Editing History of Austria (section)

=== Franz Joseph I and the Belle Époque (1848–1914) ===

==== Post-revolutionary Austria (1848–1866) ====
Separatist tendencies (especially in [[Lombardy]] and Hungary) were suppressed by military force. A constitution was enacted in March 1848, but it had little practical impact, although [[1848 Cisleithanian legislative election|elections]] were held in June. The 1850s saw a return to [[neoabsolutism]] and abrogation of constitutionalism. That said, one of the concessions to revolutionaries with a lasting impact was the freeing of [[peasant]]s in Austria. This facilitated [[industrialization]], as many flocked to the newly industrializing cities of the Austrian domain (in the industrial centers of [[Bohemia]], [[Lower Austria]], [[Vienna]], and [[Upper Styria]]). Social upheaval led to increased strife in ethnically mixed cities, leading to mass nationalist movements.

On the foreign policy front, Austria with its non-German constituencies, was faced with a dilemma in 1848 when Germany's Constituent National Assembly, of which Austria was a member, stated that members could not have a state connection with non-German states, leaving Austria to decide between Germany or its Empire and Hungarian union. These plans came to nothing for the time being, but the concept of a [[Kleindeutschland|smaller Germany that excluded Austria]] was to re-emerge as the solution in 1866. Austria's neutrality during the [[Crimean War]] (1853–1856), while the emperor was preoccupied with his wedding, antagonized both sides and left Austria dangerously isolated, as subsequent events proved.{{Sfn|Hamann|2012}}

==== The Italian question (1859–1860) ====
{{See also|Italian unification|Second Italian War of Independence}}

[[File:Italy 1843.svg|thumb|right|250px|Italy in 1859. The Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia is colored cyan at the top-right.]]

While Austria and the Habsburgs held hegemony over northern [[Italy]], the south was the [[Kingdom of the Two Sicilies]], with the [[Papal States]] intervening. Italy had been in a turmoil since the [[Congress of Vienna]] in 1815, with [[Carbonari|insurrections starting in 1820]]. [[Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies|King Ferdinand II]] of the Two Sicilies, an absolutist monarch, sought to strengthen his position by a further dynastic alliance with Austria. He already had a connection through his second wife, [[Maria Theresa of Austria, Queen of the Two Sicilies|Maria Theresa]], granddaughter of the emperor [[Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor|Leopold II]]. This he achieved by marrying his son, [[Francis II of the Two Sicilies|Francis II]], to Duchess [[Maria Sophie of Bavaria]] in February 1859. Marie was a younger sister of the Empress [[Elisabeth of Austria-Hungary|Elisabeth of Austria]], making Francis brother in law to the Emperor. Ferdinand died a few months later in May, and Francis and Maria Sophie ascended the throne.

In the meantime Austria had fallen into a trap set by the Italian ''risorgimento''. [[Kingdom of Sardinia|Piedmont]], jointly ruled with Sardinia had been the site of earlier insurrections. This time they formed a secret alliance with France (''Patto di Plombières'') whose emperor [[Napoleon III]] was a previous ''Carbonari''. Piedmont then proceeded to provoke Vienna with a series of military manoeuvres, successfully triggering an ultimatum to [[Turin]] on 23 April. Its rejection was followed by an Austrian invasion, and precipitated war with France (Second Italian War of Independence 1859). Austria mistakenly expected support and received none, and the country was ill-prepared for war, which went badly. The Habsburg rulers in [[Tuscany]] and [[Modena]] were forced to flee to Vienna.

In May 1859 Austria suffered a military defeat at the [[Battle of Varese]] and in June at [[Battle of Magenta|Magenta]] against the combined forces of France and Sardinia. The emperor refused to acknowledge the seriousness of the situation which was causing great hardship at home, and took over direct command of the army, though not a professional soldier. Later that month a further defeat at [[Battle of Solférino|Solférino]] sealed Austria's fate, and the emperor found himself having to accept Napoleon's terms at [[Villafranca di Verona|Villafranca]]. Austria agreed to cede Lombardy, and the rulers of the central Italian states were to be restored. The latter never happened, and the following year in plebiscites, all joined the Kingdom of Sardinia-Piedmont. By April 1860 [[Garibaldi]] had invaded and quickly subdued Sicily, and by February 1861 the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies ceased to exist; Francis and Maria fled to Austria.

