Editing 1291

{{Use mdy dates|date=February 2011}}
{{About year|1291}}
{{more citations needed|date=August 2017}}
{{Year nav|1291}}
{{C13 year in topic}} 
[[File:1291 siège d'Acre.jpg|upright=1.35|thumb|Marshal [[Matthew of Clermont]] defends the walls at the [[Siege of Acre (1291)|Siege of Acre]] (1840)]]
[[File:Map of Acre in 1291.svg|upright=1.35|thumb|Map of [[Acre, Israel|Acre]] (1291) during the siege of the Mamluk campaign (4 April–18 May)]]
Year '''1291''' ('''[[Roman numerals|MCCXCI]]''') was a [[common year starting on Monday]] of the [[Julian calendar]].

== Events ==
<onlyinclude>

=== By place ===

==== Europe ====
* [[August 1]] &ndash; [[Federal Charter of 1291]]: The "three forest cantons" (''[[Waldstätte]]'') of Switzerland ([[Schwyz]], [[Canton of Uri|Uri]] and [[Unterwalden]]) form a defensive alliance to protect themselves from the [[House of Habsburg]]; this is a starting point for [[growth of the Old Swiss Confederacy]]. This year is also the traditional date of the [[Rütli Oath]] (''Rütlischwur''), the swearing of an oath by the three cantonal representatives at [[Rütli]] meadow.<ref>''White Book of [[Sarnen]]'' (15th century).</ref>
* [[August 6]] &ndash; A combined Genoese-Sevillian fleet led by Admiral [[Benedetto I Zaccaria|Benedetto Zaccaria]] wins a victory over 27 Marinid galleys at [[Ksar es-Seghir|Alcácer Seguir]] –12 galleys are taken and the rest put to flight. The following day, Benedetto drags the captured vessels along the coast in view of [[Abu Yaqub Yusuf an-Nasr]], Marinid ruler of [[Morocco]], who, "defeated and dishonored", withdraws his fleet to [[Fez, Morocco|Fez]].<ref>O'Callaghan, Joseph F. (2011). ''The Gibraltar Crusade: Castile and the Battle for the Strait'', p. 96. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. {{ISBN|978-0-8122-2302-6}}.</ref> 
* Late [[September]] &ndash; Abu Yaqub Yusuf an-Nasr crosses the [[Strait of Gibraltar]] from Alcácer Seguir to [[Tarifa]]. During the next three months, Marinid forces besiege [[Vejer de la Frontera]], and carry out daily raids around [[Jerez de la Frontera|Ferez]]. In the meantime, other Marinid raiding parties devastate the countryside as far north as [[Alcalá del Río]], near [[Seville]].<ref>O'Callaghan, Joseph F. (2011). ''The Gibraltar Crusade: Castile and the Battle for the Strait'', p. 97. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. {{ISBN|978-0-8122-2302-6}}.</ref> 
* [[November]]–[[December]] &ndash; The kings [[Sancho IV of Castile]] ("the Brave") and  [[James II of Aragon]] ("the Just") agree to join the war against the Marinids and conclude a treaty of friendship. [[Muhammad II of Granada|Muhammad II]], Nasrid ruler of [[Emirate of Granada|Granada]], gives his support to Sancho to take Tarifa from the Marinids. In the agreement, [[Kingdom of Castile|Castile]] and [[Kingdom of Aragon|Aragon]] will respect their own boundaries.<ref>O'Callaghan, Joseph F. (2011). ''The Gibraltar Crusade: Castile and the Battle for the Strait'', pp. 97–98. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. {{ISBN|978-0-8122-2302-6}}.</ref>
* [[Pope Nicholas IV]] confirms the independence of [[San Marino]] by [[papal bull]].</onlyinclude>
* [[Klenová Castle]] is constructed in southern [[Bohemia]] near the town of [[Klatovy]] (modern [[Czech Republic]]) as part of a frontier defense system.
* King [[Andrew III of Hungary]] ("the Venetian") gives royal [[town privileges]] to [[Bratislava]], modern-day capital of [[Slovakia]].

