#A350-900ULR|Airbus A350-900ULR]] is among the longest range airliners.<ref name=ArBsigger-A000>{{cite web	|url=https://www.airbus.com/sites/g/files/jlcbta136/files/2024-04/Airbus-A350-Family-Facts-and-Figures%20April-2024.pdf#page=3 	|title=Airbus-A350-Family-Facts-and-Figures April-2024.pdf	|year=2024	|website=airbus.com 	|publisher=Airbus 	|access-date=18 June 2024 	|quote="… Operational flexibility: … The A350-900 Ultra Long Range (ULR) is the latest variant of the A350 Family. Capable of flying 9,700 nautical miles (18,000 kilometres) non-stop, the A350-900ULR offers the longest range of any commercial airliner in service today. …"}}</ref>

Some aircraft can gain energy while airborne through the environment (e.g. collecting solar energy or through rising air currents from mechanical or thermal lifting) or from in-flight refueling. These aircraft could theoretically have an infinite range.

''Ferry range'' means the maximum range that an aircraft engaged in [[ferry flying]] can achieve. This usually means maximum [[fuel]] load, optionally with extra fuel tanks and minimum equipment. It refers to the transport of aircraft without any passengers or cargo. ''[[Combat radius]]'' is a related measure based on the maximum distance a warplane can travel from its base of operations, accomplish some objective, and return to its original airfield with minimal reserves.

=== Flight dynamics ===
{{Main|Aircraft flight dynamics}}
[[File:Flight dynamics with text.png|thumb|Flight dynamics]]
''Flight dynamics'' is the science of air vehicle orientation and control in three dimensions. The three critical flight dynamics parameters are the [[angles of rotation]] in three [[dimensions]] about the vehicle's [[center of gravity]] (cg), known as ''pitch'', ''roll'' and ''yaw''. These are collectively known as ''aircraft attitude'', often principally relative to the atmospheric frame in normal flight, but also relative to terrain during takeoff or landing, or when operating at low elevation. The concept of attitude is not specific to fixed-wing aircraft, but also extends to [[rotary aircraft]] such as helicopters, and [[dirigibles]], where the flight dynamics involved in establishing and controlling attitude are entirely different.

[[Control system]]s adjust the orientation of a vehicle about its cg. A control system includes control surfaces which, when deflected, generate a moment (or couple from ailerons) about the cg which rotates the aircraft in pitch, roll, and yaw.  For example, a [[pitching moment]] comes from a force applied at a distance forward or aft of the cg, causing the aircraft to pitch up or down.

A [[fixed-wing aircraft]] increases or decreases the lift generated by the wings when it pitches nose up or down by increasing or decreasing the [[angle of attack]] (AOA). The roll angle is also known as bank angle on a fixed-wing aircraft, which usually "banks" to change the horizontal direction of flight. An aircraft is streamlined from nose to tail to reduce [[Drag (physics)|drag]] making it advantageous to keep the [[Slip (aerodynamics)|sideslip angle]] near zero, though an aircraft may be deliberately "sideslipped" to increase drag and descent rate during landing, to keep aircraft heading same as runway heading during cross-wind landings and during flight with asymmetric power.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Defense Technical Information Center |url=https://archive.org/details/DTIC_ADA124610 |title=DTIC ADA124610: Fixed Wing Stability and Control Theory and Flight Test Techniques. Revision |date=1981-11-01 |language=english |pages=V-5}}</ref>

==== Stability ====
[[File:Aircraft tail.JPG|thumb|The [[empennage]] of a [[Boeing 747|Boeing 747-200]]]]A fixed wing is typically unstable in pitch, roll, and yaw. Pitch and yaw stabilities of conventional fixed wing designs require [[Stabilizer (aeronautics)|horizontal and vertical stabilisers]],<ref name="Crane">Crane, Dale: ''Dictionary of Aeronautical Terms, third edition'', p. 194. Aviation Supplies & Academics, 1997. {{ISBN|1-56027-287-2}}</ref><ref name="GroundUp">Aviation Publishers Co. Limited, ''From the Ground Up'', p. 10 (27th revised edition) {{ISBN|0-9690054-9-0}}</ref> which act similarly to the feathers on an arrow.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.airlines.org/ATAResources/Handbook/Pages/AirlineHandbookChapter5HowAircraftFly.aspx|title=Airline Handbook Chapter 5: How Aircraft Fly|work=Airline Handbook|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620150339/http://airlines.org/ATAResources/Handbook/Pages/AirlineHandbookChapter5HowAircraftFly.aspx|archive-date=20 June 2010|publisher=[[Airlines for America|Air Transport Association]]}}</ref> These stabilizing surfaces allow equilibrium of aerodynamic forces and to stabilise the [[flight dynamics]] of pitch and yaw.<ref name="Crane" /><ref name="GroundUp" />

