Editing War of the Austrian Succession (section)

==Italian Campaigns, 1741–1747==
{{Campaignbox War of the Austrian Succession: Italy}}
[[File:La familia de Felipe V (Van Loo).jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|[[Philip V of Spain]]'s family by [[Louis-Michel van Loo]]]]

In central Italy an army of Spaniards and [[Kingdom of Naples|Neapolitans]] was collected for the purpose of conquering the [[Duchy of Milan]]. In 1741, the allied army of 40,000 Spaniards and Neapolitans under the command of the [[José Carrillo de Albornoz, 1st Duke of Montemar|Duke of Montemar]] had advanced towards [[Modena]], [[Francesco III d'Este, Duke of Modena]] had allied himself with them, but the vigilant Austrian commander, Count [[Otto Ferdinand von Abensberg und Traun|Otto Ferdinand von Traun]] had out-marched them, captured Modena and forced the Duke to make a separate peace.{{sfn|Hannay|1911|p=40}}

The aggressiveness of the Spanish in Italy forced Empress Maria Theresa of Austria and King Charles Emmanuel of Sardinia into negotiations in early 1742.<ref>Browning, p. 96</ref> These negotiations were held at Turin. Maria Theresa sent her envoy [[Ludwig von Schulenburg-Oeynhausen|Count Schulenburg]] and King Charles Emmanuel sent the [[Carlo Vincenzo Ferrero d'Ormea|Marquis d'Ormea]]. On 1 February 1742, Schulenburg and Ormea signed the [[Convention of Turin]] which resolved (or postponed resolution) many differences and formed an alliance between the two countries.<ref>Browning, p. 97</ref> In 1742, field marshal Count Traun held his own with ease against the Spanish and Neapolitans. On 19 August 1742, Naples was forced by the arrival of a British naval squadron in [[Naples]]' own harbour, to withdraw her 10,000 troops from the Montemar force to provide for home defence.<ref>Browning, p. 118</ref> The Spanish force under Montemar was now too weak to advance in the [[Po Valley]] and a second Spanish army was sent to Italy via France. Sardinia had allied herself with Austria in the Convention of Turin and at the same time neither state was at war with France and this led to curious complications, combats being fought in the [[Isère (river)|Isère]] valley between the troops of Sardinia and of Spain, in which the French took no part.{{sfn|Hannay|1911|p=41}} At the end of 1742, the Duke of Montemar was replaced as head of the Spanish forces in Italy by [[Jean Thierry du Mont, comte de Gages|Count Gages]].<ref>Browning, p. 119</ref>

In 1743, the Spanish on the [[Panaro (river)|Panaro]] had achieved a victory over Traun at [[Battle of Campo Santo|Campo Santo]] on 8 February 1743.<ref>Browning, pp. 132–133</ref> However, the next six months were wasted in inaction and [[Johann Georg Christian, Prince of Lobkowicz]], joining Traun with reinforcements from Austria, drove back the Spanish to [[Rimini]]. Observing from [[Venice]], [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rousseau]] hailed the Spanish retreat as "the finest military manoeuvre of the whole century".<ref name="Cranston183">{{cite book |last=Cranston |first=Maurice |title=Jean-Jacques: The Early Life and Work of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, 1712–1754 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |location=Chicago (IL) |date=1991 |isbn=0-226-11862-2 |page=[https://archive.org/details/jeanjacquesearly0000cran/page/183 183] |url=https://archive.org/details/jeanjacquesearly0000cran/page/183 }}</ref> The Spanish-Savoyard War in the [[Alps]] continued without much result, the only incident of note being the first [[Battle of Casteldelfino]] (7–10 October 1743), when an initial French offensive was defeated.{{sfn|Hannay|1911|p=41}}

