Editing Ātman (Hinduism)

{{Short description|Hindu concept for inner self or essence as mere consciousness}}
{{Other uses|Atman (disambiguation)}}
{{Italic title}}
{{Hinduism}}
'''''Ātman''''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɑː|t|m|ə|n}}; {{langx|sa|आत्मन्}}) is a [[Sanskrit]] word for the true or eternal [[Self]] or the self-existent essence or an impersonal (''it'') witness-consciousness within each individual. Atman is conceptually different from [[Jiva|Jīvātman]], which persists across [[reincarnation|multiple bodies and lifetimes]]. Some schools of [[Indian philosophy]] regard the ''Ātman'' as distinct from the material or mortal ego (''[[Ahankara]]''), the emotional aspect of the [[mind]] (''[[Citta]]''), and existence in an embodied form (''[[Prakṛti]]'').{{refn|group=note|name="Atman_definition"}} The term is often translated as [[soul]],{{R|g=note|Atman_soul}} but is better translated as "Self",{{sfn|Shepard|1991}} as it solely refers to [[Purusha|pure consciousness]] or [[Sakshi (Witness)|witness-consciousness]], beyond identification with phenomena. In order to attain [[moksha]] (liberation), a human being must acquire self-knowledge (''[[jnana|Atma Gyaan]] or [[Brahmavidya|Brahmajnana]]'').

''Ātman'' is a central concept in the various schools of [[Indian philosophy]], which have different views on the relation between ''Atman'', individual Self (''[[Jiva|Jīvātman]]''), supreme Self (''[[Paramatman|Paramātmā]]'') and, the Ultimate Reality (''[[Brahman]]''), stating that they are: completely identical ([[Advaita Vedanta|Advaita]], Non-Dualist),{{sfn|Lorenzen|2004|p=208-209}}<ref>Richard King (1995), Early Advaita Vedanta and Buddhism, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791425138}}, page 64, '''Quote:''' "Atman as the innermost essence or soul of man, and Brahman as the innermost essence and support of the universe. (...) Thus we can see in the Upanishads, a tendency towards a convergence of microcosm and macrocosm, culminating in the equating of atman with Brahman".</ref> completely different ([[Dvaita Vedanta|Dvaita]], Dualist), or simultaneously non-different and different ([[Bhedabheda]], Non-Dualist + Dualist).<ref>* Advaita: {{citation |title=Hindu Philosophy: Advaita |url=https://www.iep.utm.edu/hindu-ph/#SSH3f.iii |website=[[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |access-date=9 June 2020}} and {{citation |title=Advaita Vedanta |url=https://www.iep.utm.edu/adv-veda/ |website=[[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |access-date=9 June 2020}}<br>* Dvaita: {{citation |title=Hindu Philosophy: Dvaita |url=https://www.iep.utm.edu/hindu-ph/#SSH3f.v |website=[[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |access-date=9 June 2020}} and {{citation |title=Madhva (1238—1317) |url=https://www.iep.utm.edu/madhva/ |website=[[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |access-date=9 June 2020}}<br>* Bhedabheda: {{citation |title=Bhedabheda Vedanta |url=https://www.iep.utm.edu/bhed-ved/ |website=[[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |access-date=9 June 2020}}</ref>

The [[astika and nastika|six orthodox schools]] of Hinduism believe that there is ''Ātman'' in every living being (''[[jiva]]''), which is distinct from the body-mind complex. This is a major point of difference with the [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] doctrine of ''[[Anatta]]'', which holds that in essence there is no unchanging essence or Self to be found in the empirical constituents of a living being,{{refn|group=note|name="Atman_Buddhism"}} staying silent on ''what'' it is that is liberated.{{sfn|Jayatilleke|1963|p=39}}{{sfn|Bronkhorst|1993|p=99 with footnote 12}}{{sfn|Bronkhorst|2009|p=25}}{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=59–60}}

==Etymology and meaning==

===Etymology===
''Ātman'' (''Atma'', आत्मा, आत्मन्) is a Sanskrit word that refers to "essence, breath."<ref group=web name="EB_Atman"/><ref group=web name=dougharper/>{{sfn|Dalal|2011|p=38}} It is derived from the [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] word ''{{PIE|*h₁eh₁tmṓ}}'' (a root meaning "breath" similar to Ancient Greek ''ἀτμός'' along with Germanic cognates:  Dutch ''adem'', Afrikaans ''asem'', Old High German ''atum'' "breath," Modern German ''atmen'' "to breathe" and ''Atem'' "respiration, breath", Modern English ''ethem'', and Old English ''ǽþm'' and ''eþian'').<ref group=web name=dougharper/>

''Ātman'', sometimes spelled without a diacritic as ''atman'' in scholarly literature,{{sfn|McClelland|2010|p=16, 34}} means "real Self" of the individual,{{refn|group=note|name="Atman_definition"}} "innermost essence."<ref>{{citation|author=Karel Werner|title=Yoga and Indian Philosophy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c6b3lH0-OekC|year=1998|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1609-1|pages=57–58}}</ref> While often translated as "soul", it is better translated as "self."{{sfn|Shepard|1991}}{{R|g=note|Atman_soul}}

===Meaning===
In Hinduism, ''Atman'' refers to the self-existent essence of human beings, the observing [[Purusha|pure consciousness]] or [[Sakshi (Witness)|witness-consciousness]] as exemplified by the [[Purusha]] of Samkhya. It is distinct from the ever-evolving embodied individual being (''jivanatman'') embedded in material reality, exemplified by the [[prakriti]] of Samkhya, and characterized by ''Ahamkara'' (ego, non-spiritual psychological I-ness Me-ness), mind (''citta'', ''manas''), and all the defiling ''kleshas'' (habits, prejudices, desires, impulses, delusions, fads, behaviors, pleasures, sufferings and fears). Embodied personality and ''Ahamkara'' shift, evolve or change with time,  while ''Atman'' doesn't.{{sfn|Plott|2000|p=60-62}} It is "pure, undifferentiated, self-shining consciousness."{{sfn|Deutsch|1973|p=48}}

As such, it is different from non-Hindu notions of [[soul]], which includes consciousness but also the mental abilities of a living being, such as reason, character, feeling, consciousness, memory, perception and thinking. In Hinduism, these are all included in embodied reality, the counterpart of ''Atman''.

Atman, in Hinduism, is considered as eternal, imperishable, beyond time, "not the same as body or mind or consciousness, but... something beyond which permeates all these".<ref>{{citation|author=Roshen Dalal|title=The Religions of India: A Concise Guide to Nine Major Faiths|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pNmfdAKFpkQC |year=2010|publisher=Penguin Books|isbn=978-0-14-341517-6|page=38}}</ref><ref>{{citation|author=Norman C. McClelland |title=Encyclopedia of Reincarnation and Karma |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S_Leq4U5ihkC |year=2010|publisher=McFarland |isbn=978-0-7864-5675-8 |pages=34–35 }}</ref><ref>[a] {{citation|author=Julius Lipner |author-link=Julius Lipner|title=Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oH1FIareczEC |year=2012|publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-135-24060-8 |pages=53–56, 81, 160–161, 269–270 }};<br>[b] {{citation|author=P. T. Raju|title=Structural Depths of Indian Thought|url=https://archive.org/details/structuraldepths0000raju |url-access=registration|year=1985|publisher=State University of New York Press|isbn=978-0-88706-139-4|pages=[https://archive.org/details/structuraldepths0000raju/page/26 26]–37}};<br>[c] {{citation|author=Gavin D. Flood |title=An Introduction to Hinduism |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo |url-access=registration |year=1996|publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-43878-0|pages=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontohi0000floo/page/15 15], 84–85 }}</ref> ''Atman'' is the unchanging, eternal, innermost radiant Self that is unaffected by personality, unaffected by ego; ''Atman'' is that which is ever-free, never-bound, the realized purpose, meaning, liberation in life.<ref>James Hart (2009), Who One Is: Book 2: Existenz and Transcendental Phenomenology, Springer, {{ISBN|978-1402091773}}, pages 2-3, 46-47</ref><ref>Richard White (2012), The Heart of Wisdom: A Philosophy of Spiritual Life, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, {{ISBN|978-1442221161}}, pages 125-131</ref> As Puchalski states, "the ultimate goal of Hindu religious life is to transcend individuality, to realize one's own true nature", the inner essence of oneself, which is divine and pure.<ref>Christina Puchalski (2006), A Time for Listening and Caring, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195146820}}, page 172</ref>

