Editing Sudan (section)

=== Turkiyah and Mahdist Sudan (1821–1899) ===
{{Main|History of Sudan (1821–1885)|Mahdist Sudan|Anglo-Egyptian conquest of Sudan}}
[[File:Egypt under Muhammad Ali Dynasty map en.png|thumb|Map of Egypt and Sudan under [[Muhammad Ali dynasty]]]]
[[File:Muhammad Ahmad al-Mahdi.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Muhammad Ahmad]], ruler of Sudan (1881–1885)]]
In 1821, the Ottoman ruler of Egypt, [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt]], invaded and conquered northern Sudan. Although technically the [[Vali (governor)|Vali]] of Egypt under the [[Ottoman Empire]], Muhammad Ali styled himself as [[Khedive]] of a virtually independent Egypt. Seeking to add Sudan to his domains, he sent his third son Ismail (not to be confused with [[Isma'il Pasha|Ismaʻil Pasha]] mentioned later) to conquer the country, and subsequently incorporate it into Egypt. With the exception of the Shaiqiya and the Darfur sultanate in Kordofan, he was met without resistance. The Egyptian policy of conquest was expanded and intensified by [[Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt|Ibrahim Pasha]]'s son, Ismaʻil, under whose reign most of the remainder of modern-day Sudan was conquered.

The Egyptian authorities made significant improvements to the Sudanese infrastructure (mainly in the north), especially with regard to irrigation and cotton production. In 1879, the [[International relations of the Great Powers (1814–1919)|Great Powers]] forced the removal of Ismail and established his son [[Tewfik Pasha]] in his place. Tewfik's corruption and mismanagement resulted in the [['Urabi revolt]], which threatened the Khedive's survival. Tewfik appealed for help to the British, who subsequently occupied Egypt in 1882. Sudan was left in the hands of the Khedivial government, and the mismanagement and corruption of its officials.{{sfn|Churchill|1902|p={{page needed|date=November 2020}}}}<ref>{{cite book |author1=Rudolf Carl Freiherr von Slatin |author2=Sir Francis Reginald Wingate |year=1896 |title=Fire and Sword in the Sudan |publisher=E. Arnold |url=https://archive.org/details/riverwarhistoric00chur |access-date=26 June 2013}}</ref>

During the Khedivial period, dissent had spread due to harsh taxes imposed on most activities. Taxation on irrigation wells and farming lands were so high most farmers abandoned their farms and livestock. During the 1870s, European initiatives against the [[History of slavery|slave trade]] had an adverse impact on the economy of northern Sudan, precipitating the rise of [[Muhammad Ahmad|Mahdist]] forces.<ref>{{cite web|author=Domke, D. Michelle |title=ICE Case Studies; Case Number: 3; Case Identifier: Sudan; Case Name: Civil War in the Sudan: Resources or Religion? |publisher = [[Inventory of Conflict and Environment]] |date= November 1997 |url=http://www.american.edu/ted/ice/sudan.htm |access-date=8 January 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20001209170400/http://www.american.edu/ted/ice/sudan.htm |archive-date=9 December 2000 |via=[[American University School of International Service]]}}</ref> [[Muhammad Ahmad|Muhammad Ahmad ibn Abd Allah]], the ''[[Mahdi]]'' (Guided One), offered to the ''ansars'' (his followers) and those who surrendered to him a choice between adopting Islam or being killed. The Mahdiyah (Mahdist regime) imposed traditional Sharia [[Sharia|Islamic law]]s. On 12 August 1881, an incident occurred at [[Battle of Aba|Aba Island]], sparking the outbreak of what became the [[Mahdist War]].

From his announcement of the Mahdiyya in June 1881 until the [[Siege of Khartoum|fall of Khartoum]] in January 1885, Muhammad Ahmad led a [[Mahdist War|successful military campaign]] against the Turco-Egyptian government of the Sudan, known as the [[Turkiyah]]. Muhammad Ahmad died on 22 June 1885, a mere six months after the conquest of Khartoum. After a power struggle amongst his deputies, [[Abdallahi ibn Muhammad]], with the help primarily of the [[Baggara]] of western Sudan, overcame the opposition of the others and emerged as the unchallenged leader of the Mahdiyah. After consolidating his power, Abdallahi ibn Muhammad assumed the title of ''Khalifa'' (successor) of the Mahdi, instituted an administration, and appointed [[Ansar (Sudan)|Ansar]] (who were usually [[Baggara]]) as emirs over each of the several provinces.

[[File:Battle of Omdurman-1.JPG|thumb|upright=1.2|The flight of the [[Abdallahi ibn Muhammad|Khalifa]] after his defeat at the [[Battle of Omdurman]] in 1898]]

Regional relations remained tense throughout much of the Mahdiyah period, largely because of the Khalifa's brutal methods to extend his rule throughout the country. In 1887, a 60,000-man Ansar army invaded [[Ethiopia]], penetrating as far as [[Gondar]]. In March 1889, king [[Yohannes IV]] of Ethiopia marched on [[Metemma]]; however, after Yohannes fell in battle, the Ethiopian forces withdrew. Abd ar-Rahman an-Nujumi, the Khalifa's general, attempted an invasion of Egypt in 1889, but British-led Egyptian troops defeated the Ansar at Tushkah. The failure of the Egyptian invasion broke the spell of the Ansar's invincibility. The [[Belgium|Belgians]] prevented the Mahdi's men from conquering [[Equatoria]], and in 1893, the Italians repelled an Ansar attack at [[Agordat]] (in [[Eritrea]]) and forced the Ansar to withdraw from Ethiopia.

In the 1890s, the British sought to re-establish their control over Sudan, once more officially in the name of the Egyptian Khedive, but in actuality treating the country as a British colony. By the early 1890s, British, French, and Belgian claims had converged at the [[Nile]] headwaters. Britain feared that the other powers would take advantage of Sudan's instability to acquire territory previously annexed to Egypt. Apart from these political considerations, Britain wanted to establish control over the Nile to safeguard a planned irrigation dam at [[Aswan]]. [[Herbert Kitchener]] led military campaigns against the [[Mahdist Sudan]] from 1896 to 1898. Kitchener's campaigns culminated in a decisive victory in the [[Battle of Omdurman]] on 2 September 1898. A year later, the [[Battle of Umm Diwaykarat]] on 25 November 1899 resulted in the death of [[Abdallahi ibn Muhammad]], subsequently bringing to an end the Mahdist War.