Editing Triassic–Jurassic extinction event (section)

==== Global warming ====
The flood basalts of the CAMP released gigantic quantities of [[carbon dioxide]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Green |first1=Theodore |last2=Renne |first2=Paul R. |last3=Keller |first3=C. Brenhin |date=12 September 2022 |title=Continental flood basalts drive Phanerozoic extinctions |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]] |volume=119 |issue=38 |pages=e2120441119 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2120441119 |doi-access=free |pmid=36095185 |pmc=9499591 |bibcode=2022PNAS..11920441G }}</ref> a potent greenhouse gas causing intense global warming.<ref name="AnthropogenicScaleDegassing">{{cite journal |last1=Capriolo |first1=Manfredo |last2=Mills |first2=Benjamin J. W. |last3=Newton |first3=Robert J. |last4=Corso |first4=Jacobo Dal |last5=Dunhill |first5=Alexander M. |last6=Wignall |first6=Paul B. |last7=Marzoli |first7=Andrea |date=February 2022 |title=Anthropogenic-scale CO2 degassing from the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province as a driver of the end-Triassic mass extinction |journal=[[Global and Planetary Change]] |volume=209 |page=103731 |doi=10.1016/j.gloplacha.2021.103731 |bibcode=2022GPC...20903731C |s2cid=245530815 |doi-access=free |hdl=10852/91551 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Before the TJME, carbon dioxide levels were around 1,000 ppm as measured by the stomatal index of ''Lepidopteris ottonis'', but this quantity jumped to 1,300 ppm at the onset of the extinction event.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Slodownik |first1=Miriam |last2=Vajda |first2=Vivi |last3=Steinthorsdottir |first3=Margret |date=15 February 2021 |title=Fossil seed fern Lepidopteris ottonis from Sweden records increasing CO2 concentration during the end-Triassic extinction event |journal=[[Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology]] |volume=564 |page=110157 |doi=10.1016/j.palaeo.2020.110157 |bibcode=2021PPP...56410157S |s2cid=230527791 |doi-access=free }}</ref> During the TJME, carbon dioxide concentrations increased fourfold.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Huynh |first1=Tran T. |last2=Poulsen |first2=Christopher J. |date=25 February 2005 |title=Rising atmospheric CO2 as a possible trigger for the end-Triassic mass extinction |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0031018204006285 |journal=[[Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology]] |volume=217 |issue=3–4 |pages=223–242 |doi=10.1016/j.palaeo.2004.12.004 |bibcode=2005PPP...217..223H |access-date=30 May 2023}}</ref> The record of CAMP degassing shows several distinct pulses of carbon dioxide immediately following each major pulse of magmatism, at least two of which amount to a doubling of atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub>.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Schaller |first1=Morgan F. |last2=Wright |first2=James D. |last3=Kent |first3=Dennis V. |date=18 March 2011 |title=Atmospheric Pco2 Perturbations Associated with the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=331 |issue=6023 |pages=1404–1409 |doi=10.1126/science.1199011 |issn=0036-8075 |pmid=21330490 |bibcode=2011Sci...331.1404S |s2cid=206530492}}</ref> Carbon dioxide was emitted quickly and in enormous quantities compared to other periods of Earth's history, rate of carbon dioxide emissions was one of the most meteoric rises in carbon dioxide levels in Earth's entire history.<ref name="VolumeRateCO2">{{cite journal |last1=Jiang |first1=Qiang |last2=Jourdan |first2=Fred |last3=Olierook |first3=Hugo K. H. |last4=Merle |first4=Renaud E. |last5=Bourdet |first5=Julien |last6=Fougerouse |first6=Denis |last7=Godel |first7=Belinda |last8=Walker |first8=Alex T. |date=25 July 2022 |title=Volume and rate of volcanic CO2 emissions governed the severity of past environmental crises |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]] |volume=119 |issue=31 |pages=e2202039119 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2202039119 |doi-access=free |pmid=35878029 |pmc=9351498 |bibcode=2022PNAS..11902039J |s2cid=251067948 }}</ref> It is estimated that a single volcanic pulse from the large igneous province would have emitted an amount of carbon dioxide roughly equivalent to projected anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions for the 21st century.