==== Control ====
{{Empty section|date=March 2025}}

== Environmental impact ==
{{Main|Environmental impact of aviation}}

Aircraft engines produce gases, [[aircraft noise|noise]], and [[particulates]] from [[fossil fuel]] combustion, raising [[environment (biophysical)|environmental]] concerns over their global effects and on local air quality.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.icao.int/environmental-protection/pages/aircraft-engine-emissions.aspx | title=Aircraft Engine Emissions | publisher=[[International Civil Aviation Organization]] | access-date=23 October 2020 | archive-date=27 July 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190727040541/https://www.icao.int/environmental-protection/Pages/aircraft-engine-emissions.aspx | url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Jet airliners]] contribute to [[climate change]] by emitting [[carbon dioxide]] ({{CO2}}), the best understood [[greenhouse gas]], and, with less [[Scientific method|scientific understanding]], [[nitrogen oxides]], [[condensation trails|contrails]] and particulates.<!--ref name=IPCC-1999--> Their [[radiative forcing]] is estimated at 1.4 that of {{CO2}} alone,<!--ref name=Azar2012Apr--> excluding induced [[cirrus cloud]] with a very low level of scientific understanding.<!--ref name=Lee2009-->
In 2018, global commercial operations generated 2.4% of {{CO2}} emissions.<ref name=ICCTsep2019>{{cite web | url=https://theicct.org/sites/default/files/publications/ICCT_CO2-commercl-aviation-2018_20190918.pdf | title=CO<sub>2</sub> emissions from commercial aviation, 2018 | author=Brandon Graver | author2=Kevin Zhang | author3=Dan Rutherford | date=September 2019 | publisher=[[International Council on Clean Transportation]] | access-date=10 January 2020 | archive-date=20 November 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191120065456/https://theicct.org/sites/default/files/publications/ICCT_CO2-commercl-aviation-2018_20190918.pdf | url-status=live}}</ref> Jet airliners have become more fuel efficient and {{CO2}} emissions per revenue [[ton-kilometer]] (RTK) in 2018 were 47% of those in 1990.<!--ref name=IATA2019Dec--> In 2018, {{CO2}} emissions averaged 88 grams of {{CO2}} per revenue passenger per km.<!--ref name=ICCTsep2019/--> While the [[aviation]] industry is more [[fuel efficient]], overall emissions have risen as the volume of [[air travel]] has increased.<!--ref name=ATAG--> By 2020, aviation emissions were 70% higher than in 2005 and they could grow by 300% by 2050.<ref name=EC-aviation>{{Cite web | url=https://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/transport/aviation_en | title=Reducing emissions from aviation | website=Climate Action | date=23 November 2016 | publisher=European Commission | access-date=1 June 2019 | archive-date=22 June 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180622053225/https://ec.europa.eu/clima/policies/transport/aviation_en | url-status=live}}</ref>

[[Aircraft noise pollution]] disrupts [[sleep]], children's education and could increase [[cardiovascular risk]].<!--ref name=Basner2017--> [[Airports]] can generate [[water pollution]] due to their extensive handling of [[jet fuel]] and [[deicing]] chemicals if not [[spill containment|contained]], contaminating nearby water bodies.<!--ref name=EPA2006dec--> Aviation activities emit [[ozone]] and [[ultrafine particles]], both of which are [[health hazard]]s. Piston engines used in [[general aviation]] burn [[Avgas]], releasing [[Lead poisoning|toxic lead]].

Aviation's environmental footprint can be reduced by better [[fuel economy in aircraft]], or [[air traffic control]] and [[Airway (aviation)|flight routes]] can be optimized to lower non-{{CO2}} effects on climate from {{chem2|NOx}}, particulates or contrails.
[[Aviation biofuel]], [[emissions trading]] and [[carbon offsetting]], part of the [[ICAO]]'s [[Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation|CORSIA]], can lower {{CO2}} emissions. Aviation usage can be lowered by [[short-haul flight ban]]s, [[Airport rail link#Mainline rail|train connections]], [[Flight shame|personal choices]] and [[aviation taxation and subsidies]]. Fuel-powered aircraft may be replaced by [[hybrid electric aircraft]] and [[electric aircraft]] or by [[hydrogen-powered aircraft]].
Since 2021, the [[International Air Transport Association|IATA]] members plan net-zero carbon emissions by 2050, followed by the [[International Civil Aviation Organization|ICAO]] in 2022.