==Development of the concept==

===Vedas===
The earliest use of the word ''Ātman'' in [[Indian literature|Indian texts]] is found in the [[Rig Veda]] (RV X.97.11).<ref>[http://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_१०.९७ ऋग्वेद: सूक्तं १०.९७], Wikisource; Quote: "यदिमा वाजयन्नहमोषधीर्हस्त आदधे । '''आत्मा''' यक्ष्मस्य नश्यति पुरा जीवगृभो यथा ॥११॥</ref> [[Yāska]], the ancient Indian grammarian, commenting on this Rigvedic verse, accepts the following meanings of ''Ātman'': the pervading principle, the organism in which other elements are united and the ultimate sentient principle.<ref>Baumer, Bettina and Vatsyayan, Kapila. Kalatattvakosa Vol. 1: Pervasive Terms Vyapti (Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts). Motilal Banarsidass; Revised edition (March 1, 2001). [https://books.google.com/books?id=q1XoNhUrP1MC&dq=atman+etymology&pg=PA42 P. 42.] {{ISBN|8120805844}}.</ref>

Other hymns of Rig Veda where the word ''Ātman'' appears include I.115.1, VII.87.2, VII.101.6, VIII.3.24, IX.2.10, IX.6.8, and X.168.4.<ref>Source 1: [http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/rvsan/index.htm Rig veda] Sanskrit;<br>Source 2: [http://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेदः/संहिता ऋग्वेदः/संहिता] Wikisource</ref>

===Upanishads===
''Ātman'' is a central topic in all of the [[Upanishads]], and "know your Ātman" is one of their thematic foci.<ref name=ptraju>PT Raju (1985), Structural Depths of Indian Thought, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0887061394}}, pages 35-36</ref> The Upanishads say that ''Atman'' denotes "the ultimate essence of the universe" as well as "the vital breath in human beings", which is "imperishable Divine within" that is neither born nor does it die.{{sfn|Grimes|1996|p=69}} Cosmology and psychology are indistinguishable, and these texts state that the core of every person's Self is not the body, nor the mind, nor the ego, but ''Ātman''.

The Upanishads express two distinct, somewhat divergent themes on the relation between Atman and Brahman. Some teach that Brahman (highest reality; universal principle; being-consciousness-bliss) is identical with ''Ātman'', while others teach that ''Ātman'' is part of Brahman but not identical to it.{{sfn|Koller|2012|p=99-102}}<ref>[[Paul Deussen]], {{Google books|B0QzAQAAMAAJ|The Philosophy of the Upanishads}}, Dover Publications, pages 86-111, 182-212</ref> This ancient debate flowered into various dual and non-dual theories in Hinduism. The [[Brahmasutra]] by Badarayana (~100 BCE) synthesized and unified these somewhat conflicting theories, stating that ''Atman'' and Brahman are different in some respects, particularly during the state of ignorance, but at the deepest level and in the state of self-realization, ''Atman'' and Brahman are identical, non-different (advaita).{{sfn|Koller|2012|p=99-102}} According to Koller, this synthesis countered the dualistic tradition of Samkhya-Yoga schools and realism-driven traditions of Nyaya-Vaiseshika schools, enabling it to become the foundation of Vedanta as Hinduism's most influential spiritual tradition.{{sfn|Koller|2012|p=99-102}}

The ''atman'', according to several Upaniṣadic texts, is present within the human body, extending even to the extremities such as the tips of the nails (''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad'' 1.4.7). Though the ''atman'' pervades the entire body, the Upanishads often emphasize the heart, not as a physical organ but as an inner "cave" or ''guha'', as the atman's special locus. It is described as lying deep within the heart (''Chandogya Upanishad'' III.14.3-4).<ref>{{Citation |last=Mitra |first=Arpita |title=Ātman, Hinduism |date=2018 |work=Hinduism and Tribal Religions |pages=1–8 |editor-last=Jain |editor-first=Pankaj |url=https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007/978-94-024-1036-5_172-1 |access-date=2025-05-17 |place=Dordrecht |publisher=Springer Netherlands |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-94-024-1036-5_172-1 |isbn=978-94-024-1036-5 |editor2-last=Sherma |editor2-first=Rita |editor3-last=Khanna |editor3-first=Madhu}}</ref>

====''Brihadaranyaka Upanishad''====
The ''[[Brihadaranyaka Upanishad]]'' (800-600 BCE<ref name=olivelleintro>[[Patrick Olivelle]] (2014), The Early Upanishads, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0195124354}}, page 12-13</ref>) describes ''Atman'' as that in which everything exists, which is of the highest value, which permeates everything, which is the essence of all, bliss and beyond description.<ref>Raju, Poolla Tirupati. Structural Depths of Indian Thought. SUNY Series in Philosophy. P. 26. {{ISBN|0-88706-139-7}}.</ref> In hymn 4.4.5, Brihadaranyaka Upanishad describes ''Atman'' as ''Brahman'', and associates it with everything one is, everything one can be, one's free will, one's desire, what one does, what one doesn't do, the good in oneself, the bad in oneself.
{{blockquote|That ''Atman'' (self, soul) is indeed Brahman. It [Ātman] is also identified with the intellect, the Manas (mind), and the vital breath, with the eyes and ears, with earth, water, air, and ākāśa (sky), with fire and with what is other than fire, with desire and the absence of desire, with anger and the absence of anger, with righteousness and unrighteousness, with everything — it is identified, as is well known, with this (what is perceived) and with that (what is inferred).

As it [Ātman] does and acts, so it becomes: by doing good it becomes good, and by doing evil it becomes evil. It becomes virtuous through good acts, and vicious through evil acts. Others, however, say, "The self is identified with desire alone. What it desires, so it resolves; what it resolves, so is its deed; and what deed it does, so it reaps.|Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 4.4.5, 9th century BCE<ref>Sanskrit Original: [http://sanskritdocuments.org/doc_upanishhat/brinew-proofed.html?lang=sa बृहदारण्यक उपनिषद्] मन्त्र ५ [IV.iv.5], Sanskrit Documents;<br />'''Translation 1''': [https://archive.org/stream/Brihadaranyaka.Upanishad.Shankara.Bhashya.by.Swami.Madhavananda#page/n739/mode/2up Brihadāranyaka Upanishad 4.4.5]  Madhavananda (Translator), page 712;<br />'''Translation 2''': [https://archive.org/stream/The_Brihad_aranyaka_upanishad_Sankarabhashya_English/The_brihad_aranyaka_upanishad-SankarabhashyaEnglishforChapter1Only-1849#page/n243/mode/2up Brihadāranyaka Upanishad 4.4.5]  Eduard Roer (Translator), page 235</ref>}}

