Editing West Nile fever (section)

==Prevention==

[[Image:Mosquito Netting.jpg|thumb|Low-cost, ceiling-hung [[mosquito netting]] for a bed]]
Many of the guidelines for preventing occupational West Nile virus exposure are common to all [[mosquito-borne disease]]s.<ref name=CDC2018Pre>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/westnile/prevention/index.html|title=Prevention {{!}} West Nile Virus {{!}} CDC|date=2018-09-24|website=www.cdc.gov|language=en-us|access-date=2018-11-28}}</ref>

Public health measures include taking steps to reduce mosquito populations. Personal recommendations are to reduce the likelihood of being bitten. General measures to avoid bites include:
* Using insect repellent on exposed skin to repel mosquitoes. Repellents include products containing [[DEET]] and [[picaridin]]. DEET concentrations of 30% to 50% are effective for several hours. Picaridin, available at 7% and 15% concentrations, needs more frequent application. DEET formulations as high as 30% are recommended for children over two months of age.<ref>{{cite web|author1=American Academy of Pediatrics|title=Choosing an Insect Repellent for Your Child|url=https://www.healthychildren.org/English/safety-prevention/at-play/Pages/Insect-Repellents.aspx|website=healthychildren.org|access-date=24 August 2016|date=8 August 2012|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160827225733/https://www.healthychildren.org/English/safety-prevention/at-play/Pages/Insect-Repellents.aspx|archive-date=27 August 2016}}</ref> The CDC also recommends the use of: IR3535, oil of lemon eucalyptus, para-menthane-diol, or 2-undecanone.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/westnile/prevention/index.html|title=Prevention {{!}} West Nile Virus {{!}} CDC|date=2018-09-24|website=www.cdc.gov|language=en-us|access-date=2018-10-29}}</ref>  Protect infants less than two months of age by using a carrier draped with [[mosquito netting]] with an elastic edge for a tight fit.
* When using [[sunscreen]], apply sunscreen first and then repellent. Repellent should be washed off at the end of the day before going to bed.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Richman |first1=Douglas D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G9zIDwAAQBAJ |title=Clinical Virology |last2=Whitley |first2=Richard J. |last3=Hayden |first3=Frederick G. |date=2016-12-01 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-68367-316-3 |language=en}}</ref>
* Wear long-sleeve shirts, which should be tucked in, long trousers, socks, and hats to cover exposed skin (although most fabrics do not totally protect against bites). Insect repellents should be applied over top of protective clothing for greater protection. Do not apply insect repellents underneath clothing.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Auerbach |first=Paul S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pniCBxIQIHsC |title=Medicine for the Outdoors: The Essential Guide to First Aid and Medical Emergencies |date=2009-01-01 |publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences |isbn=978-0-323-06813-0 |pages=392 |language=en}}</ref>
* Repellents containing [[permethrin]] (''e.g.'', Permanone) or other insect repellents may be applied to clothing, shoes, tents, mosquito nets, and other gear. (Permethrin is not suitable for use directly on skin.) Most repellent is generally removed from clothing and gear by a single washing, but permethrin-treated clothing is effective for up to five washings.<ref name=":0" />
* Most mosquitoes that transmit disease are most active at dawn and in the evening dusk. A notable exception is the [[Asian tiger mosquito]], which is a daytime feeder and is more apt to be found in, or on the periphery of, shaded areas with heavy vegetation. They are now widespread in the United States, and in Florida they have been found in all 67 counties.<ref name=A_albopictus/>
* In an at-risk area, staying in air-conditioned or well-[[Window screen|screened]] room, or sleeping under an insecticide-treated [[Mosquito net|bed net]] is recommended. Bed nets should be tucked under mattresses, and can be sprayed with a repellent if not already treated with an insecticide.<ref name=CDC2018Pre/>

===Monitoring and control===
West Nile virus can be sampled from the environment by the pooling of trapped mosquitoes via [[ovitrap]]s, [[carbon dioxide]]-baited light traps, and [[gravid]] traps, testing blood samples drawn from wild birds, dogs, and sentinel monkeys, and testing brains of dead birds found by various animal control agencies and the public.{{cn|date=September 2022}}

