Editing Tiwanaku (section)

== Archaeology ==
[[File:BO Tihuanako (149) (17042408319).jpg|thumb|left|270px|The Bennett Monolith was found in the centre of the Semi-Subterranean Temple by American archeologist Wendell Clark Bennett. It is the largest [[Stele]] ever found in the Andean world (7,3 m tall); his body is covered with mythical figures.]]
[[File:Tiwanaku 06.jpg|thumb|Heads in the Semi-Subterranean Temple.]]
As the site has suffered from looting and amateur excavations since shortly after Tiwanaku's fall, archeologists must attempt to interpret it with the understanding that materials have been jumbled and destroyed. This destruction continued during the Spanish conquest and colonial period, and during 19th century and the early 20th century. Other damage was committed by people quarrying stone for building and railroad construction, and target practice by military personnel.

No standing buildings have survived at the modern site. Only public, non-domestic foundations remain, with poorly reconstructed walls. The ashlar blocks used in many of these structures were mass-produced in similar styles so that they could possibly be used for multiple purposes. Throughout the period of the site, certain buildings changed purposes, causing a mix of artifacts found today.<ref name="ProtzenOther2000" />

Detailed study of Tiwanaku began on a small scale in the mid-nineteenth century. In the 1860s, [[Ephraim George Squier]] visited the ruins and later published maps and sketches completed during his visit. German geologist [[Alphons Stübel]] spent nine days in Tiwanaku in 1876, creating a map of the site based on careful measurements. He also made sketches and created paper impressions of carvings and other architectural features. A book containing major photographic documentation was published in 1892 by engineer Georg von Grumbkow, With commentary by archaeologist [[Max Uhle]], this was the first in-depth scientific account of the ruins.

Von Grumbkow had first visited Tiwanaku between the end of 1876 and the beginning of 1877, when he accompanied as a photographer the expedition of French adventurer [[Théodore Ber]], financed by American businessman [[Henry Meiggs]], against Ber’s promise of donating the artifacts he will find, on behalf of Meiggs, to Washington's [[Smithsonian Institution]] and the [[American Museum of Natural History]] in [[New York City|New York]]. Ber’s expedition was cut short by the violent hostility of the local population, instigated by the Catholic parish priest, but von Grumbkow’s early pictures survive.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last=Riviale|first=Pascal|title=Un Communard parmi les américanistes : biographie de Théodore Ber|encyclopedia=Bérose-Encyclopédie internationale des histoires de l'anthropologie|url=http://www.berose.fr/article1413.html?lang=fr|access-date=18 January 2020|year=2018|publisher=Bérose}}</ref>

;Pictures of archaeological excavations in 1903
<gallery>
File:Posnansky Fig 15.png|Stairs of Kalasasaya (1903)
File:Posnansky Fig 10.png|Gate of the Sun (1903)
File:Posnansky Fig 13.png|Gate of the Sun, Rear View (1903)
File:Posnansky Fig 5.png|Akapana (1903); first thought to be an [[alluvial]] layer, later shown to be entirely artificial
File:Edificio de la segunda Epoca - Vista de la izquierda 1903-1904.jpg|Semi-Subterranean Temple (1903)
</gallery>

=== Contemporary excavation and restoration ===
[[File:Tiwanaku 09.jpg|thumb|Amateur archaeological reconstructed Walls around the Kalasasaya]]
[[File:Posnansky Fig 9.png|thumb|Remains of the original Kalasasaya walls show high quality of stonework]]
In the 1960s, the Bolivian government initiated an effort to restore the site and reconstruct part of it. The walls of the Kalasasaya are almost all reconstructed. The reconstruction was not sufficiently based on evidence. The reconstruction does not have as high quality of stonework as was present in Tiwanaku.<ref name = "Brownman1981a" /> 
Early visitors compared Kalasasaya to Englands [[Stonehenge]].<ref>Alfons Stübel, Max Uhle: ''Die Ruinenstätte von Tiahuanaco im Hochlande des alten Perú: Eine kulturgeschichtliche Studie auf Grund selbständiger Aufnahmen.'' Hiersemann, Leipzig 1892, Part II, p. 46 ([https://digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/diglit/stuebel_uhle1892/0212/image,info digi.ub.uni-heidelberg.de]).</ref> Ephraim Squier called it "American Stonehenge".<ref>Jean-Pierre Protzen, Stella Nair: ''The Stones of Tiahuanaco: A Study of Architecture and Construction.'' Vol. 75. Cotsen Institute of Archaeology Press, University of California, Los Angeles 2013, p. 46.</ref> Before the reconstruction, it had more of a "Stonehenge"-like appearance as the filler stones between the large stone pillars were all looted.<ref>Alexei Vranich, Charles Stanish (eds.): ''Visions of Tiwanaku''. UCLA Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, Los Angeles, 2013, p. 4</ref>
As noted, the Gateway of the Sun, now in the Kalasasaya, is believed to have been moved from its original location.<ref name = "Kolata" />

Modern, academically sound archaeological excavations were performed from 1978 through the 1990s by [[University of Chicago]] [[anthropologist]] Alan Kolata and his Bolivian counterpart, Oswaldo Rivera. Among their contributions are the rediscovery of the [[suka kollus]], accurate dating of the civilization's growth and influence, and evidence for a drought-based collapse of the Tiwanaku civilization.