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Capriolo |first1=Manfredo |last2=Marzoli |first2=Andrea |last3=Aradi |first3=László E. |last4=Callegaro |first4=Sara |last5=Corso |first5=Jacopo Dal |last6=Newton |first6=Robert J. |last7=Mills |first7=Benjamin J. W. |last8=Wignall |first8=Paul B. |last9=Bartoli |first9=Omar |last10=Baker |first10=Don R. |last11=Youbi |first11=Nasrrddine |last12=Remusat |first12=Laurent |last13=Spiess |first13=Richard |last14=Szabó |first14=Csaba |date=7 April 2020 |title=Deep CO2 in the end-Triassic Central Atlantic Magmatic Province |journal=[[Nature Communications]] |volume=11 |issue=1 |page=1670 |doi=10.1038/s41467-020-15325-6 |pmid=32265448 |pmc=7138847 |bibcode=2020NatCo..11.1670C |s2cid=215404768 }}</ref> In addition, the flood basalts intruded through sediments that were rich in organic matter and combusted it,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Hua |first=Xia |last2=Yin |first2=Runsheng |last3=Kemp |first3=David B. |last4=Huang |first4=Chunju |last5=Shen |first5=Jun |last6=Jin |first6=Xin |date=15 December 2023 |title=Mercury isotope constraints on the timing and pattern of magmatism during the end-Triassic mass extinction |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0012821X2300451X |journal=[[Earth and Planetary Science Letters]] |language=en |volume=624 |pages=118438 |doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2023.118438 |access-date=18 February 2025 |via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lindström |first1=Sofie |last2=Callegaro |first2=Sara |last3=Davies |first3=Joshua |last4=Tegner |first4=Christian |last5=van de Schootbrugge |first5=Bas |last6=Pedersen |first6=Gunver K. |last7=Youbi |first7=Nasrrddine |last8=Sanei |first8=Hamed |last9=Marzoli |first9=Andrea |date=1 January 2021 |title=Tracing volcanic emissions from the Central Atlantic Magmatic Province in the sedimentary record |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012825220304906 |journal=[[Earth-Science Reviews]] |volume=212 |pages=103444 |doi=10.1016/j.earscirev.2020.103444 |bibcode=2021ESRv..21203444L |issn=0012-8252 |access-date=12 January 2024 |via=Elsevier Science Direct|hdl=10852/81753 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Van de Schootbrugge |first1=Bas |last2=Quan |first2=T. M. |last3=Lindström |first3=S. |last4=Püttmann |first4=W. |last5=Heunisch |first5=C. |last6=Pross |first6=J. |last7=Fiebig |first7=J. |last8=Petschik |first8=R. |last9=Röhling |first9=H.-G. |last10=Richoz |first10=S. |last11=Rosenthal |first11=Y. |last12=Falkowski |first12=P. G. |date=13 July 2009 |title=Floral changes across the Triassic/Jurassic boundary linked to flood basalt volcanism |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/ngeo577 |journal=[[Nature Geoscience]] |volume=2 |issue=8 |pages=589–594 |doi=10.1038/ngeo577 |bibcode=2009NatGe...2..589V |access-date=17 April 2023}}</ref> as evidenced by low Δ<sup>199</sup>Hg values showing elevated levels of organic matter-derived mercury in the environment.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Shen |first1=Jun |last2=Yin |first2=Runsheng |last3=Algeo |first3=Thomas J. |last4=Svensen |first4=Henrik Hovland |last5=Schoepfer |first5=Shane D. |date=9 March 2022 |title=Mercury evidence for combustion of organic-rich sediments during the end-Triassic crisis |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/359108712 |journal=[[Nature Communications]] |volume=13 |issue=1 |page=1307 |bibcode=2022NatCo..13.1307S |doi=10.1038/s41467-022-28891-8 |pmc=8907283 |pmid=35264554 |access-date=29 March 2023}}</ref> The degassing of [[Volatile (astrogeology)|volatiles]] resulting from volcanic intrusions into organic-rich sediments further enhanced the volcanic warming of the climate.