Editing Tobacco smoking (section)

==Psychology==

===Takeup===
[[File:Sigmund Freud, by Max Halberstadt (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Sigmund Freud]], whose doctor [[Sigmund Freud#Death|assisted his suicide]] because of [[oral cancer]] caused by smoking<ref name=Gay>{{Cite book| last=Gay| first= Peter| year=1988| title=Freud: A Life for Our Time| url=https://archive.org/details/freudlifeforourt00gayp| url-access=registration| location=New York |pages=[https://archive.org/details/freudlifeforourt00gayp/page/650 650]–651|isbn=978-0-393-32861-5|publisher= W. W. Norton & Company |author-link=Peter Gay}}</ref>]]
Most smokers begin smoking during adolescence or early adulthood. Some studies also show that smoking can also be linked to various mental health complications.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Patton G. C. |author2=Hibbert M. |author3=Rosier M. J. |author4=Carlin J. B. |author5=Caust J. |author6=Bowes G. | year = 1996 | title = Is smoking associated with depression and anxiety in teenagers? | journal = American Journal of Public Health | volume = 86 | issue = 2| pages = 225–230 | pmc=1380332 | pmid=8633740 | doi=10.2105/ajph.86.2.225}}</ref> Smoking has elements of risk-taking and rebellion, which often appeal to young people. {{citation needed|date=July 2023}} The presence of peers who smoke and media featuring high-status models smoking may also encourage smoking. Because teenagers are influenced more by their peers than by adults {{dubious|date=July 2023}}, attempts by parents, schools, and health professionals at preventing people from trying cigarettes are often unsuccessful.<ref name="StantonSilva1992">{{cite journal | last1 = Stanton | first1 = W. | last2 = Silva | first2 = P. A. | title = A longitudinal study of the influence of parents and friends on children's initiation of smoking | journal = Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology | volume = 13 | issue = 4 | pages = 423–434 | year = 1992 | doi = 10.1016/0193-3973(92)90010-F }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Harris|first1=Judith Rich|last2=Pinker|first2=Steven|title=The nurture assumption: why children turn out the way they do|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9GQlA_l-TQ0C&q=The+nurture+assumption:+Why+children+turn+out+the+way+they+do|access-date=22 March 2009|date=4 September 1998|publisher=Simon and Schuster|isbn=978-0-684-84409-1|archive-date=14 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230114080750/https://books.google.com/books?id=9GQlA_l-TQ0C&q=The+nurture+assumption:+Why+children+turn+out+the+way+they+do|url-status=live}}</ref>

Children with smoking parents are more likely to smoke than children with non-smoking parents. Children of parents who smoke are less likely to quit smoking.<ref name=":0" /> One study found that parental smoking cessation was associated with less adolescent smoking, except when the other parent currently smoked.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Chassin | first1 = L. | last2 = Presson | first2 = C. | last3 = Rose | first3 = J. | last4 = Sherman | first4 = S. J. | last5 = Prost | first5 = J. | title = Parental Smoking Cessation and Adolescent Smoking | journal = Journal of Pediatric Psychology | volume = 27 | issue = 6 | pages = 485–496 | year = 2002 | pmid = 12177249 | doi = 10.1093/jpepsy/27.6.485 | doi-access = free }}</ref> A current study tested the relation of adolescent smoking to rules regulating where adults are allowed to smoke in the home. Results showed that restrictive home smoking policies were associated with a lower likelihood of trying smoking for both middle and high school students.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Proescholdbell | first1 = R. J. | last2 = Chassin | first2 = L. | last3 = MacKinnon | first3 = D. P. | title = Home smoking restrictions and adolescent smoking | journal = Nicotine & Tobacco Research | volume = 2 | issue = 2 | pages = 159–167 | year = 2000 | doi = 10.1080/713688125 | pmid = 11072454 | s2cid = 8749779 }}</ref>

Behavioural research generally indicates that teenagers begin their smoking habits due to peer pressure, and cultural influence portrayed by friends. However, one study found that direct pressure to smoke cigarettes played a less significant part in adolescent smoking, with [[adolescent]]s also reporting low levels of both [[Norm (sociology)|normative]] and direct pressure to smoke cigarettes.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Urberg | first1 = K. | last2 = Shyu | first2 = S. J. | last3 = Liang | first3 = J. | title = Peer influence in adolescent cigarette smoking | journal = Addictive Behaviors | volume = 15 | issue = 3 | pages = 247–255 | year = 1990 | pmid = 2378284 | doi = 10.1016/0306-4603(90)90067-8 }}</ref> Mere exposure to tobacco retailers may motivate smoking behaviour in adults.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Review: Tobacco outlet density|last=Bharatula|first=Arun|year=2016|location=Melbourne|url=https://drive.google.com/open?id=0B-e8wYlugBcUTFQ4TnRkenBkVW8}}{{Dead link|date=November 2018 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> A similar study suggested that individuals may play a more active role in starting to smoke than has previously been thought and that social processes other than peer pressure also need to be taken into account.<ref>{{Cite journal|vauthors=Michell L, West P |title=Peer pressure to smoke: the meaning depends on the method|volume=11|issue=1|pages=39–49|year=1996|doi=10.1093/her/11.1.39|journal=Health Education Research|doi-access=free}}</ref> Another study's results indicated that [[peer pressure]] was significantly associated with smoking behavior across all age and gender cohorts, but that intrapersonal factors were significantly more important to the smoking behavior of 12- to 13-year-old girls than same-age boys. Within the 14- to 15-year-old age group, one peer pressure variable emerged as a significantly more important predictor of girls' than boys' smoking.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Barber | first1 = J. | last2 = Bolitho | first2 = F. | last3 = Bertrand | first3 = L. | title = The Predictors of Adolescent Smoking | journal = Journal of Social Service Research | volume = 26 | issue = 1 | pages = 51–66| year = 1999 | doi = 10.1300/J079v26n01_03 }}</ref> It is debated whether peer pressure or [[self-selection]] is a greater cause of adolescent smoking.