==== Aftermath—constitutional concessions ====
These events severely weakened the emperor's position. The government's absolutist policies were unpopular and these setbacks led to domestic unrest, Hungarian secessionism, criticism of Austria's governance and allegations of corruption. The first casualties were the emperor's ministers. The Finance Minister, [[Karl Ludwig von Bruck]] killed himself. Other casualties were [[Count Karl Ferdinand von Buol]] ([[List of foreign ministers of Austria-Hungary|Foreign Minister]]), Interior Minister [[Baron Alexander von Bach]], Police Minister [[Johann Freiherr von Kempen von Fichtenstamm]], Adjutant General [[Karl Ludwig von Grünne]], together with army generals.

The result was a reluctant undertaking by the emperor and his chief advisor [[Agenor Gołuchowski (senior)|Goluchowski]] to return to constitutional government, culminating in the [[October Diploma]] (October 1860) establishing constitutional monarchy through a legislative assembly and provincial autonomy. This was never completely implemented due to Hungarian resistance, demanding the full autonomy lost in 1849. Consequently, the October Diploma was replaced by the [[February Patent]], in 1861 establishing a [[bicameral]] legislative body, the ''[[Reichsrat (Austria)|Reichsrat]]''. The upper house consisted of appointed and hereditary positions, while the lower house, the House of Deputies was appointed by the provincial [[Diet (assembly)|diets]]. The ''Reichsrat'' would meet with or without the Hungarians, depending on the issues being considered. This was a first step towards the establishment of a separate Cisleithanian legislature, on the other hand the more limited role of the diets in the February Patent, compared to the October Diploma, angered the champions of regionalism. The ''Reichsrat'' was dominated by liberals, who were to be the dominant political force for the next two decades.

==== The Danish question (1864–1866) ====
[[File:Deutscher-Dualismus.png|thumb|250px|The Prussian lion circling the Austrian elephant. [[Adolph Menzel]], 1846]]
Prussia and Denmark had already fought [[First Schleswig War|one war]] in 1848–1851 over the territories that lined their common border, [[Schleswig-Holstein Question|Schleswig-Holstein]] which resulted in Denmark retaining them. By 1864 Austria was at war again, this time allying itself with Prussia against Denmark in the [[Second Schleswig War]], which although successful this time, turned out to be Austria's last military victory. The war concluded with the [[Treaty of Vienna (1864)|Treaty of Vienna]] by which Denmark ceded the territories. The following year the [[Gastein Convention]] resolved the control of the new territories, [[Holstein]] being allocated to Austria, after initial conflicts between the allies. This did little to ease the [[Austria–Prussia rivalry]] over the German question. The ongoing efforts by [[Otto von Bismarck]], the Prussian Minister President, to revoke the agreement and wrest control of the territories would soon lead to all out conflict between the two powers and achieve the desired weakening of Austria's position in central Europe.

==== The Hungarian question ====
From the 1848 revolution, in which much of the Hungarian aristocracy had participated, [[Kingdom of Hungary (1526–1867)|Hungary]] remained restless, restoration of the constitution and de-throne the House of Habsburg, opposing the centralist trials of Vienna and refusing to pay taxes.{{Sfn|Hamann|2012|p=144}} Hungary had little support in the court at Vienna which was strongly Bohemian and considered the Hungarians as revolutionaries. From the loss of the Italian territories in 1859, the Hungarian question became more prominent. Hungary was negotiating with foreign powers to support it, and most significantly with [[Prussia]]. Therefore, Hungary represented a threat to Austria in any opposition to Prussia within the [[German Confederation]] over the [[German question|German Question]]. Therefore, cautious discussions over concessions, referred to as ''Conciliation'' by the Hungarians,{{Sfn|Hamann|2012|p=146}} started to take place. Emperor Franz Joseph traveled to [[Budapest]] in June 1865 and made a few concessions, such as abolishing the military jurisdiction, and granting an amnesty to the press. This fell far short of the requests of the Hungarian liberals whose minimal demands were restoration of the constitution and the emperor's separate coronation as King of Hungary. Chief among these were [[Gyula Andrássy]] and [[Ferenc Deák (politician)|Ferenc Deák]], who endeavoured to improve their influence at the court in Vienna.{{Sfn|Hamann|2012|pp=146–147}} In January 1866 a delegation of the Hungarian parliament traveled to Vienna to invite the imperial family to make an official visit to Hungary, which they did, at some length from January to March.