== Uses for aircraft ==
=== Military ===
[[File:Color Photographed B-17E in Flight.jpg|thumb|[[Boeing B-17 Flying Fortress|Boeing B-17E]] in flight]]
{{Main|Military aircraft}}
A military aircraft is any aircraft that is operated by a legal or insurrectionary armed service of any type.<ref name="gunston" /> Military aircraft can be either combat or non-combat:

* Combat aircraft are aircraft designed to destroy enemy equipment using its own armament.<ref name="gunston" /> Combat aircraft are typically developed and procured only by military forces.
* Non-combat aircraft, such as [[military transport aircraft|transports]] and [[Tanker (aircraft)|tankers]], are not designed for combat as their primary function but may carry weapons for self-defense. These mainly operate in support roles, and may be developed by either military forces or civilian organizations.

=== Civil ===
[[File:Pilatus Agusta A109 Flug.jpg|thumb|[[AgustaWestland AW109|Agusta A109]] helicopter of the [[Rega (air rescue)|Swiss air rescue service]]]]
{{Main|Civil aviation}}
''Civil aviation'' is one of two major categories of flying, representing all non-military and non-state [[aviation]], which can be both private and commercial.  Most countries in the world are members of the [[International Civil Aviation Organization]] and work together to establish common [[Standards and Recommended Practices]] for civil aviation through that agency.

Civil aviation includes three major categories:

* [[Airline|Commercial air transport]], including scheduled and non-scheduled passenger and cargo flights
* Aerial work, in which an aircraft is used for specialized services such as agriculture, photography, surveying, search and rescue, etc.
* [[General aviation]] (GA), including all other civil flights, private or commercial<ref name="ICAO">{{cite book|chapter-url=https://www.verifavia.com/bases/ressource_pdf/299/icao-annex-6-part-i.pdf|title=Annex 6, Operation of Aircraft Part I, International Commercial Air Transport – Aeroplanes|edition=9|date=July 2010|publisher=International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)|chapter=1. Definitions|pages=1, 3 and 5|isbn=9789292315368|access-date=17 March 2019}}</ref>

Although scheduled air transport is the larger operation in terms of passenger numbers, GA is larger in the number of flights (and flight hours, in the U.S.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ntsb.gov/aviation/Table1.htm |title=NTSB - Aviation Accident Statistics |access-date=2009-08-16 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090901224856/https://www.ntsb.gov/aviation/Table1.htm |archive-date=2009-09-01 }}</ref>) In the U.S., GA carries 166 million passengers each year,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gaservingamerica.com/Advantages_of_GA.htm |title=Advantages of General Aviation vs. Airline, Faster, Better, Cheaper, More Secure |access-date=2008-09-03 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080913211501/http://www.gaservingamerica.com/Advantages_of_GA.htm |archive-date=2008-09-13 }}</ref> more than any individual airline, though less than all the airlines combined. Since 2004, the U.S. airlines combined have carried over 600 million passengers each year, and in 2014, they carried a combined 662,819,232 passengers.<ref>United States Department of Transportation. "[http://www.rita.dot.gov/bts/data_and_statistics/by_mode/airline_and_airports/airline_passengers.html Bureau of Transportation Statistics] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150725013700/http://www.rita.dot.gov/bts/data_and_statistics/by_mode/airline_and_airports/airline_passengers.html |date=2015-07-25 }}". Retrieved 24 July 2015</ref>

Some countries also make a regulatory distinction based on whether aircraft are flown for hire, like:

* [[Commercial aviation]] includes most or all flying done for hire, particularly scheduled service on [[airline]]s; and
* [[Private aviation]] includes pilots flying for their own purposes (recreation, business meetings, etc.) without receiving any kind of remuneration.
[[File:British Airways Boeing 747-400 (G-CIVH) departs London Heathrow 11Apr2015 arp.jpg|thumb|A [[British Airways]] [[Boeing 747-400]] departs [[Heathrow Airport|London Heathrow International Airport]]. This is an example of a [[commercial aviation]] service.]]
All scheduled air transport is commercial, but general aviation can be either commercial or private.  Normally, the pilot, aircraft, and operator must all be authorized to perform commercial operations through separate commercial licensing, registration, and operation certificates.