This theme of ''Ātman'', that the essence and Self of every person and being is the same as Brahman, is extensively repeated in Brihadāranyaka Upanishad. The Upanishad asserts that this knowledge of "I am Brahman", and that there is no difference between "I" and "you", or "I" and "him" is a source of liberation, and not even gods can prevail over such a liberated man. For example, in hymn 1.4.10,<ref name=bu1410/>
{{blockquote|
Brahman was this before; therefore it knew even the Ātma (soul, himself). I am Brahman, therefore it became all. And whoever among the gods had this enlightenment, also became That. It is the same with the sages, the same with men. Whoever knows the self as "I am Brahman," becomes all this universe. Even the gods cannot prevail against him, for he becomes their Ātma. Now, if a man worships another god, thinking: "He is one and I am another," he does not know. He is like an animal to the gods. As many animals serve a man, so does each man serve the gods. Even if one animal is taken away, it causes anguish; how much more so when many are taken away? Therefore it is not pleasing to the gods that men should know this.
|Brihadaranyaka Upanishad 1.4.10<ref name=bu1410>Sanskrit Original: [http://sanskritdocuments.org/doc_upanishhat/brinew-proofed.html?lang=sa बृहदारण्यक उपनिषद्], Sanskrit Documents;<br />'''Translation 1''': [https://archive.org/stream/The_Brihad_aranyaka_upanishad_Sankarabhashya_English/The_brihad_aranyaka_upanishad-SankarabhashyaEnglishforChapter1Only-1849#page/n107/mode/2up Brihadāranyaka Upanishad 1.4.10]  Eduard Roer (Translator), pages 101-120, Quote: "For he becomes the soul of them." (page 114);<br />'''Translation 2''': [https://archive.org/stream/Brihadaranyaka.Upanishad.Shankara.Bhashya.by.Swami.Madhavananda#page/n173/mode/2up Brihadāranyaka Upanishad 1.4.10]  Madhavananda (Translator), page 146;</ref>}}

====''Chandogya Upanishad''====
The ''[[Chandogya Upanishad]]'' (7th-6th c. BCE) explains ''Ātman'' as that which appears to be separate between two living beings but isn't, that essence and innermost, true, radiant self of all individuals which connects and unifies all.  Hymn 6.10 explains it with the example of rivers, some of which flow to the east and some to the west, but ultimately all merge into the ocean and become one. In the same way, the individual souls are pure being, states the ''Chandogya Upanishad''; an individual soul is pure truth, and an individual soul is a manifestation of the ocean of one universal soul.<ref>[[Max Müller]], Upanishads, Wordsworth, {{ISBN|978-1840221022}}, pages XXIII-XXIV</ref>

====''Katha Upanishad''====
Along with the ''Brihadāranyaka'', all the earliest and middle Upanishads discuss ''Ātman'' as they build their theories to answer how man can achieve liberation, freedom and bliss. The ''[[Katha Upanishad]]''  (5th to 1st century BCE) explains ''Atman'' as the imminent and transcendent innermost essence of each human being and living creature, that this is one, even though the external forms of living creatures manifest in different forms.  Hymn 2.2.9 states:
{{blockquote|As the one fire, after it has entered the world, though one, takes different forms according to whatever it burns, so does the internal Ātman of all living beings, though one, takes a form according to whatever He enters and is outside all forms.
|Katha Upanishad, 2.2.9<ref>Original Sanskrit: अग्निर्यथैको भुवनं प्रविष्टो, रूपं रूपं प्रतिरूपो बभूव । एकस्तथा सर्वभूतान्त'''रात्मा''', रूपं रूपं प्रतिरूपो बहिश्च ॥ ९ ॥;<br />'''English Translation 1''': Stephen Knapp (2005), The Heart of Hinduism, {{ISBN|978-0595350759}}, page 202-203;<br />'''English Translation 2''':[[s:Sacred Books of the East - Volume 15/Katha-upanishad|Katha Upanishad]] Max Müller (Translator), Fifth Valli, 9th verse</ref>}}

Katha Upanishad, in Book 1, hymns 3.3-3.4, describes the widely cited proto-Samkhya analogy of chariot for the relation of "Soul, Self" to body, mind and senses.<ref name=kathaup2>Sanskrit Original: आत्मानँ रथितं विद्धि शरीरँ रथमेव तु । बुद्धिं तु सारथिं विद्धि मनः प्रग्रहमेव च ॥ ३ ॥ इन्द्रियाणि हयानाहुर्विषयाँ स्तेषु गोचरान् । आत्मेन्द्रियमनोयुक्तं भोक्तेत्याहुर्मनीषिणः ॥ ४ ॥, [http://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/कठोपनिषद् Katha Upanishad] Wikisource;<br />English Translation: Max Müller, [https://archive.org/stream/SacredBooksEastVariousOrientalScholarsWithIndex.50VolsMaxMuller/15.SacredBooksEast.VarOrSch.v15.Muller.Hindu.Mull.Upanishads.p2.KathMundTait..Mait.Oxf.1884.#page/n71/mode/2up Katha Upanishad] Third Valli, Verse 3 & 4 and through 15, pages 12-14</ref> Stephen Kaplan<ref name=stevekaplan>Stephen Kaplan (2011), The Routledge Companion to Religion and Science, (Editors: James W. Haag, Gregory R. Peterson, Michael L. Speziopage), Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415492447}}, page 323</ref> translates these hymns as, "Know the Self as the rider in a chariot, and the body as simply the chariot. Know the intellect as the charioteer, and the mind as the reins. The senses, they say are the horses, and sense objects are the paths around them". The Katha Upanishad then declares that "when the Self [Ātman] understands this and is unified, integrated with body, senses and mind, is virtuous, mindful and pure, he reaches bliss, freedom and liberation".<ref name=kathaup2/>

=== Bhagavad Gita ===
In [[Bhagavad Gita]] verses 10-30 of the second chapter, Krishna urges Arjuna to understand the indestructible nature of the ''atman'', emphasizing that it transcends the finite body it inhabits. The ''atman'' neither kills nor can be killed, as it is eternal and unaffected by birth or death.<ref name=":0" /> The analogy of changing clothes is used to illustrate how the soul discards old bodies for new ones. Krishna emphasizes the eternal existence of the soul by explaining that even as it undergoes various life stages and changes bodies it remains unaffected. It is imperceptible, inconceivable, and unchanging.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Sutton |first=Nicholas |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s-rEAQAACAAJ |title=Bhagavad Gita: The Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies Guide |date=2017-03-13 |publisher=Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies |isbn=978-1-5030-5291-8 |pages=35–37 |language=en}}</ref>

==Indian philosophy==

===Orthodox schools===
{{Main|Hindu philosophy}}

Atman is a metaphysical and spiritual concept for Hindus, often discussed in their scriptures with the concept of Brahman.<ref>{{citation|author=A. L. Herman |title=An Introduction to Indian Thought |url=https://archive.org/details/introductiontoin00alhe |url-access=registration |year=1976|publisher=Prentice-Hall |isbn=978-0-13-484477-0 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/introductiontoin00alhe/page/110 110]–115 }}</ref><ref>{{citation|author=Jeaneane D. Fowler |title=Hinduism: Beliefs and Practices |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RmGKHu20hA0C |year=1997|publisher=Sussex Academic Press |isbn=978-1-898723-60-8|pages=109–121 }}</ref><ref>{{citation|author=Arvind Sharma |title=Advaita Vedānta: An Introduction |url=https://archive.org/details/advaitavedanta00arvi |url-access=registration |year=2004|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |isbn=978-81-208-2027-2 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/advaitavedanta00arvi/page/24 24]–43 }}</ref> All major orthodox schools of Hinduism – Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisesika, Mimamsa, and Vedanta – accept the foundational premise of the Vedas and Upanishads that "Ātman exists." In [[Hindu philosophy]], especially in the [[Vedanta]] school of [[Hinduism]], ''Ātman'' is the [[first principle]].<ref>Deussen, Paul and Geden, A. S. The Philosophy of the Upanishads. Cosimo Classics (June 1, 2010). P. 86. {{ISBN|1616402407}}.</ref> [[Ātman (Jainism)|Jainism]] too accepts this premise, although it has its own idea of what that means. In contrast, both Buddhism and the [[Charvaka]]s deny that there is anything called "Ātman/soul/self".{{sfn|Plott|2000|p=60-62}}

====Samkhya====
[[File:Purusha-Pakriti.jpg|thumb|right|Purusha-prakriti]]
{{Main|Samkhya}}