==== Austro-Prussian War (1866) ====
While Andrássy was making frequent visits to Vienna from Budapest during early 1866, relations with [[Prussia]] were deteriorating. There was talk of war. Prussia had signed a secret treaty with the relatively new [[Kingdom of Italy]] on 8 April, while Austria concluded one with France on 12 June, in exchange for Venetia.

While the motives for the war, Prussian masterplan or opportunism, are disputed, the outcome was a radical re-alignment of power in Central Europe. Austria brought the continuing dispute over Holstein before the German diet and also decided to convene the Holstein diet. Prussia, declaring that the Gastein Convention had thereby been nullified, invaded Holstein. When the German diet responded by voting for a partial mobilization against Prussia, Bismarck declared that the [[German Confederation]] was ended. Thus this may be considered a Third Schleswig War.

Hostilities broke out on 14 June as the [[Austro-Prussian War]] (June–August 1866), in which Prussia and the north German states faced not only Austria but much of the rest of Germany, especially the southern states. Three days later Italy declared war on Austria in the [[Third Italian War of Independence]], Italy now being Prussia's ally. Thus Austria had to fight on two fronts. Their first engagement resulted in a minor victory against the Italians at [[Battle of Custoza (1866)|Custoza]] near Verona on 24 June. Yet, on the northern front Austria suffered a major military defeat at the [[Battle of Königgrätz]] in Bohemia on 3 July. Although Austria had a further victory against the Italians in a naval battle at [[Battle of Lissa (1866)|Lissa]] on 20 July, it was clear by then that the war was over for Austria, Prussian armies threatening Vienna itself, forcing the evacuation of the court to Budapest. Napoleon III intervened resulting in an armistice at [[Nikolsburg]] on 21 July, and a peace treaty in [[Peace of Prague (1866)|Prague]] on 23 August. In the meantime the Italians who collected a series of successes throughout July, signed an [[armistice]] at [[Armistice of Cormons|Cormons]] on 12 August rather than face the remaining Austrian army freed from its northern front.

As a result of these wars Austria had now lost all its Italian territory and was now excluded from further German affairs, that were now reorganised under [[Prussia|Prussian]] dominance in the new [[North German Confederation]]. The ''[[Kleindeutschland]]'' concept had prevailed. For the Austrians in Italy, the war had been tragically pointless, since Venetia had already been ceded.

==== Dual Monarchy (1867–1918) ====
{{See also|Austria-Hungary|Cisleithania}}

===== Conciliation =====
[[File:Winterhalter Elisabeth 2.jpg|thumb|[[Empress Elisabeth of Austria|Empress Elisabeth]], known as "Sisi"|308x308px]]
While Austria was reeling from the effects of war, the Hungarians increased the pressure for their demands. Andrássy was regularly in Vienna, as was [[Ferenc Deák (politician)|Ferenc Deák]] and the Hungarian position was backed by constitutionalists and liberals. While anti-Hungarian sentiments ran high at the court, the Emperor's position was becoming increasingly untenable, with the Prussian army now at [[Pressburg]] (now Bratislava), and Vienna crammed with exiles, while hope for French intervention proved to be fruitless. The Hungarians recruited [[Empress Elisabeth of Austria|Empress Elisabeth]] who became a strong advocate for their cause. [[György Klapka]] had organised a legion fighting for the Prussians, which Bismarck had supported, that entered Hungary and agitated for Hungarian independence.
[[File:Portrait of Franz Joseph I by Franz Xaver Winterhalter.jpg|thumb|left|Emperor [[Franz Joseph&nbsp;I.]]|331x331px]] 
However the needs of the other provinces had to be considered before entering into any form of Hungarian dualism which would give Hungary special privileges, and started to fan the flames of Czech nationalism, since Slavic interests were likely to be submerged. People started to talk about the events of 1848 again. By February 1867 [[Count Richard Belcredi|Count Belcredi]] resigned as Minister President over his concerns about Slavic interests, and was succeeded by foreign minister [[Count Friedrich Ferdinand von Beust|Ferdinand Beust]], who promptly pursued the Hungarian option which had become a reality by the end of the month.

===== ''Ausgleich'' (Compromise) 1867 =====
[[Austria-Hungary]] was created through the mechanism of the [[Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867]]. Thus the Hungarians finally achieved much of their aims. The western half of the realm known as ([[Cisleithania]]) and the eastern Hungarian ([[Transleithania]]), that is the realms lying on each side of the [[Leitha]] [[tributary]] of the [[Danube]] river, now became two realms with different interior policy - there was no common citizenship and dual-citizenship was banned either -, but with a common ruler and a common foreign and military policy. The empire now had two capitals, two cabinets and two parliaments. Only three cabinet positions served both halves of the monarchy, war, foreign affairs and finance (when both sectors were involved). Costs were assigned 70:30 to Cisleithania, however the Hungarians represented a single nationality while Cisleithania included all the other kingdoms and provinces. Andrássy was appointed as the first Minister President of the new Hungary on 17 February. Feelings ran high in the provinces, and the Diets in Moravia and Bohemia were shut down in March.