=== Experimental ===
{{Main|Experimental aircraft}}
[[File:MiniCeline ultralight aircraft.jpeg|thumb|A model aircraft, weighing six grams]]
An ''experimental aircraft'' is an aircraft intended for testing new [[aerospace]] technologies and design concepts.

The term ''research aircraft'' or ''[[testbed aircraft]]'', by contrast, generally denotes aircraft modified to perform scientific studies, such as weather research or geophysical surveying, similar to a [[research vessel]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=NOAA research aircraft |url=https://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/about_hrd/aircraft.html |access-date=2024-09-29 |website=US NOAA}}</ref>

The term "experimental aircraft" also has specific legal meaning in Australia, the United States and some other countries; usually used to refer to aircraft flown with an [[Airworthiness certificate#Special airworthiness certificate|experimental certificate]].<ref>[http://rgl.faa.gov/Regulatory_and_Guidance_Library/rgFAR.nsf/0/71F1608EE6AAF580862576E4005B24C6?OpenDocument 14CFR 21.175] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180912092021/http://rgl.faa.gov/Regulatory_and_Guidance_Library/rgFAR.nsf/0/71F1608EE6AAF580862576E4005B24C6?OpenDocument |date=2018-09-12 }}, US Federal Aviation Administration. Retrieved 2018-01-12</ref> In the [[United States]], this also includes most [[homebuilt aircraft]], many of which are based on conventional designs and hence are experimental only in name because of certain restrictions in operation.<ref>[http://rgl.faa.gov/Regulatory_and_Guidance_Library/rgFAR.nsf/0/A9986A485C9E636386256EDF00510840?OpenDocument 14CFR 21.191] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210610094213/http://rgl.faa.gov/Regulatory_and_Guidance_Library/rgFAR.nsf/0/A9986A485C9E636386256EDF00510840?OpenDocument |date=2021-06-10 }}, US Federal Aviation Administration. Retrieved 2018-01-12</ref>

=== Model ===
{{Main|Model aircraft}}{{Empty section|date=March 2025}}

== See also ==

=== Lists ===
* [[Early flying machines]]
* [[Flight altitude record]]
* [[List of aircraft]]
* [[List of civil aircraft]]
* [[List of fighter aircraft]]
* [[List of individual aircraft]]
* [[List of large aircraft]]
* [[wikt:Appendix:Glossary of aviation, aerospace, and aeronautics|List of aviation, aerospace and aeronautical terms]]

=== Topics ===
* [[Aircraft hijacking]]
* [[Aircraft spotting]]
* [[Air traffic control]]
* [[Airport]]
* [[Flying car]]
* [[Personal air vehicle]]
* [[Powered parachute]]
* [[Spacecraft]]
* [[Spaceplane]]

== References ==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name="gunston">Gunston 1986, p. 274</ref>
}}
* {{Cite book|last=Gunston|first=Bill|title=Jane's Aerospace Dictionary 1987|year=1987|publisher=Jane's Publishing Company Limited|location=London, England|isbn=978-0-7106-0365-4}}

== External links ==
{{Wiktionary|aircraft}}
{{Commons category}}

===History===
* [http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-468/contents.htm The Evolution of Modern Aircraft (NASA)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071227182437/http://www.hq.nasa.gov/office/pao/History/SP-468/contents.htm |date=27 December 2007 }}
* [http://invention.psychology.msstate.edu/Tale_of_Airplane/taleplane.html Virtual Museum]
* [http://www.nasm.si.edu/ Smithsonian Air and Space Museum] – online collection with a particular focus on history of aircraft and spacecraft
* [http://www.life.com/image/first/in-gallery/36582/amazing-early-flying-machines Amazing Early Flying Machines] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091213011847/http://www.life.com/image/first/in-gallery/36582/amazing-early-flying-machines |date=13 December 2009 }} slideshow by ''[[Life (magazine)|Life]]'' magazine

===Information===
* [http://www.airliners.net/ Airliners.net]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080624032037/http://www.aviationdictionary.org/ Aviation Dictionary] – free aviation terms, phrases and jargons
* [https://www.newscientist.com/topic/aviation ''New Scientist''{{'}}s aviation page]

{{Aircraft types (by method of thrust and lift)}}
{{Lists of aircraft}}
{{Aircraft components}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Aircraft| ]]