In Samkhya, the oldest school of Hinduism, [[Purusha|Puruṣa]], the witness-consciousness, is ''Atman''. It is absolute, independent, free, imperceptible, unknowable through other agencies, above any experience by mind or senses and beyond any words or explanations. It remains pure, "nonattributive consciousness". Puruṣa is neither produced nor does it produce.{{sfn|Sharma|1997|pages=155–7}} No appellations can qualify purusha, nor can it substantialized or objectified.{{sfn|Chapple|2008|p=21}} It "cannot be reduced, can't be 'settled'." Any designation of purusha comes from prakriti, and is a limitation.{{sfn|Osto|2018|p=203}} Unlike [[Advaita Vedanta]], and like [[Mīmāṃsā|Purva-Mīmāṃsā]], Samkhya believes in plurality of the puruṣas.{{sfn|Sharma|1997|pages=155–7}}{{sfn|Plott|2000|p=60-62}}

Samkhya considers ego (''[[Yoga (philosophy)#Epistemology|asmita]]'', ''[[ahamkara]]'') to be the cause of pleasure and pain.<ref>Paranjpe, A. C. Self and Identity in Modern Psychology and Indian Thought. Springer; 1 edition (September 30, 1998). P. 263-264. {{ISBN|978-0-306-45844-6}}.</ref> Self-knowledge is the means to attain ''[[kaivalya]]'', the separation of ''Atman'' from the body-mind complex.{{sfn|Plott|2000|p=60-62}}

====Yoga philosophy====
The Yogasutra of Patanjali, the foundational text of [[Yoga (philosophy)|Yoga]] school of Hinduism, mentions ''Atma'' in multiple verses, and particularly in its last book, where Samadhi is described as the path to self-knowledge and [[moksha|kaivalya]]. Some earlier mentions of ''Atman'' in Yogasutra include verse 2.5, where evidence of ignorance includes "confusing what is not Atman as Atman".

{{blockquote|
अनित्याशुचिदुःखा'''नात्म'''सु नित्यशुचिसु'''खात्म'''ख्यातिरविद्या

Avidya (अविद्या, ignorance) is regarding the transient as eternal, the impure as pure, the pain-giving as joy-giving, and the non-Atman as Atman.
|Yogasutra 2.5<ref name=pyogas3t>
* Sanskrit Original with '''Translation 1''': [https://archive.org/stream/yogaphilosophyb00tatygoog#page/n6/mode/2up The Yoga Philosophy] TR Tatya (Translator), with Bhojaraja commentary; Harvard University Archives;
* '''Translation 2''': [https://archive.org/stream/yogadaranasutra00patagoog#page/n4/mode/2up The Yoga-darsana: The sutras of Patanjali with the Bhasya of Vyasa] GN Jha (Translator), with notes; Harvard University Archives;
* '''Translation 3''': [https://archive.org/stream/yogasutrasofpata00pata#page/n5/mode/2up The Yogasutras of Patanjali] Charles Johnston (Translator)</ref>}}

In verses 2.19-2.20, Yogasutra declares that pure ideas are the domain of Atman, the perceivable universe exists to enlighten Atman, but while Atman is pure, it may be deceived by complexities of perception or mind. These verses also set the purpose of all experience as a means to self-knowledge.

{{blockquote|
द्रष्टा दृशिमात्रः शुद्धोऽपि प्रत्ययानुपश्यः<br>
तदर्थ एव दृश्यस्यात्मा

The seer is the absolute knower. Though pure, modifications are witnessed by him by coloring of intellect.<br>
The spectacle exists only to serve the purpose of the Atman.
|Yogasutra 2.19 - 2.20<ref name=pyogas3t/>}}

In Book 4, Yogasutra states spiritual liberation as the stage where the yogin achieves distinguishing self-knowledge, he no longer confuses his mind as Atman, the mind is no longer affected by afflictions or worries of any kind, ignorance vanishes, and "pure consciousness settles in its own pure nature".<ref name=pyogas3t/><ref>Verses 4.24-4.34, Patanjali's Yogasutras; Quote: "विशेषदर्शिन '''आत्म'''भावभावनाविनिवृत्तिः"</ref>

The Yoga school is similar to the Samkhya school in its conceptual foundations of ''Ātman''. It is the self that is discovered and realized in the Kaivalya state, in both schools. Like Samkhya, this is not a single universal ''Ātman''. It is one of the many individual selves where each "pure consciousness settles in its own pure nature", as a unique distinct soul/self.<ref>Stephen H. Phillips, ''Classical Indian Metaphysics: Refutations of Realism and the Emergence of "new Logic".'' Open Court Publishing, 1995, pages 12–13.</ref> However, Yoga school's methodology was widely influential on other schools of Hindu philosophy. Vedanta monism, for example, adopted Yoga as a means to reach ''Jivanmukti'' – self-realization in this life – as conceptualized in Advaita Vedanta. Yoga and [[Samkhya]] define ''Ātman'' as an "unrelated, attributeless, [[self-luminous]], omnipresent entity", which is identical with consciousness.{{sfn| Grimes|1996|p=69}}

====Nyaya====
Early atheistic [[Nyaya]] scholars, and later theistic Nyaya scholars, both made substantial contributions to the systematic study of ''Ātman''.{{sfn|Plott|2000|p=62}} They posited that even though "self" is intimately related to the knower, it can still be the subject of knowledge. John Plott{{sfn|Plott|2000|p=62}} states that the Nyaya scholars developed a theory of negation that far exceeds [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]]'s theory of [[negation]], while their epistemological theories refined to "know the knower" at least equals Aristotle's sophistication. Nyaya methodology influenced all major schools of Hinduism.

Nyaya scholars defined ''Ātman'' as an imperceptible substance that is the substrate of human consciousness, manifesting itself with or without qualities such as desires, feelings, perception, knowledge, understanding, errors, insights, sufferings, bliss, and others.<ref name=elisa/><ref>KK Chakrabarti (1999), Classical Indian Philosophy of Mind: The Nyaya Dualist Tradition, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791441718}}, pages 2, 187-188, 220</ref> 

Nyaya theory of the ''ātman'' had two broader contributions to Hindu conceptions of the ''ātman''. One, Nyaya scholars went beyond holding it as "self evident" and offered rational proofs, consistent with their epistemology, in their debates with Buddhists, that "Atman exists".<ref name="nyayaexamples" /> Second, they developed theories on what "Atman is and is not".<ref name="royperrett">Roy W. Perrett (Editor, 2000), Indian Philosophy: Metaphysics, Volume 3, Taylor & Francis, {{ISBN|978-0815336082}}, page xvii; also see Chakrabarti pages 279-292</ref> As proofs for the proposition 'self exists', for example, Nyaya scholars argued that personal recollections and memories of the form "I did this so many years ago" implicitly presume that there is a self that is substantial, continuing, unchanged, and existent.<ref name="nyayaexamples">See example discussed in this section; For additional examples of Nyaya reasoning to prove that 'self exists', using propositions and its theories of negation, see: [https://archive.org/stream/TheNyayaSutrasOfGotama/Vidyabhusana_Nyaya-Sutras_1913#page/n39/mode/2up Nyayasutra] verses 1.2.1 on pages 14-15, 1.2.59 on page 20, 3.1.1-3.1.27 on pages 63-69, and later chapters</ref><ref name="royperrett" />