Emperor Franz Joseph made a speech from the throne in May to the ''[[Reichsrat (Austria)|Reichsrat]]'' (Imperial Council) asking for retroactive ratification and promising further constitutional reforms and increased autonomy to the provinces. This was a major retreat from absolutism. On 8 June, the Emperor and Empress were crowned [[King of Hungary|King and Queen of Hungary]] in a ceremony whose pomp and splendour seemed out of keeping with Austria's recent military and political humiliation and the extent of financial reparations. As part of the celebrations the emperor announced further concessions that aggravated relationships between Hungary and the rest of the monarchy. An amnesty was declared for all political offences since 1848 (including [[György Klapka|Klapka]] and [[Lajos Kossuth|Kossuth]]) and reversal of the confiscation of estates. In addition the coronation Gift was directed to the families and veterans of the revolutionary ''Honvéd''s, which was revived as the [[Royal Hungarian Honvéd]].

In return for the Liberals support of the ''Ausgleich'', concessions were made to parliamentary prerogatives in the new constitutional law. The law of 21 December 1867, although frequently amended, was the foundation of Austrian governance for the remaining 50 years of the empire, and was largely based on the February Patent, the Imperial Council and included a bill of rights. Ultimately the political balance of the dual monarchy represented a compromise between authoritarianism and parliamentarianism ''([[Rechtsstaat]])'' (Hacohen 2002). Like most compromises it was rejected by extremists on both sides, including Kossuth.

===== Austria-Hungary, 1867–1914 =====
[[File:Imperial Coat of Arms of the Empire of Austria (1815).svg|thumb|Small coat of arms of the [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian Empire]] 1867–1915, with the Habsburg [[Order of the Golden Fleece]] superimposed on the Austrian Doubleheaded Eagle, and crested by the Crown of [[Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor|Rudolf II]]]]1873 marked the [[Silver Jubilee]] of Franz Joseph, and provided not only an occasion for celebration but also one of reflection on the progress of the monarchy since 1848. [[Vienna]] had grown from a population of 500,000 to over a million, the walls and fortifications had been demolished and the ''Ringstrasse'' constructed with many magnificent new buildings along it. The Danube was being regulated to reduce the risk of flooding, a new aqueduct constructed to bring fresh water into the city, and many new bridges, schools, hospitals, churches and a new university built.

'''Foreign policy'''<br/>
{{See also|List of foreign ministers of Austria-Hungary}}
What was supposed to be a temporary emergency measure was to last for half a century. Austria succeeded in staying neutral during the [[Franco Prussian War]] of 1870–71 despite those who saw an opportunity for revenge on Prussia for the events of 1866. However Austria's allies among the South German States were now allied with Prussia, and it was unlikely that Austria's military capacity had significantly improved in the meantime. Any residual doubts were rapidly dispelled by the speed of the Prussian advance and the subsequent overthrow of the [[Second Empire (France)|Second Empire]].

In November 1871 Austria made a radical change in foreign policy. [[Ferdinand Beust]], the First Prime Minister (to 1867), Chancellor and Foreign Minister (1866–1871) of the Dual Monarchy, was dismissed. Beust was an advocate of ''revanche'' against Prussia, but was succeeded by the Hungarian Prime Minister, the liberal [[Gyula Andrássy]] as [[List of foreign ministers of Austria-Hungary|Foreign Minister]] (1871–1879), although both opposed the federalist policies of Prime Minister [[Karl Hohenwart]] (1871) while [[Prince Adolf of Auersperg]] became the new Prime Minister (1871–1879). Andrássy 's appointment caused concern among the conservative [[Kamarilla|Court Party]], but he worked hard to restore relationships between Berlin and Vienna, culminating in the [[Dual Alliance, 1879|Dual Alliance]] of 1879.