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Davies |first1=J. H. F. L. |last2=Marzoli |first2=Andrea |last3=Bertrand |first3=H. |last4=Youbi |first4=Nasrrddine |last5=Ernesto |first5=M. |last6=Schaltegger |first6=U. |date=31 May 2017 |title=End-Triassic mass extinction started by intrusive CAMP activity |journal=[[Nature Communications]] |volume=8 |page=15596 |doi=10.1038/ncomms15596 |pmid=28561025 |pmc=5460029 |bibcode=2017NatCo...815596D |s2cid=13323882 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Capriolo |first1=Manfredo |last2=Marzoli |first2=Andrea |last3=Aradi |first3=László E. |last4=Ackerson |first4=Michael R. |last5=Bartoli |first5=Omar |last6=Callegaro |first6=Sara |last7=Dal Corso |first7=Jacopo |last8=Ernesto |first8=Marcia |last9=Gouvêa Vasconcellos |first9=Eleonora M. |last10=De Min |first10=Angelo |last11=Newton |first11=Robert J. |last12=Szabó |first12=Csaba |date=20 September 2021 |title=Massive methane fluxing from magma–sediment interaction in the end-Triassic Central Atlantic Magmatic Province |journal=[[Nature Communications]] |language=en |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=5534 |doi=10.1038/s41467-021-25510-w |pmid=34545073 |pmc=8452664 |bibcode=2021NatCo..12.5534C |issn=2041-1723 |hdl=11368/2996003 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Thermogenic carbon release through such [[contact metamorphism]] of carbon-rich deposits has been found to be a sensible hypothesis providing a coherent explanation for the magnitude of the negative carbon isotope excursions at the terminus of the Triassic.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Heimdal |first1=Thea H. |last2=Jones |first2=Morgan T. |last3=Svensen |first3=Henrik H. |date=18 May 2022 |title=Thermogenic carbon release from the Central Atlantic magmatic province caused major end-Triassic carbon cycle perturbations |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]] |volume=117 |issue=22 |pages=11968–11974 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2000095117 |doi-access=free |pmid=32424084 |pmc=7275695 }}</ref> Global temperatures rose sharply by 3 to 4&nbsp;°C.<ref name="McElwainBeerlingWoodward1999">{{cite journal |last1=McElwain |first1=J. C. |last2=Beerling |first2=D. J. |last3=Woodward |first3=F. I. |date=27 August 1999 |title=Fossil Plants and Global Warming at the Triassic-Jurassic Boundary |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.285.5432.1386 |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=285 |issue=5432 |pages=1386–1390 |doi=10.1126/science.285.5432.1386 |pmid=10464094 |access-date=15 November 2022}}</ref> In some regions, the temperature rise was as great as 10 °C.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Korte |first1=Christoph |last2=Hesselbo |first2=Stephen P. |last3=Jenkyns |first3=Hugh C. |last4=Rickaby |first4=Rosalind E. M. |last5=Spötl |first5=Christoph |date=May 2009 |title=Palaeoenvironmental significance of carbon- and oxygen-isotope stratigraphy of marine Triassic–Jurassic boundary sections in SW Britain |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/249547523 |journal=[[Journal of the Geological Society]] |language=en |volume=166 |issue=3 |pages=431–445 |doi=10.1144/0016-76492007-177 |bibcode=2009JGSoc.166..431K |s2cid=128814622 |issn=0016-7649 |access-date=31 October 2023}}</ref> Kaolinite-dominated clay mineral spectra reflect the extremely hot and humid greenhouse conditions engendered by the CAMP.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pálfy |first1=József |last2=Zajzon |first2=Norbert |date=15 June 2012 |title=Environmental changes across the Triassic–Jurassic boundary and coeval volcanism inferred from elemental geochemistry and mineralogy in the Kendlbachgraben section (Northern Calcareous Alps, Austria) |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0012821X12002075 |journal=[[Earth and Planetary Science Letters]] |language=en |volume=335-336 |pages=121–134 |doi=10.1016/j.epsl.2012.01.039 |access-date=19 June 2024 |via=Elsevier Science Direct}}</ref> Soil erosion occurred as the hydrological cycle was accelerated by the extreme global heat.