In 1744, the Italian war became serious. Prior to the [[War of the Spanish Succession]] (1701–1714) Spain and Austria had been ruled by branches of the same ([[Habsburg]]) royal house. Consequently, the foreign policies of Austria and Spain in regards to Italy had a symmetry of interests and these interests were usually opposed to the interests of [[House of Bourbon|Bourbon]] controlled France.<ref>Smith, pp. 200–201.</ref> However, since the [[Treaty of Utrecht]] and the end of the War of the Spanish Succession, the childless last Habsburg monarch ([[Charles II of Spain|Charles II]]) had been replaced by the Bourbon grandson of the French king [[Louis XIV]] [[Philip V of Spain|Philip of Anjou]], who became Philip V in Spain. Spain's dominance of Italy and Italian territories subsequently passed to Austria. Now the symmetry of foreign policy interests in regards to Italy existed between Bourbon France and Bourbon Spain with Habsburg Austria usually in opposition.<ref>Smith, pp. 231–233.</ref> King Charles Emmanuel III of Sardinia had followed the long-established foreign policy of Savoy of opposing Spanish interference in northern Italy.<ref name="Smith-p243">Smith, p. 243</ref> Now in 1744, Savoy was faced with a grandiose military plan of the combined Spanish and French armies (called the [[Gallispan]] army) for conquest of northern Italy.

However, in implementing this plan, the Gallispan generals at the front were hampered by the orders of their respective governments. For example, the commander of the French army in the field, the [[Louis François, Prince of Conti|Prince of Conti]], could not get along with, or even reason with, the [[Jaime Miguel de Guzmán de Avalos y Spinola|Marquis de La Mina]], the Supreme commander of all Spanish forces.<ref name="Browning-p166">Browning, p. 166</ref> The Prince of Conti felt that the Marquis "deferred blindly to all orders coming from Spain" without any consideration of the realities on the ground.<ref name="Browning-p166" /> In preparation for the military campaign the Gallispan forces sought to cross the Alps in June 1744 and regroup the army in [[Dauphiné]] uniting there with the army on the lower Po.<ref>Browning, p. 167</ref>

[[File:Retrato de Carlos III de España.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Charles III of Spain]] by [[Anton Raphael Mengs]]]]
The support of [[Republic of Genoa|Genoa]] allowed a road into central Italy.<ref name="Browning-p166" /> While the Prince of Conti stayed in the north, Count [[Jean Bonaventure du Mont, comte de Gages|Gages]] followed this road to the south. But then the Austrian commander, Prince Lobkowitz took the offensive and drove the Spanish army of the Count de Gages further southward towards the Neapolitan frontier near the small town of [[Velletri]]. From June through August 1744, Velletri became the scene of extensive military maneuvering between the French-Spanish army under the command of the Count Gages and the Austrian forces under the command of Prince Lobkowitz<ref>Browning, p. 163</ref> The King of Naples (the future [[Charles III of Spain]]) was increasingly worried about the Austrian army operating so close to his borders and decided to assist the Spaniards. Together a combined army of French, Spanish and Neapolitans surprised the Austrian army on the night of 16–17 June 1744. The Austrians were routed from three important hills around the town of Velletri during the attack.<ref name="Browning-p164">Browning, p. 164</ref> This battle is sometimes called the "Battle of Nemi" after the small town of Nemi located nearby. Because of this surprise attack, the combined army was able to take possession of the town of Velletri. Thus, the surprise attack has also been called the "first [[Battle of Velletri (1744)|Battle of Velletri]]".

In early August 1744, the King of Naples paid a visit in person to the newly captured town of Velletri.<ref name="Browning-p164" /> Hearing about the presence of the King, the Austrians developed a plan for a daring raid on Velletri. During the predawn hours of 11 August 1744, about 6,000 Austrians under the direct command of [[Maximilian Ulysses Browne|Count Browne]] staged a surprise raid on the town of Velletri. They were attempting to abduct the King of Naples during his stay in the town. However, after occupying Velletri and searching the entire town, the Austrians found no hint of the King of Naples. The King had become aware of what was happening and had fled through a window of the palace where he was staying and rode off half-dressed on horseback out of the town.<ref>Browning, p. 165</ref> This was the second Battle of Velletri. The failure of the raid on Velletri meant that the Austrian march toward Naples was over. The defeated Austrians were ordered north where they could be used in the Piedmont of northern Italy to assist the King of Sardinia against the Prince of Conti. Count de Gages followed the Austrians north with a weak force. Meanwhile, the King of Naples returned home.