In 1878, [[Austro-Hungarian occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina|Austria-Hungary occupied Bosnia and Herzegovina]], which had been cut off from the rest of the [[Ottoman Empire]] by the creation of new states in the [[Balkans]] following the [[Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78]] and the resulting [[Congress of Berlin]] (June–July 1878). The territory was ceded to Austria-Hungary, and Andrássy prepared to occupy it. This led to a further deterioration of relations with [[Russia]] and was to lead to tragic consequences in the next century. Austrian troops encountered stiff resistance and suffered significant casualties. The occupation created controversy both within and without the empire and led to Andrássy's resignation in 1879. This territory was finally [[Austro-Hungarian annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina|annexed in 1908]] and put under joint rule by the governments of both Austria and Hungary.
[[File:Austrian Germans in western Austro-Hungarian Empire.gif|thumb|right|250px|Map showing [[Austrian German]]–inhabited areas (in rose) in western Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1911]]

The departure of the Liberal Government and of Andrássy from the Foreign Office (''k. u. k. Ministerium des Äußern'') marked a sharp shift in Austria-Hungary's foreign policy, particularly in relation to Russia, [[Count Gustav Kálnoky]] (1881–1895) Andrássy's Conservative replacement pursuing a new rapprochement.

'''Economy'''

The second half of the 19th century saw a lot of construction, expansion of cities and railway lines, and development of industry. During the earlier part of this period, known as ''[[Gründerzeit]]'', Austria became an industrialized country, even though the Alpine regions remained characterized by agriculture. Austria was able to celebrate its newfound grandeur in the [[Weltausstellung 1873 Wien|Vienna World Exhibition of 1873]], attended by all the crowned heads of Europe, and beyond. This period of relative prosperity was followed by the [[Panic of 1873|1873 Stock market crash]].

==== Politics and governance ====

===== Liberalism in Cisleithania 1867–1879 =====
{{See also|Liberalism in Austria}}
Political parties became legitimate entities in Austria from 1848, apart from a brief lapse in the 1850s. However the structure of the legislative body created by the 1861 February Patent provided little scope for party organisation. Initial political organisation resembled the cleavages in Austrian culture. Since the time of the [[Counter-Reformation]] the [[Catholic Church]] had assumed a major role in the political life of the empire, in conjunction with the aristocracy and conservative rural elements. Allied against these forces were a more secular urban middle class, reflecting the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] and the [[French Revolution]] with its anti-clericism ''([[Kulturkampf]])''. Other elements on the left were German nationalism, defending [[German question|Greater German]] interests against the [[Slavs]], and found support among urban intelligentsia. However party structure was far from cohesive and both groupings contained factions which either supported or opposed the government of the day. These parties reflected the traditional right/left split of political vision. The left, or [[Liberalism in Austria|Liberal]] factions were known as the [[Constitutional Party (Austria)|Constitutional Party]], but both left and right were fragmented into factions. Without direct elections there was no place for constituency organisation, and affinities were intellectual not organisational. Nor, without ministerial responsibility, was there a need for such organisation. The affinities were driven by respective visions of the representative institutions. The left derived its name from its support in principle of the 1861–1867 constitution and were the driving elements of the 1848 revolution, the right supported historic rights. The left drew its support from the propertied bourgeoisie (''Besitzbürgertum''), affluent professionals and the civil service. These were longstanding ideological differences.{{Sfn|Pulzer|1969}} The 1867 elections saw the Liberals take control of the lower house under [[Prince Karl of Auersperg|Karl Auersperg]] (1867–1868) and were instrumental in the adoption of the 1867 constitution and in abrogating the 1855 [[Concordat]] (1870).

Suffrage progressively improved during the period 1860–1882. The selection of deputies to the ''Reichsrat'' by provincial legislatures proved unworkable particularly once the [[Bohemia]]n diet effectively boycotted the Reichsrat in an attempt to acquire equal status with the Hungarians in a tripartite monarchy. As a result, suffrage was changed to direct election to the ''Reichsrat'' in 1873.

Even then by 1873 only six percent of the adult male population were franchised (Hacohen 2002). The initial divisions into Catholic, [[Classical liberalism|liberal]], [[Nationalism|national]], [[Radicalism (historical)|radical]] and [[Agrarianism|agrarian]] parties differed across ethnic grounds further fragmenting the political culture. However, there was now emerging the presence of extra-parliamentary parties whereas previously parties were purely intra-parliamentary. This provided an opportunity for the disenfranchised to find a voice. These changes were taking place against a rapidly changing backdrop of an Austrian economy that was modernising and industrialising and economic crises such as [[Panic of 1873|that of 1873]] and its resultant [[Long Depression|depression]] (1873–1879), and the traditional parties were slow to respond to the demands of the populace. By the election of 1901, the last election under the defined classes of franchisement extraparliamentary parties won 76 of the 118 seats.