Archaeologists such as Paul Goldstein have argued that the [[Tiwanaku empire]] ranged outside of the altiplano area and into the [[Moquegua]] Valley in Peru. Excavations at Omo settlements show signs of similar architecture characteristic of Tiwanaku, such as a temple and terraced mound.<ref name="Goldstein, Paul 1993"/> Evidence of similar types of cranial vault modification in burials between the Omo site and the main site of Tiwanaku is also being used for this argument.<ref>{{cite book |title=Artificial Cranial Deformation at the Omo M10 Site: A Tiwanaku Complex from the Moquegua Valley, Peru | last =Hoshower | first = Lisa M. |year= 1995}}</ref>

[[Image:Tiwanaku robot 20060613 0470.jpg|thumb|left|Robotic exploration of a newly discovered tunnel inside Akapana, June 13, 2006]]

Today Tiwanaku has been designated as a [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site]], administered by the Bolivian government.

Recently, the Department of Archaeology of Bolivia (DINAR, directed by Javier Escalante) has been conducting excavations on the terraced platform mound Akapana. The Proyecto Arqueologico Pumapunku-Akapana (Pumapunku-Akapana Archaeological Project, PAPA) run by the [[University of Pennsylvania]], has been excavating in the area surrounding the terraced platform mound for the past few years, and also conducting [[Ground Penetrating Radar]] surveys of the area.

In former years, an archaeological field school offered through [[Harvard]]'s Summer School Program, conducted in the residential area outside the monumental core, has provoked controversy amongst local archaeologists.<ref>{{Citation | last = Lémuz | first = C | year = 2007 | contribution-url = http://arqueobolivia.blogspot.com/2007/02/buenos-negocios-buena-arqueologia.html | contribution = Buenos Negocios, ¿Buena Arqueologia? | language = es | url = http://arqueobolivia.blogspot.com/ | title = Crítica Arqueológica Boliviana |trans-title=Bolivian archæological critic | type = [[World Wide Web]] log}}.</ref> The program was directed by [[Gary Urton]],<ref>{{Citation | year = 2005 | contribution-url = http://www.summer.harvard.edu/2005/programs/bolivia/ | contribution = Program in Tiwanaku, Bolivia | url = http://www.summer.harvard.edu/2005/ | title = Summer School Archives | publisher = Harvard University | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://archive.today/20120805220852/http://www.summer.harvard.edu/2005/ | archive-date = 2012-08-05 }}.</ref> of Harvard, who was an expert on [[quipu]]s, and [[Alexei Vranich]] of the [[University of Pennsylvania]]. The controversy was over allowing a team of untrained students to work on the site, even under professional supervision. It was so important that only certified professional archaeologists with documented funding were allowed access. The controversy was charged with nationalistic and political undertones.<ref>{{Citation | last1 = Kojan | first1 = David | first2 = Dante | last2 = Angelo | title = Dominant narratives, social violence and the practice of Bolivian archaeology | journal = Journal of Social Archaeology | volume = 5 | number = 3 | pages = 383–408 | doi=10.1177/1469605305057585| year = 2005 | s2cid = 144411168 }}.</ref> The Harvard field school lasted for three years, beginning in 2004 and ending in 2007. The project was not renewed in subsequent years, nor was permission sought to do so.

In 2009 state-sponsored restoration work on [[Akapana]] was halted due to a complaint from [[UNESCO]]. The restoration had consisted of facing the platform mound with [[adobe]], although researchers had not established this as appropriate.<ref>{{cite news|last=Carroll|first=Rory|title=Makeover may lose Bolivian pyramid its world heritage site listing|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/oct/20/tiwanaku-pyramid-renovations|newspaper = The Guardian|date=20 October 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Pyramid may lose World Heritage status after renovation fiasco|url= http://www.smh.com.au/travel/travel-news/pyramid-may-lose-world-heritage-status-after-renovation-fiasco-20091020-h5v0.html |newspaper=Sydney Morning Herald|date=October 20, 2009}}</ref>
[[File:Tiwanaku Statue Der Moench.jpg|thumb|Detail of the Ponce Monolith.]]
In 2013, [[Maritime archaeology|marine archaeologists]] exploring Lake Titicaca's Khoa reef discovered an ancient ceremonial site and lifted artifacts such as a [[lapis lazuli]] and [[ceramic]] figurines, [[incense]] burners and a ceremonial medallion from the lake floor.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news |last=Sample |first=Ian |date=2019-04-01 |title=Archaeologists discover 'exceptional' site at Lake Titicaca |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2019/apr/01/archaeologists-discover-exceptional-site-at-lake-titicaca |access-date=2019-04-02 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> The artifacts are representative of the lavishness of the ceremonies and the Tiwanaku culture.<ref name=":0" />

When a topographical map of the site was created in 2016 by the use of a drone, a "set of hitherto unknown structures" was revealed. These structures spanned over 411 hectares, and included a stone temple and about one hundred circular or rectangular structures of vast dimensions, which were possibly domestic units.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://en.unesco.org/courier/2018-3/secrets-tiwanaku-revealed-drone|title=The secrets of Tiwanaku, revealed by a drone}}</ref>