Editing Yongle Emperor (section)

==Administration==
[[File:Map of Ming Chinese empire 1415 (cropped 2).jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.3|{{Legend|#FACA55|Ming territory in 1415, during the Yongle Emperor's reign}}]]
In contrast to the frequent changes in offices during the Hongwu Emperor's reign, the high levels of the Yongle Emperor's administration remained stable.{{sfnp|Chan|1988|pp=211–212}} While the emperor did occasionally imprison a minister, the mass purges seen in the Hongwu era did not occur again. The most significant political matters were overseen by eunuchs and generals, while officials were responsible for managing finances, the judiciary, and routine tasks. As a result, the atomization of administration that was characteristic of the Hongwu Emperor's rule diminished, allowing the emperor to focus less on routine details.{{sfnp|Dreyer|1982|p=[https://archive.org/details/earlymingchinapo0000drey/page/212/mode/1up 212]}}

The political influence of the bureaucratic apparatus gradually increased, and under the Yongle Emperor's rule, ministers were able to challenge the emperor, even at the cost of their freedom or lives. The most significant change was the emergence of the [[Grand Secretariat]], which played a crucial role in the politics of the Yongle Emperor's successors. Led by the grand secretaries, officials gained control of the government.{{sfnp|Dreyer|1982|pp=213–214}}

===Princes and generals===
The emperor restored the titles of the princes of Zhou, Qi, and Min, which had been abolished by the Jianwen Emperor, but these titles did not come with the same power and authority as before.{{sfnp|Tsai|2002|p=76}} During the latter half of his reign, the Yongle Emperor accused many of these princes of committing crimes and punished them by removing their personal guards. Interestingly, he had previously condemned the same actions when they were carried out by the Jianwen Emperor.{{sfnp|Chan|1988|p=245}} In order to reduce political threats, the Yongle Emperor relocated several border princes from the north to central and southern China.{{efn-lr|For example, Zhu Hui, Prince of Gu, was relocated from Xuanfu to [[Changsha]], while Zhu Quan, Prince of Ning, was moved from Daning to [[Nanchang]].{{sfnp|Tsai|2002|p=76}}}} By the end of his reign, the princes had lost much of their political influence.{{sfnp|Tsai|2002|p=76}}

One of the Yongle Emperor's first actions upon assuming the throne was to reorganize the military command. He promoted loyal generals and granted them titles and ranks. In October 1402, he appointed two dukes (''gong''; {{zhi|c=公}})—[[Qiu Fu]] and Zhu Neng ({{zhi|c=朱能}}), thirteen marquises (''hou''; {{zhi|c=侯}}), and nine counts (''bo''; {{zhi|c=伯}}). Among these appointments were one duke and three counts from the dignitaries who had defected to his side before the fall of Nanjing—Li Jinglong, Chen Xuan ({{zhi|t=陳瑄}}), Ru Chang ({{zhi|c=茹瑺}}), and Wang Zuo ({{zhi|c=王佐}}). In June 1403, an additional nine generals from the civil war were appointed as marquises or counts. In the following years, meritorious military leaders from the campaign against the Mongols were also granted titles of dukes, marquises, and counts, including those of Mongolian origin.{{sfnp|Chan|1988|p=206}}

The emperor established a new hereditary military nobility. While their income from the state treasury (2200–2500 ''[[Dan (volume)|dan]]'' of grain for dukes, 1500–800 for marquises, and 1000 for counts; with 1 ''dan'' being equivalent to 107 liters) was not particularly high, the prestige associated with their titles was more significant. They commanded armies in the emperor's name, without competition from the princes who had been stripped of their influence. The nobility also held immunity from punishment by local authorities, but there were notable differences from the Hongwu era. During that time, the generals, who were former comrades-in-arms of the emperor, held a higher status, had their own followers, and wielded considerable power in their assigned areas. This eventually posed a threat to the emperor, leading to their elimination. Under the Yongle Emperor, members of the nobility did not participate in regional or civil administration, nor were they assigned permanent military units. Instead, they were given ''ad hoc'' assembled armies. Additionally, the emperor often personally led campaigns accompanied by the nobility, strengthening their personal relationships.{{sfnp|Chan|1988|p=207}} As a result, the military nobility was closely tied to the emperor and remained loyal. There was no need for purges, and any isolated cases of punishment were due to the failures and shortcomings of those involved. Overall, the nobility elevated the emperor's prestige and contributed to the military successes of his reign.{{sfnp|Chan|1988|p=208}}