This era saw anti-liberal sentiments and declining fortunes of the Liberal party which had held power since 1867 apart from a brief spell of conservative government in 1870–71. In 1870 Liberal support for Prussia in the 1870 [[Franco-Prussian War]] displeased the Emperor and he turned to the Conservatives to form a government under [[Count Karl Sigmund von Hohenwart]] (1871). Hohenwart was the conservative leader in parliament, and the Emperor believed his more sympathetic views to Slavic aspirations and federalism would weaken the Austro-German Liberals. Hohenwart appointed [[Albert Schäffle]] as his commerce minister and drew up a policy known as the [[Fundamental Articles of 1871]]. The policy failed, the Emperor withdrew his support and the Liberals regained power.

The Liberal party became progressively unliberal and more nationalistic, and against whose social conservatism the progressive intellectuals would rebel (Hacohen 2002). During their 1870–71 opposition they blocked attempts to extend the dual monarchy to a tripartite monarchy including the Czechs, and promoted the concept of ''Deutschtum'' (the granting of all rights of citizenship to those who displayed the characteristics of the solid German ''Bürger''). They also opposed the extension of suffrage because restricted suffrage favoured their electoral base (Hacohen 2002). In 1873 the party fragmented, with a radical faction of the Constitutional Party forming the Progressive Club, while a right-wing faction formed the conservative Constitutionalist Landlordism leaving a rump of 'Old Liberals'. The result was a proliferation of German Liberal and [[German nationalism in Austria|German National]] groups.

===== Political realignment 1879 =====
While Liberal achievements had included economic modernisation, expanding secular education and rebuilding the fabric and culture of Vienna, while collaborating with the Administration ''(Verwaltung)'', after 1873 a progressive series of schisms and mergers continued to weaken the party which effectively disappeared by 1911.

The Liberal cabinet of [[Prince Adolf of Auersperg|Adolf Auersperg]] (1871–1879) was dismissed in 1879 over its opposition to [[Foreign Ministry of Austria-Hungary|Foreign Minister]] [[Gyula Andrássy]]'s (1871–1879) Balkan policy and the occupation of Bosnia-Herzegovina, which added more Slavs and further diluted German nationalism and identity. In the ensuing elections the [[Liberalism in Austria|Liberals]] lost control of parliament and went into opposition, the incoming government under [[Eduard Taaffe, 11th Viscount Taaffe|Count Edward Taaffe]] (1879–1893) basically consisting of a group of factions (farmers, clergy and Czechs), the "Iron Ring", united in a determination to keep the Liberals out of power.

Andrássy, who had nothing in common with Taaffe, tended his resignation on the grounds of poor health and to his surprise it was accepted. His name was raised again when the new Foreign minister, [[Baron Heinrich Karl von Haymerle|Haymerle]] died in office in 1881, but Taaffe and his coalition had no time for a Liberal foreign minister (let alone a Hungarian and [[Freemason]]), and he was passed over in favour of [[Count Gustav Kálnoky]] (1881–1895).{{Sfn|Hamann|2012|pp=326–327}}

However the Liberal opposition [[filibustered]] leading the government to seek electoral reform as a strategy to weaken their position, which was enacted in 1882. Despite this, the coalition, nominally conservative and committed to anti-socialism passed a series of social reforms over the decade 1880–1890, following the examples of Germany and Switzerland. These were reforms which the Liberals had been unable to get past a government strongly tied to the concept of individual's rights to self-determination free from government interference{{Sfn|Grandner|1994}} Such measures had the support of both the Liberals, now the United Left (''Vereinigte Linke'' 1881) and the German National Party (''Deutsche Nationalpartei'' 1891), an offshoot of the [[German nationalism in Austria|German National Movement]]. The electoral reforms of 1882 were the most influential in that it enfranchised proportionally more Germans.