==== Britain ====
* Spring &ndash; Several nobles unsuccessfully claim the Scottish throne (a process known as the 'Great Cause'), including [[John Balliol]], [[Robert de Brus, 5th Lord of Annandale|Robert de Brus]], [[John Hastings, 1st Baron Hastings|John Hastings]] and [[William de Vesci (d.1297)|William de Vesci]]. Fearing civil war, the [[Guardian of Scotland|Guardians of Scotland]] ask King [[Edward I of England]] to arbitrate. Before agreeing, he obtains concessions to revive English overlordship over the Scots.
* [[May 10]] &ndash; Edward I meets the claimants for the Scottish crown at [[Norham Castle]] and informs them that he will judge the various claims to the throne, but they must acknowledge him as overlord of [[Kingdom of Scotland|Scotland]] and, to ensure peace, surrender the royal castles of the kingdom into his keeping.<ref>Armstrong, Pete (2003). Osprey: ''Stirling Bridge & Falkirk 1297–98'', p. 7. {{ISBN|1-84176-510-4}}.</ref>
* [[June 13]] &ndash; Guardians and the Scottish nobles recognize Edward I as overlord of Scotland, agreeing that the kingdom will be handed over to himd until a rightful heir has been found.<ref>Prestwich, Michael (1997). ''Edward I'', p. 365. The English Monarchs Series. Yale University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-300-07209-9}}.</ref>

==== Levant ====
* [[May 18]] &ndash; [[Siege of Acre (1291)|Siege of Acre]]: Mamluk forces under Sultan [[Al-Ashraf Khalil]] capture [[Acre, Israel|Acre]] after a six-week siege. The Mamluks take the outer wall of the city after fierce fighting. The Military Orders drive them back temporarily, but three days later the inner wall is breached. King [[Henry II of Cyprus]] escapes, but the bulk of the defenders and most of the citizens perish in the fighting or are sold into slavery. The surviving knights fall back to the fortified towers and resist for ten days until the Mamluks breakthrough on [[May 28]].<ref>[[Steven Runciman]] (1952). ''A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre'', p. 351. {{ISBN|978-0-241-29877-0}}.</ref> The fall of Acre signals the end of the Crusader [[Kingdom of Jerusalem]]. No effective Crusade is raised to recapture the [[Holy Land]] afterward.<ref>David Nicolle (2005). Osprey: ''Acre 1291 - Bloody sunset of the Crusader states'', pp. 18–19. {{ISBN|978-1-84176-862-5}}.</ref>
* [[June]] &ndash; Al-Ashraf Khalil enters [[Damascus]] in triumph with Crusaders chained at their feet and the captured Crusader standards, which are carried upside-down as a sign of their defeat. Following the capture of Acre, Khalil and his Mamluk generals proceed to wrest control of the remaining Crusader-held fortresses along the Syrian coast. Within weeks, the Mamluks conquer [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]], [[Sidon]], [[Beirut]], [[Haifa]] and [[Tartus]].<ref>Holt, Peter Malcolm (1986). ''The Age of the Crusades: The Near East from the Eleventh Century to 1517'', p. 104. Addison Wesley Longman Limited. {{ISBN|978-1-31787-152-1}}.</ref>
* [[July]] &ndash; [[Thibaud Gaudin]] arrives with the surviving knights, with the treasure of the Order, in Sidon. There, he is elected as Grand Master of the [[Knights Templar]], to succeed [[Guillaume de Beaujeu]] (who was mortally wounded during the siege of Acre). Shortly after, Mamluk forces attack Sidon and Gaudin (who has not had enough knights to defend) evacuates the city and moves to the [[Sidon Sea Castle]] on [[July 14]].<ref>Steven Runciman (1952). ''A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre'', p. 352. {{ISBN|978-0-241-29877-0}}.</ref>
* [[August 14]] &ndash; Mamluk forces conquer the last Crusader outpost in [[Syria]], the Templar fortress of [[Château Pèlerin|Atlit]] south of Acre.   All that now is left to the Knights Templar is the island fortress of [[Arwad|Ruad]]. Al-Ashraf Khalil returns to [[Cairo]] in triumph as the "victor in the long struggle against the [[Crusader states]]".<ref>Steven Runciman (1952). ''A History of The Crusades. Vol III: The Kingdom of Acre'', p. 353. {{ISBN|978-0-241-29877-0}}.</ref>