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=van de Schootbrugge |first1=Bas |last2=Koutsodendris |first2=Andreas |last3=Taylor |first3=Wilson |last4=Weston |first4=Fabian |last5=Wellman |first5=Charles |last6=Strother |first6=Paul K. |date=March 2024 |title=Recognition of an extended record of euglenoid cysts: Implications for the end-Triassic mass extinction |journal=[[Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology]] |language=en |volume=322 |pages=105043 |doi=10.1016/j.revpalbo.2023.105043 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

The catastrophic dissociation of [[Clathrate hydrate|gas hydrate]]s as a positive feedback resulting from warming, which has been suggested as one possible cause of the PTME, the largest [[mass extinction]] of all time,<ref name="BentonTwitchett2003">{{cite journal |last1 = Benton |first1= Michael James | last2=Twitchett |first2=Richard J. | year = 2003 |title=How to kill (almost) all life: The end-Permian extinction event | journal = [[Trends in Ecology & Evolution]] |volume = 18 | issue = 7 | pages = 358–365 |doi = 10.1016/S0169-5347(03)00093-4 |s2cid= 42114053 }}</ref> may have exacerbated greenhouse conditions,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ruhl |first1=Micha |last2=Bonis |first2=Nina R. |last3=Reichart |first3=Gert-Jan |last4=Sinninghe Damsté |first4=Jaap S. |last5=Kürschner |first5=Wolfram M. |date=22 July 2011 |title=Atmospheric Carbon Injection Linked to End-Triassic Mass Extinction |url=https://www.science.org/doi/abs/10.1126/science.1204255 |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=333 |issue=6041 |pages=430–434 |doi=10.1126/science.1204255 |pmid=21778394 |bibcode=2011Sci...333..430R |s2cid=13537776 |access-date=9 December 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Galli |first1=Maria Teresa |last2=Jadoul |first2=Flavio |last3=Bernasconi |first3=Stefano M. |last4=Weissert |first4=Helmut |date=1 February 2005 |title=Anomalies in global carbon cycling and extinction at the Triassic/Jurassic boundary: evidence from a marine C-isotope record |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0031018204005644 |journal=[[Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology]] |volume=216 |issue=3–4 |pages=203–214 |doi=10.1016/j.palaeo.2004.11.009 |bibcode=2005PPP...216..203G |access-date=9 December 2022}}</ref> although others suggest that methane hydrate release was temporally mismatched with the TJME and thus not a cause of it.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Van de Schootbrugge |first1=Bas |last2=Bachan |first2=Aviv |last3=Suan |first3=Guillaume |last4=Richoz |first4=Sylvain |last5=Payne |first5=Jonathan L. |date=19 March 2013 |title=Microbes, mud and methane: cause and consequence of recurrent Early Jurassic anoxia following the end-Triassic mass extinction |journal=[[Palaeontology (journal)|Palaeontology]] |volume=56 |issue=4 |pages=685–709 |doi=10.1111/pala.12034 |bibcode=2013Palgy..56..685V |s2cid=76651746 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Lindström |first1=Sofie |last2=Van de Schootbrugge |first2=Bas |last3=Dybkjær |first3=Karen |last4=Pedersen |first4=Gunver Krarup |last5=Fiebig |first5=Jens |last6=Nielsen |first6=Lars Henrik |last7=Richoz |first7=Sylvain |date=1 June 2012 |title=No causal link between terrestrial ecosystem change and methane release during the end-Triassic mass extinction |url=https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/geology/article-abstract/40/6/531/130915/No-causal-link-between-terrestrial-ecosystem?redirectedFrom=fulltext |journal=[[Geology (journal)|Geology]] |volume=40 |issue=6 |pages=531–534 |doi=10.1130/G32928.1 |bibcode=2012Geo....40..531L |access-date=27 August 2023}}</ref>