[[Nyāya Sūtras|Nyayasutra]], a 2nd-century CE foundational text of Nyaya school of Hinduism, states that Atma is a proper object of human knowledge. It also states that Atman is a real substance that can be inferred from certain signs, objectively perceivable attributes. For example, in book 1, chapter 1, verses 9 and 10, Nyayasutra states<ref name=elisa/>
{{Blockquote|
''Ātman'', body, senses, objects of senses, intellect, mind, activity, error, ''pretyabhava'' (after life), fruit, suffering and bliss are the objects of right knowledge.<br>
Desire, aversion, effort, happiness, suffering and cognition are the ''Linga'' (लिङ्ग, mark, sign) of the ''Ātman''.
|Nyaya Sutra|I.1.9-10<ref name=elisa>Original Sanskrit: [https://archive.org/details/Anandashram_Samskrita_Granthavali_Anandashram_Sanskrit_Series Nyayasutra] Anand Ashram Sanskrit Granthvali, pages 26-28;<br>English translation 1: [https://archive.org/stream/TheNyayaSutrasOfGotama/Vidyabhusana_Nyaya-Sutras_1913#page/n29/mode/2up Nyayasutra] see verses 1.1.9 and 1.1.10 on pages 4-5;<br>English translation 2: Elisa Freschi (2014), Puspika: Tracing Ancient India Through Texts and Traditions, (Editors: Giovanni Ciotti, Alastair Gornall, Paolo Visigalli), Oxbow, {{ISBN|978-1782974154}}, pages 56-73</ref>}}

Book 2, chapter 1, verses 1 to 23, of the Nyayasutras posits that the sensory act of looking is different from perception and cognition–that perception and knowledge arise from the seekings and actions of ''Ātman''.<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/TheNyayaSutrasOfGotama/Vidyabhusana_Nyaya-the Sutras_1913#page/n47/mode/2up Nyayasutra] see pages 22-29</ref> The Naiyayikas emphasize that ''Ātman'' has qualities, but is different from its qualities. For example, desire is one of many qualities of ''Ātman'', but ''Ātman'' does not always have desire, and in the state of liberation, for instance, the ''Ātman'' is without desire.<ref name=elisa/> Additionally, the self has the property of consciousness, but that too, is not an essential property. Naiyayikas take the ''ātman'' to lose consciousness during deep sleep.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Thompson |first=Evan |url=https://www.google.com/books/edition/Waking_Dreaming_Being/q_vpBAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0 |title=Waking, Dreaming, Being: Self and Consciousness in Neuroscience, Meditation, and Philosophy |date=2014-11-18 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0-231-53831-2 |pages=240 |language=en}}</ref>

====Vaiśeṣika====
The [[Vaisheshika]] school of Hinduism, using its non-theistic theories of atomistic [[Naturalism (philosophy)|naturalism]], posits that ''Ātman'' is one of the four eternal non-physical<ref>The school posits that there are five physical substances: earth, water, air, water and ''akasa'' (ether/sky/space beyond air)</ref> substances without attributes, the other three being ''[[kāla]]'' (time), ''dik'' (space) and ''[[Manas (early Buddhism)|manas]]'' (mind).<ref name=sarachmo>Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan and Charles A. Moore (Eds., 1973), A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy, Princeton University Press, Reprinted in 1973, {{ISBN|978-0691019581}}, pages 386-423</ref> Time and space, stated Vaiśeṣika scholars, are ''eka'' (one), ''nitya'' (eternal) and ''vibhu'' (all pervading). Time and space are indivisible reality, but human mind prefers to divide them to comprehend past, present, future, relative place of other substances and beings, direction and its own coordinates in the universe. In contrast to these characteristics of time and space, Vaiśeṣika scholars considered ''Ātman'' to be many, eternal, independent and spiritual substances that cannot be reduced or inferred from other three non-physical and five physical ''dravya'' (substances).<ref name=sarachmo/> Mind and sensory organs are instruments, while consciousness is the domain of "atman, soul, self".<ref name=sarachmo/>

The knowledge of ''Ātman'', to Vaiśeṣika Hindus, is another knowledge without any "bliss" or "consciousness" ''[[moksha]]'' state that Vedanta and Yoga school describe.{{sfn|Plott|2000|p=60-62}}

====Mimamsa====
''Ātman'', in the ritualism-based [[Mīmāṃsā]] school of Hinduism, is an eternal, omnipresent, inherently active essence that is identified as I-consciousness.<ref name=ptraju2>PT Raju (2008), The Philosophical Traditions of India, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415461214}}, pages 79-80</ref><ref name=chrisbartley>Chris Bartley (2013), Purva Mimamsa, in Encyclopaedia of Asian Philosophy (Editor: Oliver Leaman), Routledge, 978-0415862530, page 443-445</ref> Unlike all other schools of Hinduism, Mimamsaka scholars considered ego and ''Atman'' as the same. Within Mimamsa school, there was divergence of beliefs. [[Kumārila Bhaṭṭa|Kumārila]], for example, believed that ''Atman'' is the object of I-consciousness, whereas [[Prabhākara]] believed that ''Atman'' is the subject of I-consciousness.<ref name=ptraju2/> Mimamsaka Hindus believed that what matters is virtuous actions and rituals completed with perfection, and it is this that creates merit and imprints knowledge on ''Atman'', whether one is aware or not aware of ''Atman''. Their foremost emphasis was formulation and understanding of laws/duties/virtuous life (''[[dharma]]'') and consequent perfect execution of ''kriyas'' (actions). The Upanishadic discussion of ''Atman'', to them, was of secondary importance.<ref name=chrisbartley/><ref>Oliver Leaman (2006), Shruti, in Encyclopaedia of Asian Philosophy, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415862530}}, page 503</ref> While other schools disagreed and discarded the ''Atma'' theory of Mimamsa, they incorporated Mimamsa theories on ethics, self-discipline, action, and dharma as necessary in one's journey toward knowing one's ''Atman''.<ref>PT Raju (2008), The Philosophical Traditions of India, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415461214}}, pages 82-85</ref><ref>PT Raju (1985), Structural Depths of Indian Thought, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0887061394}}, pages 54-63; Michael C. Brannigan (2009), Striking a Balance: A Primer in Traditional Asian Values, Rowman & Littlefield, {{ISBN|978-0739138465}}, page 15</ref>

====Vedanta====

=====Advaita Vedanta=====
[[Advaita Vedanta]] (non-dualism) sees the "spirit/soul/self" within each living entity as being fully identical with Brahman.<ref name=arvindsharmaintro/> The Advaita school believes that there is one soul that connects and exists in all living beings, regardless of their shapes or forms, and there is no distinction, no superior, no inferior, no separate devotee soul (''Atman''), no separate god soul (Brahman).<ref name=arvindsharmaintro>Arvind Sharma (2007), Advaita Vedānta: An Introduction, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120820272}}, pages 19-40, 53-58, 79-86</ref> The oneness unifies all beings, there is divine in every being, and that all existence is a single reality, state the Advaita Vedanta Hindus. In contrast, devotional sub-schools of Vedanta such as [[Dvaita]] (dualism) differentiate between the individual ''Atma'' in living beings, and the supreme ''Atma'' (''[[Paramatma]]'') as being separate.<ref>[[Bhagavata Purana]] [http://vedabase.net/sb/3/28/41/en 3.28.41] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120217121958/http://vedabase.net/sb/3/28/41/en |date=2012-02-17 }}</ref><ref>[http://srimadbhagavatam.com/7/7/19-20/en1 Bhagavata Purana 7.7.19–20] "Atma also refers to the Supreme Lord or the living entities. Both of them are spiritual."</ref>

Advaita Vedanta philosophy considers ''Atman'' as [[Saccidānanda|Sat-cit-ānanda]], self-existent awareness, limitless and non-dual.<ref name=aramb>A Rambachan (2006), The Advaita Worldview: God, World, and Humanity, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791468524}}, pages 47, 99-103</ref> To Advaitins, the ''Atman'' is the Brahman, the Brahman is the ''Atman'', each self is non-different from the infinite.<ref name=arvindsharmaintro/><ref>Karl Potter (2008), Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies: Advaita Vedānta, Volume 3, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120803107}}, pages 510-512</ref> ''Atman'' is the universal principle, one eternal undifferentiated [[self-luminous]] consciousness, the truth asserts Advaita Hinduism.<ref>S Timalsina (2014), Consciousness in Indian Philosophy: The Advaita Doctrine of 'Awareness Only', Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415762236}}, pages 3-23</ref><ref>Eliot Deutsch (1980), Advaita Vedanta: A Philosophical Reconstruction, University of Hawaii Press, {{ISBN|978-0824802714}}, pages 48-53</ref> Human beings, in a state of unawareness of this universal self, see their "I-ness" as different from the being in others, then act out of impulse, fears, cravings, malice, division, confusion, anxiety, passions, and a sense of distinctiveness.<ref>A Rambachan (2006), The Advaita Worldview: God, World, and Humanity, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN|978-0791468524}}, pages 114-122</ref><ref>Adi Sankara, A Bouquet of Nondual Texts: Advaita Prakarana Manjari, Translators: Ramamoorthy & Nome, {{ISBN|978-0970366726}}, pages 173-214</ref> To Advaitins, Atman-knowledge is the state of full awareness, liberation, and freedom that overcomes dualities at all levels, realizing the divine within oneself, the divine in others, and in all living beings; the non-dual oneness, that God is in everything, and everything is God.<ref name=arvindsharmaintro/><ref name=aramb/> This identification of individual living beings/souls, or ''jiva-atmas'', with the 'one Atman' is the non-dualistic [[Advaita Vedanta]] position.