==== Asia ====
* In [[Japan]] the temple of [[Nanzen-ji]] at [[Kyoto]] is established by Emperor [[Emperor Kameyama|Kameyama]]. This temple becomes one of the most important religious schools within the [[Rinzai school|Rinzai sect]] of [[Zen]] [[Buddhism in Japan|Buddhism]] and includes multiple sub-temples. 
* [[Guo Shoujing]], Chinese engineer and astronomer, constructs the artificial [[Kunming Lake]], which is developed into a reservoir with [[Summer Garden|summer garden]]s for [[Khanbaliq]] (or Dadu of Yuan), Mongol capital of Emperor [[Kublai Khan]].

=== By topic ===

==== Economy ====
* Four towns of the [[County of Holland]] ([[Dordrecht]], [[Haarlem]], [[Leiden]] and [[Alkmaar]]) and two of the [[County of Zeeland]] ([[Middelburg, Zeeland|Middelburg]] and [[Zierikzee]]) agree collectively to secure a loan by their sovereign, Count [[Floris V, Count of Holland|Floris V]]. This gives important securities to the lenders, and allows Floris to access the same low interest rates as the cities’ governments.<ref>{{cite journal|last= Zuijderduijn|first=Jaco|title= The emergence of provincial debt in the county of Holland (thirteenth-sixteenth centuries)|journal= European Review of Economic History|year=2010|volume=14|issue=2|pages=335–359|doi=10.1017/S1361491610000055}}</ref>
* Venetian glass manufacture is concentrated on the island of [[Murano]] (located in the [[Venetian Lagoon]]), to prevent fires in [[Venice]] itself.

==== Exploration ====
* Spring &ndash; The brothers [[Vandino and Ugolino Vivaldi]], Italian explorers and merchants from [[Republic of Genoa|Genoa]], embark with two galleys intending to reach [[India]] and establish a trade route to [[Kingdom of Italy (Holy Roman Empire)|Italy]]. They sail along the coast of present-day [[Morocco]] after passing through the [[Strait of Gibraltar]]. They may have followed the African coast as far as [[Cape Chaunar|Cape Non]] before being lost at sea.<ref>Chisholm, Hugh (1911). "Vivaldo, Ugolino and Sorleone de". ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', p. 152. Vol. 28 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.</ref>

== Births ==
* [[February 8]] &ndash; [[Afonso IV of Portugal|Afonso IV]] ("the Brave"), king of [[Kingdom of Portugal|Portugal]] (d. [[1357]])<ref>{{cite web |title=Afonso IV {{!}} king of Portugal |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Afonso-IV |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=12 February 2021 |language=en}}</ref>
* [[March 9]] &ndash; [[Cangrande I della Scala]], Italian [[Nobility|nobleman]] (d. [[1329]])
* [[May 10]] &ndash; [[Gilbert de Clare, 8th Earl of Gloucester|Gilbert de Clare]], English nobleman and knight (d. [[1314]])
* [[August 12]] &ndash; [[Ichijō Uchitsune]], Japanese nobleman (''[[kugyō]]'') (d. [[1325]])
* [[September 23]] &ndash; [[Bolesław III the Generous|Bolesław III]], Polish nobleman and knight (d. [[1352]])
* [[October 31]] &ndash; [[Philippe de Vitry]], French musician and poet (d. [[1361]])
* [[December 15]] &ndash; [[Aymon, Count of Savoy|Aymon]] ("the Peaceful"), Savoyan nobleman (d. [[1343]])
* [[December 20]] &ndash; [[Margareta Ebner]], German nun and mystic (d. [[1351]])
* [[Hugh de Audley, 1st Earl of Gloucester|Hugh de Audley]], English nobleman, knight and diplomat (d. [[1347]])
* [[Luis de la Cerda]], French nobleman, prince and admiral (d. [[1348]])
* [[Luitgard of Wittichen]], German nun, [[abbess]] and mystic (d. 1348)
* [[Marie of Artois]], French noblewoman ([[House of Artois]]) (d. [[1365]])
* [[Shah Kamal Quhafah]], Arab philanthropist and mystic (d. [[1385]])
* [[Tōin Kinkata]], Japanese official, historian and writer (d. [[1360]])