===Officials and authorities===
{{quote box|width=40%|align=right|border=none|
text=The grand secretaries during the reign of the Yongle Emperor, from 1402–1424. The first two were appointed in August 1402, while the rest were appointed a month later:
* [[Huang Huai]], to 1414 (imprisoned);
* [[Xie Jin (mandarin)|Xie Jin]], to 1407 (transferred to Guangxi);
* [[Hu Guang (Ming dynasty)|Hu Guang]], to 1418 (died in office);
* [[Yang Rong (mandarin)|Yang Rong]], to 1440 (died in office);
* [[Yang Shiqi]], to 1444 (died in office);
* [[Jin Youzi]], to 1431 (died in office);
* [[Hu Yan (official)|Hu Yan]], to 1404 (transferred to the head of the [[Guozijian|Imperial University]]).
At the head of the Grand Secretariat stood briefly in 1402 Huang Huai, followed by Xie Jin, and from 1407 by Hu Guang until his death in 1418, when Yang Rong took over until the end of the Yongle Emperor's reign.
}}

The emperor reorganized the civilian administration, gaining the support of officials who had often served under the previous government. He restored the administrative structure of the Hongwu era, while also making some changes. First and foremost, in 1402, the Grand Secretariat was created to act as an intermediary between the emperor and the government, partially replacing the [[Zhongshu Sheng|Central Secretariat]] that had been abolished in 1380. Despite their informal position, the grand secretaries quickly gained dominance in the civil administration.{{sfnp|Chan|1988|p=208}}

The Grand Secretariat was established in August 1402, when the emperor began to address current administrative issues during a working dinner with Huang Huai and Xie Jin after the evening audience. In September 1402, he appointed five additional grand secretaries.{{sfnp|Tsai|2002|p=95}} These grand secretaries were all from the south or southeast{{efn-lr|Huang Huai was from [[Zhejiang]], Yang Rong from [[Fujian]], and the remaining officials from [[Jiangxi]]. Jiangxi was known for its high level of education, with sixteen out of the top thirty students in the palace examinations of 1400 coming from this province. However, many officials from Jiangxi, particularly Huang Zicheng, were associated with the Jianwen government and responsible for the civil war. After 1402, they refused to acknowledge the legitimacy of the Yongle Emperor. In an attempt to appease this resistance, the emperor welcomed local elites into his court, but the young Hanlin scholars remained steadfast in their loyalty.{{sfnp|Tsai|2002|p=97}}}} and were highly educated and skilled in administration, having previously served in lower positions in the Jianwen Emperor administration. Despite their relatively low status (at most fifth rank), they were given high titles in the crown prince's household. Over time, they evolved from subordinate assistants responsible for organizing correspondence and formulating responses to becoming influential politicians who proposed solutions to problems. Their close proximity to the emperor gave them an advantage over the ministers. The emperor kept his grand secretaries with him, and some even accompanied him on his Mongol campaigns. During this period, the empire was governed by the crown prince with the assistance of other grand secretaries and selected ministers.{{sfnp|Chan|1988|p=209}} The crown prince developed a close relationship with the grand secretaries and became the ''de facto'' representative of the officials.{{sfnp|Dreyer|1982|pp=213–214}}

The Yongle Emperor was meticulous in his selection of the top officials for the state apparatus, including the members of the Grand Secretariat and the ministers. He placed particular trust in those who had served him during the civil war, such as Jin Zhong ({{zhi|c=金忠}}), Guo Zi, Lü Zhen ({{zhi|t=呂震}}), and Wu Zhong ({{zhi|t=吳中}}).{{sfnp|Tsai|2002|p=93}} These ministers came from all over China, but were all highly educated and capable administrators. Among them, Minister of Revenue [[Xia Yuanji]] was the most trusted by the emperor. Xia advocated for moderation in spending and using resources for the benefit of the population, which earned him the respect of the Yongle Emperor for his honesty and transparency.{{sfnp|Tsai|2002|p=94}} Xia held this position for nineteen years until 1421, when he, along with Minister of Justice Wu Zhong and Minister of War Fang Bin, protested against the costly campaign into Mongolia. Despite their objections, the emperor ultimately prevailed and Fang Bin committed suicide, while Wu Zhong and Xia Yuanji were imprisoned. After the Yongle Emperor's death, they were exonerated and returned to their positions of authority.{{sfnp|Chan|1988|p=211}} Other notable ministers who served for many years included Jian Yi ({{zhi|t=蹇義}}), Song Li ({{zhi|t=宋禮}}), Liu Quan ({{zhi|t=劉觀}}), and Zhao Hong, who held various ministerial positions.