===== Dvaita Vedanta =====
The [[monism|monist]], non-dual conception of existence in Advaita Vedanta is not accepted by the dualistic/theistic [[Dvaita Vedanta]]. Dvaita Vedanta calls the ''Atman'' of a supreme being as ''[[Paramatman]]'', and holds it to be different from individual ''Atman''. Dvaita scholars assert that God is the ultimate, complete, perfect, but distinct soul, one that is separate from incomplete, imperfect ''jivas'' (individual souls).<ref>R Prasad (2009), A Historical-developmental Study of Classical Indian Philosophy of Morals, Concept Publishing, {{ISBN|978-8180695957}}, pages 345-347</ref> The Advaita sub-school believes that self-knowledge leads to liberation in this life, while the Dvaita sub-school believes that liberation is only possible in after-life as communion with God, and only through the grace of God (if not, then one's ''Atman'' is reborn).<ref>James Lewis and William Travis (1999), Religious Traditions of the World, {{ISBN|978-1579102302}}, pages 279-280</ref> God created individual souls, state Dvaita Vedantins, but the individual soul never was and never will become one with God; the best it can do is to experience bliss by getting infinitely close to God.<ref name=tompad>Thomas Padiyath (2014), The Metaphysics of Becoming, De Gruyter, {{ISBN|978-3110342550}}, pages 155-157</ref> The Dvaita school, therefore, in contrast to the monistic position of Advaita, advocates a version of monotheism wherein Brahman is made synonymous with [[Vishnu]] (or Narayana), distinct from numerous individual Atmans.

===Buddhism===
{{See also|Anatta|Buddha-nature|Shentong|Sunyata|Precanonical Buddhism}}

Applying the disidentification of 'no-self' to the logical end,{{sfn|Jayatilleke|1963|p=39}}{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=59–60}}{{sfn|Bronkhorst|2009|p=25}} Buddhism does not assert an unchanging essence, any "eternal, essential and absolute something called a soul, self or atman,"{{refn|group=note|name="Atman_Buddhism"}} According to Jayatilleke, the Upanishadic inquiry fails to find an empirical correlate of the assumed [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]], but nevertheless assumes its existence,{{sfn|Jayatilleke|1963|p=39}} and, states Mackenzie, Advaitins "reify consciousness as an eternal self."{{sfn|Mackenzie|2012}} In contrast, the Buddhist inquiry "is satisfied with the empirical investigation which shows that no such Atman exists because there is no evidence" states Jayatilleke.{{sfn|Jayatilleke|1963|p=39}}

While [[Nirvana]] is liberation from the ''kleshas'' and the disturbances of the mind-body complex, Buddhism eludes a definition of ''what'' it is that is liberated.{{sfn|Bronkhorst|1993|p=99 with footnote 12}}{{sfn|Bronkhorst|2009|p=25}}{{refn|group=note|name="Atman_Buddhism"}} According to Johannes Bronkhorst, "it is possible that original Buddhism did not deny the existence of soul," but did not want to talk about it, as they could not say that "the soul is essentially not involved in action, as their opponents did."{{sfn|Bronkhorst|1993|p=99 with footnote 12}} While the [[skandhas]] are regarded is impermanent (''anatman'') and sorrowfull (''[[dukkha]]''), the existence of a permanent, joyful and unchanging self is neither acknowledged nor explicitly denied. Liberation is not attained by knowledge of such a self, but by " turning away from what might erroneously be regarded as the self."{{sfn|Bronkhorst|2009|p=25}}

According to Harvey, in Buddhism the negation of temporal existents is applied even more rigorously than in the Upanishads:
{{blockquote|While the ''[[Upanishad]]s'' recognized many things as being not-Self, they felt that a real, true Self could be found. They held that when it was found, and known to be identical to Brahman, the basis of everything, this would bring liberation. In the Buddhist ''[[Buddhist texts|Suttas]]'', though, literally everything is seen is non-Self, even [[Nirvana]]. When this is known, then liberation – ''Nirvana'' – is attained by total non-attachment. Thus both the ''Upanishads'' and the Buddhist ''Suttas'' see many things as not-Self, but the Suttas apply it, indeed non-Self, to ''everything''.{{sfn|Harvey|2012|p=59–60}}}}

Nevertheless, Atman-like notions can also be found in Buddhist texts chronologically placed in the 1st millennium of the [[Common Era]], such as the Mahayana tradition's ''Tathāgatagarbha sūtras'' suggest self-like concepts, variously called ''Tathagatagarbha'' or ''[[Buddha nature]]''.{{sfn|Williams|2008|p=104, 125–127}}{{sfn|Hookham|1991|p=100–104}} In the Theravada tradition, the [[Dhammakaya Movement]] in Thailand teaches that it is erroneous to subsume nirvana under the rubric of ''anatta'' (non-self); instead, nirvana is taught to be the "true self" or ''[[Dharmakaya|dhammakaya]]''.{{sfn|Mackenzie|2007|pp=100–5, 110}} Similar interpretations have been put forth by the then [[Sangharaja of Thailand|Thai Sangharaja]] in 1939. According to Williams, the Sangharaja's interpretation echoes the ''[[tathagatagarbha|tathāgatagarbha]]'' sutras.{{sfn|Williams|2008|p=126}}

The notion of Buddha-nature is controversial, and "eternal self" concepts have been vigorously attacked.{{sfn|Hubbard|Swanson|1997}} These "self-like" concepts are neither self nor sentient being, nor soul, nor personality.{{sfnm|Williams|2008|1p=107, 112|Hookham|1991|2p=96}} Some scholars posit that the ''Tathagatagarbha Sutras'' were written to promote Buddhism to non-Buddhists.{{sfn|Williams|2008|p=104–105, 108–109}}{{refn|group=note|{{harvtxt|Williams|2008|pp=104–105, 108–109}}: "(...) it refers to the Buddha using the term "Self" in order to win over non-Buddhist ascetics."}}{{sfn|Fowler|1999|p=101–102}}{{sfn|Pettit|1999|p=48–49}} The Dhammakaya Movement teaching that nirvana is [[Atman (Buddhism)|atta (atman)]] has been criticized as heretical in Buddhism by [[Prayudh Payutto]], a well-known scholar monk, who added that 'Buddha taught nibbana as being non-self". This dispute on the nature of teachings about 'self' and 'non-self' in Buddhism has led to arrest warrants, attacks and threats.{{sfn|Mackenzie|2007|pp=51–52}}