Testing of the mosquito samples requires the use of reverse-transcriptase PCR ([[RT-PCR]]) to directly amplify and show the presence of virus in the submitted samples. When using the blood sera of wild birds and sentinel chickens, samples must be tested for the presence of WNV [[antibodies]] by use of [[immunohistochemistry]] (IHC)<ref>{{cite journal | first = M | last = Jozan |author2=Evans R |author3=McLean R |author4=Hall R |author5=Tangredi B |author6=Reed L |author7=Scott J  |date=Fall 2003 | title = Detection of West Nile virus infection in birds in the United States by blocking ELISA and immunohistochemistry | journal = Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases |volume = 3 | issue = 3 | pages = 99–110 | pmid = 14511579 | doi = 10.1089/153036603768395799| s2cid = 17720540 | url = https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/icwdm_usdanwrc/249 | type = Submitted manuscript }}</ref> or [[enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay]] (ELISA).<ref>{{cite journal | first = RA | last = Hall |author2=Broom AK |author3=Hartnett AC |author4=Howard MJ |author5=Mackenzie JS  |date=February 1995 | title = Immunodominant epitopes on the NS1 protein of MVE and KUN viruses serve as targets for a blocking ELISA to detect virus-specific antibodies in sentinel animal serum | journal = Journal of Virological Methods | volume = 51 | issue = 2–3 | pages = 201–10 | pmid = 7738140 | doi = 10.1016/0166-0934(94)00105-P}}</ref>

Dead birds, after [[necropsy]], or their oral swab samples collected on specific RNA-preserving filter paper card,<ref>{{Cite web |title=California Department of Public Health Tutorial for Local Agencies to Safely Collect Dead Birds Oral Swab Samples on RNAse Cards for West Nile Virus Testing |url=http://www.westnile.ca.gov/downloads.php?download_id=2949&filename=RNAse_tutorial.pdf |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140709075706/http://westnile.ca.gov/downloads.php?download_id=2949&filename=RNAse_tutorial.pdf |archivedate=July 9, 2014}}</ref><ref>[http://www.fortiusbio.com/RNA_Sampling_Card.html RNA virus preserving filter paper card] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160110095447/http://fortiusbio.com/RNA_Sampling_Card.html |date=2016-01-10 }}. fortiusbio.com</ref> can have their virus presence tested by either RT-PCR or IHC, where virus shows up as brown-stained tissue because of a substrate-[[enzyme]] reaction.

West Nile control is achieved through [[mosquito control]], by elimination of mosquito breeding sites such as abandoned pools, applying [[larvacide]] to active breeding areas, and targeting the adult population via [[lethal ovitrap]]s and [[aerial spraying]] of [[pesticide]]s.<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Dusfour |first1=Isabelle |url=https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/50200/9781000435085.pdf?sequence=1#page=236 |title=Mosquitopia: The place of pests in a healthy world |last2=Chaney |first2=Sarah C |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2022 |isbn=978-1-00-305603-4 |location=New York |pages=213–233 |language=English |chapter=14 - MOSQUITO CONTROL: Success, failure and expectations in the context of arbovirus expansion and emergence |doi=}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Tidi |first=Stephen K |date=December 6, 2015 |title=Mosquito control: A review |url=http://www.brsfoundation.org/brtw/archive/2015-2016/volume_1/brtw-2015-1-97-105.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200321051133id_/http://www.brsfoundation.org/brtw/archive/2015-2016/volume_1/brtw-2015-1-97-105.pdf |url-status=usurped |archive-date=2020-03-21 |journal=Biosciences Research in Today's World |issn=2476-7905}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wooding |first1=Madelien |last2=Naudé |first2=Yvette |last3=Rohwer |first3=Egmont |last4=Bouwer |first4=Marc |date=2020-02-17 |title=Controlling mosquitoes with semiochemicals: a review |journal=Parasites & Vectors |language=en |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=80 |doi=10.1186/s13071-020-3960-3 |doi-access=free |issn=1756-3305 |pmc=7027039 |pmid=32066499}}</ref> With aerial pesticides, there is a rising need to develop new versions as [[pesticide resistance]] among mosquitoes can occur.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Karunaratne |first1=S. H. P. P. |last2=Surendran |first2=S. N. |date=2022 |title=Mosquito control: A review on the past, present and future strategies |url=http://repo.lib.jfn.ac.lk/ujrr/handle/123456789/8969 |journal=Journal of the National Science Foundation of Sri Lanka |volume=50 |page=277 |doi=10.4038/jnsfsr.v50i0.11244 |language=en|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Dahmana |first1=Handi |last2=Mediannikov |first2=Oleg |date=March 13, 2020 |title=Mosquito-Borne Diseases Emergence/Resurgence and How to Effectively Control It Biologically |journal=Pathogens |language=en |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=310 |doi=10.3390/pathogens9040310 |doi-access=free |pmid=32340230 |pmc=7238209 |issn=2076-0817}}</ref>