During most of the Yongle Emperor's reign, four out of the six ministries ([[Ministry of Personnel|Personnel]], [[Ministry of Revenue (imperial China)|Revenue]], [[Ministry of Rites|Rites]], and [[Ministry of Works (imperial China)|Works]]) were headed by the same minister. This continuity of leadership continued even after the emperor's death, with many ministers remaining in their positions.{{sfnp|Chan|1988|p=211}}

The regular cycle of [[Imperial examination|civil service examinations]] also contributed to the improvement and stabilization of administration at lower levels. In the second decade of the Yongle Emperor's reign, the examinations were held every three years.{{sfnp|Dreyer|1982|pp=213–214}} A total of 1,833 individuals passed the examinations in the capital,{{sfnp|Chan|1988|p=212}} and the majority of these graduates were appointed to government positions. [[Guozijian|The Imperial University]], which was previously responsible for selecting officials, lost its significance and became a place for candidates to study for the palace examinations.{{sfnp|Wang|2011|p=103}} By the end of the Yongle Emperor's reign, the Ministry of Personnel had a sufficient number of examination graduates to fill important positions at the county level and above. Overall, the administration became more qualified and stable.{{sfnp|Chan|1988|p=212}}

===Eunuchs===
[[File:Yongle Emperor.png|thumb|Bronze statue of the Yongle Emperor. This is a replica of the original stone statue that was destroyed during the [[Cultural Revolution]]]]
The Yongle Emperor relied heavily on eunuchs, more so than his father did. He even recruited eunuchs from the Jianwen era, with whom he had been associated during the civil war. These eunuchs came from various backgrounds, including Mongolian, Central Asian, Jurchen, and Korean. In addition to their duties within the [[Forbidden City]], the Yongle Emperor trusted their unwavering loyalty and often assigned them tasks outside the palace's walls, such as surveillance and intelligence gathering.{{sfnp|Chan|1988|p=212}}

Eunuchs also held positions of military command and led diplomatic missions, but their role as the emperor's secret agents, responsible for monitoring both civilian and military officials, was well-known but also unpopular and feared. While they were known for exposing corrupt officials, they also had a reputation for abusing their power and succumbing to corruption themselves. In 1420, a special investigation office was established, informally known as the "[[Eastern Depot]]" due to its location in the palace. This office was responsible for overseeing the judiciary, but it became infamous for its role in the disappearance of individuals. Stories of innocent imprisonment, torture, and unexplained deaths involving the office circulated until the end of the dynasty.{{sfnp|Chan|1988|p=213}}

===Succession disputes===
The Yongle Emperor had four sons, the first three by Empress Xu, while the fourth, Zhu Gaoxi, died in infancy. The eldest son, [[Hongxi Emperor|Zhu Gaochi]], was not physically fit and instead of warfare, he focused on literature and poetry. The second son, [[Zhu Gaoxu]], was a tall and strong, a successful warrior, but the third son, [[Zhu Gaosui]], was mediocre in character and ability.{{sfnp|Tsai|2002|p=98}}

Many influential officials, including General Qiu Fu, convinced the emperor that the second son should be the crown prince. They argued for his prowess and military skills, citing his past actions of saving his father from danger and turning the tide of battles during the civil war. Grand Secretary Xie Jin disagreed and argued that the eldest son would win the hearts of the people with his humanity. He also reminded the emperor of the future accession of [[Xuande Emperor|Zhu Zhanji]], the emperor's favorite grandson and Zhu Gaochi's eldest son. Ultimately, on 9 May 1404, Zhu Gaochi was appointed as the crown prince, with the Yongle Emperor appointing Qiu Fu as his tutor the following day.{{sfnp|Tsai|2002|p=98}}

At the same time, he appointed Zhu Gaoxu as the Prince of Han and entrusted him with control of [[Yunnan]]. Zhu Gaosui became the Prince of Zhao, based in Beijing. Zhu Gaoxu refused to go to Yunnan, and his father gave in to his wishes, which allowed him to provoke conflicts with his older brother. In the spring of 1407, he succeeded in slandering Xie Jin, who was accused of showing favoritism towards [[Jiangxi]] natives in the examinations. As a result, Xie Jin was transferred to the province and later imprisoned.{{sfnp|Tsai|2002|p=99}} Huang Huai (from 1414 until the end of the Yongle Emperor's reign) and Yang Shiqi (briefly in 1414), both accused of not observing the ceremony, also faced imprisonment due to their support of the crown prince and resulting enmity with Zhu Gaoxu. In 1416, Zhu Gaoxu was given a new fief in [[Qingzhou]] Prefecture in Shandong. Once again, he refused to leave, which led to a reprimand from his father. He then began to raise his own army and even had an army officer killed. As a result, his father stripped him of his titles, demoted him to a common subject, and later imprisoned him. The following year, he was deported to Shandong.{{sfnp|Tsai|2002|p=100}}