==Influence of Atman-concept on Hindu ethics==
[[File:Non violence sculpture by carl fredrik reutersward malmo sweden.jpg|220px|thumb|[[Ahimsa]], non-violence, is considered the highest ethical value and virtue in Hinduism.<ref name=evpc>Stephen H. Phillips & other authors (2008), in Encyclopedia of Violence, Peace, & Conflict (Second Edition), {{ISBN|978-0123739858}}, Elsevier Science, Pages 1347–1356, 701-849, 1867</ref> The virtue of Ahimsa follows from the Atman theories of Hindu traditions.<ref name=ludwig/><ref>NF Gier (1995), Ahimsa, the Self, and Postmodernism, International Philosophical Quarterly, Volume 35, Issue 1, pages 71-86, {{doi|10.5840/ipq199535160}};<br>Jean Varenne (1977), Yoga and the Hindu Tradition, University of Chicago Press, {{ISBN|978-0226851167}}, page 200-202</ref>]]
The ''Atman'' theory in Upanishads had a profound impact on ancient ethical theories and dharma traditions now known as Hinduism.<ref name=ludwig>Ludwig Alsdorf (2010), The History of Vegetarianism and Cow-Veneration in India, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415548243}}, pages 111-114</ref> The earliest [[Dharmaśāstra#The meaning and sources of Dharma|Dharmasutras]] of Hindus recite ''Atman'' theory from the Vedic texts and Upanishads,<ref>These ancient texts of India refer to Upanishads and Vedic era texts some of which have been traced to preserved documents, but some are lost or yet to be found.</ref> and on its foundation build precepts of dharma, laws and ethics. ''Atman'' theory, particularly the Advaita Vedanta and Yoga versions, influenced the emergence of the theory of ''[[Ahimsa]]'' (non-violence against all creatures), culture of vegetarianism, and other theories of ethical, dharmic life.<ref>Stephen H. Phillips (2009), Yoga, Karma, and Rebirth: A Brief History and Philosophy, Columbia University Press, {{ISBN|978-0231144858}}, pages 122-125</ref><ref>Knut Jacobsen (1994), The institutionalization of the ethics of "non-injury" toward all "beings" in Ancient India, Environmental Ethics, Volume 16, Issue 3, pages 287-301, {{doi|10.5840/enviroethics199416318}}</ref>

===Dharma-sutras===
The Dharmasutras and Dharmasastras integrate the teachings of ''Atman'' theory. Apastamba Dharmasutra, the oldest known Indian text on dharma, for example, titles Chapters 1.8.22 and 1.8.23 as "Knowledge of the Atman" and then recites,<ref name=apastamba1>Sanskrit Original: [http://www.hinduonline.co/vedicreserve/kalpa/dharma/apastamba_dharma_sutra.pdf Apastamba Dharma Sutra] page 14;<br>'''English Translation 1''': [https://archive.org/stream/sacredlawsofarya00buhliala#page/n139/mode/2up Knowledge of the Atman] Apastamba Dharmasutra, The Sacred Laws of the Aryas, [[Georg Bühler]] (Translator), pages 75-79;<br>'''English Translation 2''': Ludwig Alsdorf (2010), The History of Vegetarianism and Cow-Veneration in India, Routledge, {{ISBN|978-0415548243}}, pages 111-112;<br>'''English Translation 3''': [[Patrick Olivelle]] (1999), Dharmasutras, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0192838827}}, page 34</ref>

{{blockquote|There is no higher object than the attainment of the '''knowledge of Atman'''. We shall quote the verses from the Veda which refer to the attainment of the knowledge of the Atman. All living creatures are the dwelling of him who lies enveloped in matter, who is immortal, who is spotless. A wise man shall strive after the knowledge of the Atman. It is he [Self] who is the eternal part in all creatures, whose essence is wisdom, who is immortal, unchangeable, pure; he is the universe, he is the highest goal. – 1.8.22.2-7

[[Akrodha|Freedom from anger]], from excitement, from rage, [[Seven deadly sins#Greed|from greed]], from perplexity, [[Ārjava|from hypocrisy]], from hurtfulness (from injury to others); Speaking the truth, [[Mitahara|moderate eating]], refraining from calumny and envy, [[Dāna|sharing with others]], avoiding accepting gifts, uprightness, forgiveness, gentleness, tranquility, [[Temperance (virtue)|temperance]], amity with all living creatures, [[yoga]], honorable conduct, benevolence and contentedness – These virtues have been agreed upon for all the [[Ashrama (stage)|ashramas]]; he who, according to the precepts of the sacred law, practices these, becomes '''united with the Universal Self'''. – 1.8.23.6
|Knowledge of the Atman, [[Apastamba]] Dharma Sūtra, ~ 400 BCE<ref name=apastamba1/>}}

===Ahimsa===
The ethical prohibition against harming any human beings or other living creatures (Ahimsa, अहिंसा), in Hindu traditions, can be traced to the ''Atman'' theory.<ref name=ludwig/> This precept against injuring any living being appears together with Atman theory in hymn 8.15.1 of Chandogya Upanishad (ca. 8th century BCE),<ref>Sanskrit original: तधैतद्ब्रह्मा प्रजापतये उवाच प्रजापतिर्मनवे मनुः प्रजाभ्यः आचार्यकुलाद्वेदमधीत्य यथाविधानं गुरोः कर्मातिशेषेणाभिसमावृत्य कुटुम्बे शुचौ देशे स्वाध्यायमधीयानो धर्मिकान्विदधदात्मनि सर्वैन्द्रियाणि संप्रतिष्ठा'''प्याहिँस'''न्सर्व भूतान्यन्यत्र तीर्थेभ्यः स खल्वेवं वर्तयन्यावदायुषं ब्रह्मलोकमभिसंपद्यते न च पुनरावर्तते न च पुनरावर्तते ॥१॥; [http://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/छान्दोग्योपनिषद्_४ छान्दोग्योपनिषद् ४] Wikisource;<br>English Translation: Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, {{ISBN|978-8120814684}}, page 205</ref> then becomes central in the texts of Hindu philosophy, entering the dharma codes of ancient ''Dharmasutras'' and later era ''Manu-Smriti''. Ahimsa theory is a natural corollary and consequence of "Atman is universal oneness, present in all living beings. Atman connects and prevades in everyone. Hurting or injuring another being is hurting the Atman, and thus one's self that exists in another body". This conceptual connection between one's ''Atman'', the universal, and Ahimsa starts in [[Isha Upanishad]],<ref name=ludwig/> develops in the theories of the ancient scholar Yajnavalkya, and one which inspired [[Mahatma Gandhi|Gandhi]] as he led non-violent movement against colonialism in early 20th century.<ref name=maxmullerisha/><ref>Deen K. Chatterjee (2011), Encyclopedia of Global Justice: A - I, Volume 1, Springer, {{ISBN|978-1402091599}}, page 376</ref>

{{blockquote|
<nowiki>
यस्तु सर्वाणि भूतान्यात्मन्येवानुपश्यति । सर्वभूतेषु चात्मानं ततो न विजुगुप्सते ॥६॥</nowiki><br><nowiki>
यस्मिन्सर्वाणि भूतान्यात्मैवाभूद्विजानतः । तत्र को मोहः कः शोक एकत्वमनुपश्यतः ॥७॥</nowiki><br><nowiki>
स पर्यगाच्छुक्रमकायमव्रणम् अस्नाविरँ शुद्धमपापविद्धम् । कविर्मनीषी परिभूः स्वयम्भूःयाथातथ्यतोऽर्थान् व्यदधाच्छाश्वतीभ्यः समाभ्यः ॥८॥</nowiki>

And he who sees everything in his atman, and his atman in everything, does not seek to hide himself from that.<br>
In whom all beings have become one with his own atman, what perplexity, what sorrow, is there when he sees this oneness?<br>
He [the self] prevades all, resplendent, bodiless, woundless, without muscles, pure, untouched by evil; far-seeing, transcendent, self-being, disposing ends through perpetual ages.
|Isha Upanishad, Hymns 6-8,<ref name=maxmullerisha>Sanskrit original: [http://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ईशावास्%E2%80%8Dयोपनिषद् ईशावास्य उपनिषद्] Wikisource;<br>English Translation 1: [https://archive.org/stream/upanishads01mlgoog#page/n425/mode/2up Isha Upanishad] Max Müller (Translator), Oxford University Press, page 312, hymns 6 to 8;<br>English Translation 2: [http://www.universaltheosophy.com/sacred-texts/isavasya-upanishad/ Isha Upanishad] See translation by Charles Johnston, Universal Theosophy;<br>English Translation 3: [https://archive.org/stream/upanishadssrisan00sita#page/12/mode/2up Isavasyopanishad] SS Sastri (Translator), hymns 6-8, pages 12-14</ref>}}