== Deaths ==
* [[March 5]] &ndash; [[Sa'ad al-Dawla]], Persian physician and [[vizier]] (b. [[1240]])
* [[March 10]] &ndash; [[Arghun|Arghun Khan]], Mongol ruler of the [[Ilkhanate]] (b. [[1258]])
* [[March 16]] &ndash; [[Alauddin Sabir Kaliyari]], Indian [[Sufism|Sufi]] preacher (b. [[1196]])
* [[May 11]] &ndash; [[Thomas Ingoldsthorpe]], English archdeacon and bishop
* [[May 18]] &ndash; [[Matthew of Clermont]], French nobleman and Marshal
* [[May 25]] &ndash; [[Bengt Birgersson]], Swedish duke and bishop (b. [[1254]])
* [[June 5]] &ndash; [[John I, Prince of Anhalt-Bernburg|John I]], German nobleman ([[House of Ascania]]) (b. [[1260]])
* [[June 18]] &ndash; [[Alfonso III of Aragon|Alfonso III]] (or II; "the Liberal"), king of [[Kingdom of Aragon|Aragon]] (b. [[1265]])<ref>{{cite web |title=Alfonso III {{!}} king of Aragon |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Alfonso-III-king-of-Aragon |website=Encyclopedia Britannica |access-date=17 November 2020 |language=en}}</ref>
* [[June 25]] &ndash; [[Eleanor of Provence]], queen consort of [[Kingdom of England|England]] (b. [[1223]])
* [[June 27]] &ndash; [[Tanhum of Jerusalem]], Outremer lexicographer (b. [[1220]])
* July &ndash; [[Muzaffar al-Din Hajjaj]], Qutlughkhanid prince and co-ruler (b. [[1247]])
* [[July 12]] &ndash; [[Herman VII, Margrave of Baden-Baden]] ("the Rouser"), German nobleman (b. [[1266]])
* [[July 15]] &ndash; [[Rudolf I of Germany|Rudolf I]], king of [[Kingdom of Germany|Germany]] ([[House of Habsburg]]) (b. [[1218]])
* [[August 16]] &ndash; [[Frederick Tuta]], German nobleman and [[regent]] (b. [[1269]])
* [[October 8]] &ndash; [[Henry I of Werle]], German nobleman, prince and knight (b. [[1245]])
* [[December 11]] &ndash; [[Francesco Lippi]], Italian monk and [[hermit]] (b. [[1211]])
* [[Alfonso de Castilla y Molina]], Castilian nobleman and prince (''[[infante]]'') (b. [[1286]])
* Badr al-Din [[Solamish]], Mamluk ruler of [[Egypt in the Middle Ages|Egypt]] and [[Syria]] (b. [[1272]])
* [[Guy de Montfort, Count of Nola|Guy de Montfort]], English nobleman and [[Vicar general|Vicar-General]] (b. [[1244]])
* [[Hong Ta-gu]] (or Jun-gi), Korean ruler and military leader (b. 1244) 
* [[Niall Culanach O'Neill]] (or Culanagh), Irish king of [[Tír Eoghain]], killed (b. [[1231]])
* [[Nuño González de Lara (died 1291)|Nuño González II]], Castilian nobleman and knight ([[House of Lara]]) 
* [[Philip Marmion, 5th Baron Marmion of Tamworth]], Norman [[Queen's Champion|King's Champion]], High Sheriff and knight
* [[William de Braose, 1st Baron Braose]], Norman nobleman ([[House of Braose]]) (b. [[1224]]) 
* [[Guillaume de Beaujeu]], French nobleman and Grand Master (b. [[1230]])

== References ==
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