Psychologist [[Hans Eysenck]] (who later was questioned for implausible results
<ref name="Pelosi2019">{{cite journal |last1=Pelosi |first1=Anthony J. |title=Personality and fatal diseases: Revisiting a scientific scandal |journal=Journal of Health Psychology |volume=24 |issue=4 |year=2019 |pages=421–439 |issn=1359-1053 |doi=10.1177/1359105318822045|pmid=30791726 |pmc=6712909 }}</ref> and unsafe publications<ref name="Enquiry">{{cite web |title=King's College London enquiry into publications authored by Professor Hans Eysenck with Professor Ronald Grossarth-Maticek |url=https://retractionwatch.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/HE-Enquiry.pdf |date=October 2019 |access-date=13 January 2020 |archive-date=5 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221105133943/https://retractionwatch.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/10/HE-Enquiry.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Hawkes">Nigel Hawkes (2019), [https://www.bmj.com/content/bmj/367/bmj.l5899.full.pdf Works by eminent psychologist who doubted smoking caused cancer are "unsafe," finds inquiry] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230104001110/https://www.bmj.com/content/367/bmj.l5899 |date=4 January 2023 }}</ref>) developed a personality profile for the typical smoker. [[Extraversion]] is the trait that is most associated with smoking, and smokers tend to be sociable, impulsive, risk-taking, and excitement-seeking individuals.<ref>{{Cite book|first1=Hans J. |last1=Eysenck |first2=Stuart |last2=Brody |title=Smoking, health and personality |date=November 2000 |publisher=Transaction |isbn=978-0-7658-0639-0 }}</ref>

===Persistence===

The reasons given by some smokers for this activity have been categorized as ''addictive smoking'', ''pleasure from smoking'', ''tension reduction/relaxation'', ''social smoking'', ''stimulation'', ''habit/automatism'', and ''handling''. There are gender differences in how much each of these reasons contributes, with females more likely than males to cite ''tension reduction/relaxation'', ''stimulation'' and ''social smoking''.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Berlin | first1 = I. | last2 = Singleton | first2 = E. G. | last3 = Pedarriosse | first3 = A. M. | last4 = Lancrenon | first4 = S. | last5 = Rames | first5 = A. | last6 = Aubin | first6 = H. J. | last7 = Niaura | first7 = R. | title = The Modified Reasons for Smoking Scale: factorial structure, gender effects and relationship with nicotine dependence and smoking cessation in French smokers | journal = Addiction | volume = 98 | issue = 11 | pages = 1575–1583 | year = 2003 | pmid = 14616184 | doi = 10.1046/j.1360-0443.2003.00523.x }}</ref>

Some smokers argue that the [[depressant]] effect of smoking allows them to calm their nerves, often allowing for increased concentration. However, according to the [[Imperial College London]], "Nicotine seems to provide both a stimulant and a depressant effect, and it is likely that the effect it has at any time is determined by the mood of the user, the environment and the circumstances of use. Studies have suggested that low doses have a depressant effect, while higher doses have a stimulant effect."<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Nicotine|url=http://www.ch.ic.ac.uk/rzepa/mim/drugs/html/nicotine_text.htm|access-date=22 March 2009|publisher=Imperial College London|archive-date=14 July 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090714142449/http://www.ch.ic.ac.uk/rzepa/mim/drugs/html/nicotine_text.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Patterns===
Several studies have established that cigarette sales and smoking follow distinct time-related patterns. For example, cigarette sales in the United States of America have been shown to follow a strongly seasonal pattern, with the high months being the summer months, and the low months being the winter months.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Chandra | first1 = S. | last2 = Chaloupka | first2 = F. J. | title = Seasonality in cigarette sales: patterns and implications for tobacco control | journal = Tobacco Control | volume = 12 | issue = 1 | pages = 105–107 | year = 2003 | pmid = 12612375 | pmc = 1759100 | doi = 10.1136/tc.12.1.105 }}</ref>

Similarly, smoking has been shown to follow distinct circadian patterns during the waking day—with the high point usually occurring shortly after waking in the morning, and shortly before going to sleep at night.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Chandra | first1 = S. | last2 = Shiffman | first2 = S. | last3 = Scharf | first3 = M. | last4 = Dang | first4 = Q. | last5 = Shadel | first5 = G. | title = Daily smoking patterns, their determinants, and implications for quitting | journal = [[Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology]] | volume = 15 | issue = 1 | pages = 67–80 | date = Feb 2007 | pmid = 17295586 | doi = 10.1037/1064-1297.15.1.67 | issn = 1064-1297 }}</ref>