==See also==
* [[Ātman (Buddhism)]]
* [[Ātman (Jainism)]]
* [[Ishvara]]
* [[Jiva (Hinduism and Jainism)|Jiva (Hinduism)]]
* [[Jnana]]
* [[Moksha]]
* [[Spirit (animating force)|Spirit]]
* [[Tat tvam asi]]
* [[Tree of Jiva and Atman]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note|2|refs=
<!-- "Atman_soul" -->
<ref group="note" name="Atman_soul">While often translated as "soul," it is better translated as "self":  
* {{harvtxt|Lorenzen|2004|pp=208–209}}: "individual soul (aatman) [sic]"
* {{harvtxt|King|1995|p=64}}: "Atman as the innermost essence or soul of man."
* {{harvtxt|Meister|2010|p=63}}: ''Atman'' (soul)"
* {{harvtxt|Shepard|1991}}: "Usually translated "Soul" but better rendered "Self.""</ref>
<!-- "Atman_Buddhism" -->
<ref group=note name="Atman_Buddhism">Atman and Buddhism:
* {{harvtxt|Wynne|2011|pp=103–105}}: "The denial that a human being possesses a "self" or "soul" is probably the most famous Buddhist teaching. It is certainly its most distinct, as has been pointed out by G. P. Malalasekera: "In its denial of any real permanent Soul or Self, Buddhism stands alone." A similar modern Sinhalese perspective has been expressed by Walpola Rahula: "Buddhism stands unique in the history of human thought in denying the existence of such a Soul, Self or Ātman." The "no Self" or "no soul" doctrine (Sanskrit: anātman; Pāli: anattan) is particularly notable for its widespread acceptance and historical endurance. It was a standard belief of virtually all the ancient schools of Indian Buddhism (the notable exception being the Pudgalavādins), and has persisted without change into the modern era. [...] both views are mirrored by the modern Theravādin perspective of Mahasi Sayadaw that "there is no person or soul" and the modern Mahāyāna view of the fourteenth Dalai Lama that "[t]he Buddha taught that [...] our belief in an independent self is the root cause of all suffering"."
* {{harvtxt|Collins|1994|p=64}}: "Central to Buddhist soteriology is the doctrine of not-self (Pali: anattā, Sanskrit: anātman, the opposed doctrine of ātman is central to Brahmanical thought). Put very briefly, this is the [Buddhist] doctrine that human beings have no soul, no self, no unchanging essence."
* {{harvtxt|Plott|2000|p=62}}: "The Buddhist schools reject any Ātman concept. As we have already observed, this is the basic and ineradicable distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism."
The notion of no-self is not so much a doctrine, as it is a 'technique' to disidentify from any sorrowfull existent, akin to the Samkhya-notion of [[Kaivalya]]:
* {{harvtxt|Jayatilleke|1963|pp=246–249, from note 385 onwards}} refers to various notions of "self" or "soul" rejected by early Buddhism; several Buddhist texts record Samkhya-like notions of Atman c.q. consciousness being different from the body, and liberation is the recognition of this difference. 
* {{harvtxt|Javanaud|2013}}: "When Buddhists assert the doctrine of 'no-self', they have a clear conception of what a self would be. The self Buddhists deny would have to meet the following criteria: it would (i) retain identity over time, (ii) be permanent (that is, enduring), and (iii) have 'controlling powers' over the parts of a person. Yet through empirical investigation, Buddhists conclude that there is no such thing. 'I' is commonly used to refer to the mind/body integration of the five skandhas, but when we examine these, we discover that in none alone are the necessary criteria for self met, and as we've seen, the combination of them is a convenient fiction [...] Objectors to the exhaustiveness claim often argue that for discovering the self the Buddhist commitment to empirical means is mistaken. True, we cannot discover the self in the five skandhas, precisely because the self is that which is beyond or distinct from the five skandhas. Whereas Buddhists deny the self on grounds that, if it were there, we would be able to point it out, opponents of this view, including Sankara of the Hindu Advaita Vedanta school, are not at all surprised that we cannot point out the self; for the self is that which does the pointing rather than that which is pointed at. Buddha defended his commitment to the empirical method on grounds that, without it, one abandons the pursuit of knowledge in favour of speculation."
Liberation (nirvana) is not attained by a "self," but is the release of anything that could be "self":
* {{harvtxt|Collins1990|p=82}}: "It is at this point that the differences [between Upanishads and Abhidharma] start to become marked. There is no central self which animates the impersonal elements. The concept of nirvana (Pali ''nibbana''), although similarly the criterion according to which ethical judgements are made and religious life assessed, is not the liberated state of a self. Like all other things and concepts (''dhamma'') it is ''anatta'', not-self [in Buddhism]."
* {{harvtxt|McClelland|2010|pp=16–18}}: "Anatman/Anatta. Literally meaning no (an-) self or soul (-atman), this Buddhist term applies to the denial of a metaphysically changeless, eternal and autonomous soul or self. (...) The early canonical Buddhist view of nirvana sometimes suggests a kind of extinction-like (kataleptic) state that automatically encourages a metaphysical no-soul (self)."</ref>
<!-- A -->
<!-- "Atman_definition" -->
<ref group=note name="Atman_definition">Definitions:
* Oxford Dictionaries, Oxford University Press (2012), ''[https://web.archive.org/web/20141230210157/http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/atman Atman]'': "1. real self of the individual; 2. a person's soul";
* John Bowker (2000), The Concise Oxford Dictionary of World Religions, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0192800947}}, ''Atman'': "the real or true Self"; 
* W.J. Johnson (2009), A Dictionary of Hinduism, Oxford University Press, {{ISBN|978-0198610250}}, See entry for Atman (self).
* Encyclopedia Britannica, [https://www.britannica.com/topic/atman Atman]: Atman, (Sanskrit: "self," "breath") one of the most basic concepts in Hinduism, the universal self, identical with the eternal core of the personality that after death either transmigrates to a new life or attains release (moksha) from the bonds of existence."
* {{harvtxt|Shepard|1991}}: "Usually translated "Soul" but better rendered "Self.""
* John Grimes (1996), A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy, State University of New York Press, {{ISBN| 0791430685}}, ''Atman'': "breath" (from the verb root at = "to breathe"); inner Self, the Reality which is the substrate of the individual and identical with the Absolute (''Brahman'').
* The Presence of Shiva (1994), [[Stella Kramrisch]], Princeton University Press, {{ISBN|9780691019307}}, ''Atma'' (Glossary) p. 470 "the Self, the inmost Self or, the life principle"</ref>
}}

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<ref group=web name="EB_Atman">[https://www.britannica.com/topic/atman Atman] Britannica, Atman
Hindu philosophy</ref>
<!-- dougharper -->
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}}

==External links==
* A. S. Woodburne (1925), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1195422 The Idea of God in Hinduism], The Journal of Religion, Vol. 5, No. 1 (Jan., 1925), pages 52–66
* K. L. Seshagiri Rao (1970), [https://www.jstor.org/stable/1397823 On Truth: A Hindu Perspective], Philosophy East and West, Vol. 20, No. 4 (Oct., 1970), pages 377-382
* Norman E. Thomas (1988), [http://mis.sagepub.com/content/16/2/149.full.pdf+html Liberation for Life: A Hindu Liberation Philosophy], Missiology, Vol. 16, No. 2, pages 149-162

{{Hindudharma}}
{{Indian philosophy}}
{{Spirituality-related topics}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Atman (Hinduism)}}
[[Category:Conceptions of self]]
[[Category:Hindu philosophical concepts]]
[[Category:Vedanta]]