[[File:Louis 15.jpg|thumb|upright|The [[Louis François, Prince of Conti|Prince of Conti]] by Alexis Simon Belle]]
The war in the Alps and the [[Apennine Mountains|Apennines]] had already been keenly contested before the Prince of Conti and the Gallispan army had come down out of the Alps. First, the [[Siege of Villafranca (1744)|Fort de Villefranche]] and [[Fort du mont Alban]] near [[Nice]] had been stormed by Conti on 20 April 1744. After coming down out of the Alps, Prince Conti began his advance into Piedmont on 5 July 1744.<ref>Browning, p. 168</ref> On 19 July 1744, the Gallispan army engaged the Sardinian army in some desperate fighting at [[Peyre-Longue]] on 18 July 1744.<ref>Browning, pp. 168–169</ref> As a result of the battle, the Gallispan army took control of [[Casteldelfino]] in the second [[Battle of Casteldelfino]]. Conti then moved on to [[Demonte]] where on the night of 8–9 August 1744, (a mere 36 hours before the Spanish army in south of Italy fought the second Battle of Velletri, [as noted above]) the Gallispan army took the fortress of Demonte from the Sardinians in the [[Battle of Demonte]].<ref>Browning, p. 169</ref> The King of Sardinia was defeated yet again by Conti in a great Battle at [[Battle of Madonna dell'Olmo|Madonna dell'Olmo]] on 30 September 1744 near Coni ([[Cuneo]]).<ref>Browning, pp. 186–188</ref> Conti did not, however, succeed in taking the huge fortress at Coni and had to retire into Dauphiné for his winter quarters. Thus, the Gallispan army never did combine with the Spanish army under Count of Gages in the south and now the Austro-Sardinian army lay between them.

The campaign in Italy in 1745 was also no mere war of posts. The Convention of Turin of February 1742 (described above), which established a provisional relationship between Austria and Sardinia had caused some consternation in the [[Republic of Genoa]]. However, when this provisional relationship was given a more durable and reliable character in the signing of the [[Treaty of Worms (1743)]] signed on 13 September 1743,<ref>Browning, pp. 142–143</ref> the government of Genoa became fearful. This fear of diplomatic isolation had caused the Genoese Republic to abandon its neutrality in the war and join the Bourbon cause.<ref name="Browning-p205">Browning, p. 205</ref> Consequently, the Genoese Republic signed a secret treaty with the Bourbon allies of France, Spain and Naples. On 26 June 1745, Genoa declared war on Sardinia.<ref name="Browning-p205" />

[[File:Battle of Bassignana 1745.tiff|thumb|upright=1.2|The Genoese charge during the [[Battle of Bassignano]] in 1745]]
Empress Maria Theresa was frustrated with the failure of Lobkowitz to stop the advance of Gages. Accordingly, Lobkowitz was replaced with Count Schulenburg.<ref>Browing, p. 231</ref> A change in the command of the Austrians, encouraged the Bourbon allies to strike first in the spring of 1745. Accordingly, Count de Gages moved from Modena towards [[Lucca]], the Gallispan army in the Alps under the new command of [[Jean-Baptiste Francois des Marets, marquis de Maillebois|Marshal Maillebois]] (Prince Conti and Marshal Maillebois had exchanged commands over the winter of 1744–1745<ref>Browning, p. 204</ref>) advanced through the [[Italian Riviera]] to the [[Tanaro]]. In the middle of July 1745, the two armies were at last concentrated between the [[Scrivia]] and the Tanaro. Together Count de Gages's army and the Gallispan army composed an unusually large number of 80,000 men. A swift march on [[Piacenza]] drew the Austrian commander thither and in his absence the allies fell upon and completely defeated the Sardinians at [[Battle of Bassignano|Bassignano]] on 27 September 1745, a victory which was quickly followed by the capture of [[Alessandria]], [[Valenza]] and [[Casale Monferrato]]. [[Antoine-Henri Jomini|Jomini]] calls the concentration of forces which effected the victory "{{lang|fr|Le plus remarquable de toute la Guerre}}".{{sfn|Hannay|1911|p=42}}