Social reform now moved to become a platform of conservative Catholics like [[Prince Aloys Franz de Paula Maria|Prince Aloys de Paula Maria of Liechtenstein]], [[Karl Freiherr von Vogelsang|Baron Karl von Vogelsang]], and Count Egbert Belcredi{{Sfn|Boyer|1995}} The era of electoral reform saw the emergence of [[Georg von Schonerer]]'s [[Linz Program of 1882|Pan-German League]] (1882), appealing to an anti-clerical middle class, and Catholic social reformers such as L. Psenner and A. Latschka created the Christian Social Association (''Christlich-Sozialer Verein'') (1887). Around the same time F. Piffl, F. Stauracz, Ae. Schoepfer, A. Opitz, [[Karl Lueger]] and Prince Aloys Liechtenstein formed the United Christians to advocate Christian social reform.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Christlichsoziale Bewegung |url=https://austria-forum.org/af/AEIOU/Christlichsoziale_Bewegung |website=Austria-Forum}}</ref> These two organisations merged in 1891 under Karl Lueger to form the [[Christian Social Party (Austria)|Christian Social Party]] (''Christlichsoziale Partei'', CS).

However the Taaffe government's policy of ethnic inclusiveness fuelled nationalism among the German-speaking population. The Liberals had maintained the strong centralism of the absolutist era (with the exception of [[Galicia (Eastern Europe)|Galicia]] in 1867) while the Conservatives attempted a more federalist state that ultimately led to the fall of the Taaffe government in 1893, including a second attempt at Bohemian ''Ausgleich'' (Tripartite monarchy) in 1890{{Sfn|Grandner|1994}}<ref>{{Cite journal |first=Hugo |last=Hantsch |title=Die Nationalitaetenfrage im alten Oesterreich. Das Problem der konstruktiven Reichsgestaltung |lang=de |journal=Wiener Historische Studien |volume=1 |location=Vienna |date=1953}}</ref>

On the left the spread of anarchical ideas and oppressive government saw the emergence of a Marxist [[Social Democratic Party of Austria|Social Democratic Party]] (''Sozialdemokratische Arbeiterpartei Österreichs'', SDAPÖ) in 1889 which succeeded in winning seats in the 1897 elections which followed further extension of suffrage in 1896 to include peasants and the working classes, establishing universal male suffrage, though not equal.

===== Direct and equal suffrage for the Reichsrat (1907) =====
[[File:2007 Austria 5 Euro 100 Years Universal Male Suffrage back.jpg|150px|left|thumb|[[Euro gold and silver commemorative coins (Austria)#2007 coinage|2007 Austrian coin depicting 100 Years of Universal Male Suffrage]], showing Parliament in 1907]]
The [[1907 Cisleithanian legislative election|universal male suffrage introduced in 1907]] by Minister-President [[Max Wladimir von Beck|Freiherr von Beck]] changed the balance of power, formally tilted towards German Austrians, and revealed that they were now a minority in a predominantly Slavic empire. In the 1900 census, Germans were 36% of the Cisleithanian population but the largest single group, but never acted as a cohesive group (nor did any other national group), although they were the dominant group in the political life of the monarchy. Germans were followed by Czechs and Slovaks (23%), Poles (17), Ruthenians (13), Slovenes (5), Serbo-Croats (3), Italians (3) and Romanians 1%. However these national groups, especially the Germans were often scattered geographically. The Germans also dominated economically, and in level of education.[[File:Austria Hungary ethnic.svg|thumb|Ethnic groups of Austria-Hungary in 1910]] The post reform 1907 parliament (''[[Reichsrat (Austria)|Reichsrat]]'') was elected along national lines, with only the Christian-Social and Social Democrat parties predominantly German. However Austria was governed by the Emperor who appointed the Imperial Council of Ministers, who in turn answered to him, parliament being left free to criticise government policy. Technically it had the power to legislate from 1907, but in practice the Imperial government generated its own legislation, and the Emperor could veto his own minister's bills. The major parties were divided geographically and socially, with the social democrats base being the towns, predominantly Vienna, and having a very different perspective to the devout but illiterate peasantry in the countryside. The latter were joined by the aristocracy and bourgeoisie in supporting the ''status quo'' of the monarchy.

The [[1911 Cisleithanian legislative election|1911 elections]] elected a parliament that would carry Austria through the war and the end of the empire in 1918.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Cambridge Modern History |url=http://histories.cambridge.org/collection?id=set_new_cambridge_modern_history |series=Cambridge Histories Online |page=476 |volume=XII: The Shifting Balance of World Forces 1898–1945| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130114152441/http://histories.cambridge.org/collection?id=set_new_cambridge_modern_history | archive-date=14 January 2013 }}</ref>{{Sfn|Pech|1989}}
However, the effectiveness of parliamentarism was hampered by conflicts between parties representing different ethnic groups, and meetings of the parliament ceased altogether during [[World War I]].