[[Environmentalist]]s have condemned attempts to control the transmitting mosquitoes by spraying pesticide, saying the detrimental health effects of spraying outweigh the relatively few lives that may be saved, and more environmentally friendly ways of controlling mosquitoes are available. They also question the effectiveness of insecticide spraying, as they believe mosquitoes that are resting or flying above the level of spraying will not be killed; the most common vector in the northeastern United States, ''Culex pipiens'', is a [[Canopy (forest)|canopy]] feeder.{{cn|date=January 2023}}
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File:CDC-LightTrap 200.jpg|A [[carbon dioxide]]-baited CDC light trap at [[National Park Service|NPS]]monitoring site: The highest individual light trap total for 2010 was from a trap located in a [[salt marsh]] in the [[Fire Island National Seashore]]: around 25,142 mosquitoes were collected during a 16-hour period on August 31.<ref>{{cite web|title=Mosquito Monitoring and Management|url=http://www.nps.gov/fiis/parkmgmt/mosquito-management.htm|publisher=National Park Service|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130415112435/http://www.nps.gov/fiis/parkmgmt/mosquito-management.htm|archive-date=2013-04-15}}</ref>
File:Culex sp larvae.png|[[Insect egg|Eggs]] of permanent water [[mosquito]]es can hatch, and the [[larvae]] survive, in only a few ounces of water. Less than half the amount that may collect in a discarded coffee cup. [[Flood]]water species lay their eggs on wet soil or other moist surfaces. Hatch time is variable for both types; under favorable circumstances (such as warm weather), the eggs of some species may hatch in as few as 1–3 days after [[Oviposition|being laid]].<ref>[[Oklahoma State University]]: Mosquitoes and West Nile virus</ref>
File:Used tires.jpg|Used [[tires]] often hold [[stagnant water]] and are a breeding ground for many [[species]] of mosquitoes. Some species such as the [[Aedes albopictus|Asian tiger mosquito]] prefer manmade containers, such as tires, in which to lay their eggs. The rapid spread of this aggressive daytime feeding species [[Invasive species|beyond their native range]] has been attributed to the used tire trade.<ref name=A_albopictus>{{cite web |vauthors=Rios L, Maruniak JE |title=Asian Tiger Mosquito, ''Aedes albopictus'' (Skuse) (Insecta: Diptera: Culicidae) |date=October 2011 |publisher=Department of Entomology and Nematology, University of Florida |url=http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/in594 |id=EENY-319 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120926113428/http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/in594 |archive-date=2012-09-26 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Benedict MQ, Levine RS, Hawley WA, Lounibos LP |title=Spread of the tiger: global risk of invasion by the mosquito ''Aedes albopictus'' |journal=Vector-Borne and Zoonotic Diseases |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=76–85 |year=2007 |pmid=17417960 |pmc=2212601 |doi=10.1089/vbz.2006.0562 }}</ref>
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