[[File:Felipe de Parma.jpg|thumb|left|upright|[[Philip, Duke of Parma|Infante Philip of Spain]] by Laurent Pécheux]]
The complicated politics of Italy, however, are reflected in the fact that Count Maillebois was ultimately unable to turn his victory to account. Indeed, early in 1746, Austrian troops, freed by the Austrian peace with Frederick II of Prussia, passed through the Tyrol into Italy, [[Siege of Genoa (1746)|capturing Genoa]] after a siege. The Gallispan winter quarters at [[Asti]], Italy, were brusquely attacked and a French garrison of 6,000 men at Asti was forced to capitulate.<ref>Browning, p. 262</ref> At the same time, [[Maximilian Ulysses Browne]] with an Austrian corps struck at the allies on the Lower Po, and cut off their communication with the main body of the Gallispan army in Piedmont. A series of minor actions thus completely destroyed the great concentration of Gallispan troops and the Austrians entered Milan after the Spanish abandoned the city on 19 March 1746.{{sfn|Colussi|2012|}} With those actions the Austrians took possession of much of northern Italy. The allies separated, Maillebois covering [[Liguria]], the Spaniards marching against Browne. The latter was promptly and heavily reinforced and all that the Spaniards could do was to entrench themselves at Piacenza, Philip, the Spanish [[Infante]] as supreme commander calling up Maillebois to his aid. The French, skilfully conducted and marching rapidly, joined forces once more, but their situation was critical, for only two marches behind them the army of the King of Sardinia was in pursuit, and before them lay the principal army of the Austrians. The pitched [[Battle of Piacenza]] on 16 June 1746 was hard-fought but ended in an Austrian victory, with the Spanish army heavily mauled. That the army escaped at all was in the highest degree creditable to Maillebois and to his son and chief of staff. Under their leadership the Gallispan army eluded both the Austrians and the Sardinians and defeated an Austrian corps in the [[Battle of Rottofreddo]] on 12 August 1746.<ref>Browning, p. 287</ref> Then the Austrian army made good its retreat back to [[Genoa]].{{sfn|Hannay|1911|pp=42–43}}

Although the Austrian army was a mere shadow of its former self, when they returned to Genoa, the Austrians were soon in control of northern Italy. The Austrians occupied the Republic of Genoa on 6 September 1746.<ref>Browning, pp. 287–288</ref> But they met with no success in their forays towards the Alps. Soon Genoa {{ill|Revolt of Genoa (1746)|it|Rivolta di Genova|lt=revolted}} and drove out the Austrians on 5–11 December 1746. As an Allied invasion of [[Provence]] stalled, and the French, now commanded by [[Charles Louis Auguste Fouquet, duc de Belle-Isle]], took the offensive (1747).<ref name="Browning_p311">Browning, p. 311</ref> Genoa held out against a second [[Siege of Genoa (1747)|Austrian siege]].<ref>Browning, p. 313</ref> As usual the plan of campaign had been referred to Paris and Madrid. A picked corps of the French army under the [[Louis Charles Armand Fouquet|Chevalier de Belle-Isle]] (the younger brother of Marshal Belle-Isle<ref name="Browning_p311" />) was ordered to storm the [[Fort of Exilles|fortified pass of Exilles]] on 10 July 1747. However, the defending army of the Worms allies (Austria and Savoy) handed the French army a crushing defeat at this battle, which became known as the ([[Battle of Assietta|Colle dell'Assietta]]).<ref name="Browning312">Browning, p. 312</ref> At this battle, the chevalier, and with him much of the elite of the French nobility, were killed on the barricades.<ref name="Browning312" /> Desultory campaigns continued between the Worms allies and the French until the conclusion of peace at [[Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748)|Aix-la-Chapelle]].{{sfn|Hannay|1911|p=43}}