==== The arts ====
{{See also|Biedermeier|Vienna Secession|Wiener Werkstätte|Jugendstil}}
[[File:Secession Vienna June 2006 017.jpg|thumb|The [[Secession hall (Austria)|Secession Building]], Vienna, built in 1897 by [[Joseph Maria Olbrich]] for exhibitions of the Secession group]]
The initial years of the 19th century following the [[Congress of Vienna]], up until the [[Revolutions of 1848 in the Habsburg areas|revolution of 1848]] was characterised by the [[Biedermeier]] period of design and architecture, partly fueled by the repressive domestic scene that diverted attention to domesticity and the arts.

With the reign of [[Franz Joseph I of Austria|Franz Joseph]] (1848–1916) came a new era of grandeur, typified by the [[Belle Époque]] style, with extensive building and the construction of the [[Ringstrasse]] in Vienna with its monumental buildings (officially opened 1 May 1865, after seven years). Architects of the period included [[Heinrich Ferstel]] ([[Votivkirche]], [[Museum für angewandte Kunst Wien]]), [[Friedrich von Schmidt]] ([[Rathaus, Vienna|Rathaus]]), [[Theophil Hansen]] ([[Austrian Parliament Building|Parliament]]), [[Gottfried Semper]] ([[Kunsthistorisches Museum]], [[Kunsthistorisches Museum]], [[Burgtheater]]), [[Eduard van der Nüll]] ([[Vienna State Opera|Opera]]) and [[August Sicard von Sicardsburg|August Sicardsburg]] (Opera).

1897 saw the resignation of a group of artists from the Association of Austrian Artists (''[[Vienna Künstlerhaus|Gesellschaft bildender Künstler Österreichs]]''), headed by [[Gustav Klimt]] who became the first president of this group which became known as the [[Vienna Secession]] or Wiener Secession (''Vereinigung Bildender Künstler Österreichs''). The movement was a protest against the [[Historicism (art)|historicism]] and conservatism of the former organisation, following similar movements in [[Berlin Secession|Berlin]] and [[Munich Secession|Munich]]. Partly this was a revolt against the perceived excesses of the earlier ''[[Ringstrasse]]'' era, and a yearning to return to the relative simplicity of Biedermaier. From this group [[Josef Hoffman]] and [[Koloman Moser]] formed the Vienna Arts and Crafts Workshop (''[[Wiener Werkstätte]]'') in 1903 to promote the development of [[applied arts]]. The Secession became associated with a specific building, the [[Secession hall (Austria)|Secession Building]] (''Wiener Secessionsgebäude'') built in 1897 and which housed their exhibitions, starting in 1898. The Secession as originally conceived splintered in 1905 when Klimt and others left over irreconcilable differences. The group however lasted until 1939 and the outbreak of the [[Second World War]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Vienna Secession history by Senses-ArtNouveau.com |url=http://senses-artnouveau.com/biography.php?artist=sec |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180130205005/http://senses-artnouveau.com/biography.php?artist=SEC |archive-date=30 January 2018 |access-date=26 July 2019 |website=senses-artnouveau.com}}</ref>

Architecturally this was the era of [[Jugendstil]] (Art Nouveau) and the contrasting work of men like [[Otto Wagner]] ([[Kirche am Steinhof]]) known for embellishment and [[Adolf Loos]], who represented restraint. Art Nouveau and the modern style came relatively late to Austria, around 1900, and was distinguishable from the earlier movement in other European capitals.<ref>''Art Nouveau: Utopia: Reconciling the Irreconcilable''. Klaus-Jurgen Sembach, Taschen 2007</ref>

One of the prominent literary figures was [[Karl Kraus (writer)|Karl Kraus]], the essayist and satirist, known for his newspaper "The Torch", founded in 1899.

On the musical scene, [[Johann Strauss I|Johan Strauss]] and his family dominated the Viennese scene over the entire period, which also produced [[Franz Schubert]], [[Beethoven|Ludwig van Beethoven]], [[Anton Bruckner]], [[Brahms|Johannes Brahms]], [[Arnold Schoenberg]], [[Franz Lehár]] and [[Gustav Mahler]] among others.

By the opening years of the 20th century ([[Fin de siècle]]) the [[avant garde]] were beginning to challenge traditional values, often shocking Viennese society, such as [[Arthur Schnitzler]]'s play ''[[La Ronde (play)|Reigen]]'', the paintings of Klimt, and the music of Schoenberg, [[Anton Webern]] and [[Alban Berg]] and the [[Second Viennese School]].