Editing Stainless steel (section)

== History ==
[[file: Stainless steel nyt 1-31-1915.jpg|thumb|An announcement, as it appeared in a 1915 issue of ''The New York Times'', of the development of stainless steel in [[Sheffield]], England<ref name="NYT">{{cite journal |journal=New York Times |title=A non-rusting steel |date=31 January 1915}}</ref>]]

The invention of stainless steel followed a series of scientific developments, starting in 1798 when chromium was first shown to the [[Académie française|French Academy]] by [[Louis Vauquelin]]. In the early 1800s, British scientists James Stoddart, [[Michael Faraday]], and [[Robert Mallet]] observed the resistance of chromium-iron alloys ("chromium steels") to [[oxidizing agents]]. [[Robert Bunsen]] discovered chromium's resistance to strong acids. The corrosion resistance of iron-chromium alloys may have been first recognized in 1821 by [[Pierre Berthier]], who noted their resistance against attack by some acids and suggested their use in cutlery.<ref>{{Cite book|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=E30rCBeM8nkC&q=Stainless+Steel+Berthier&pg=PA10|title = The History of Stainless Steel|isbn = 978-1615030118|last1 = Cobb|first1 = Harold M.|year = 2010| publisher=ASM International |access-date = 1 October 2021|archive-date = 14 April 2021|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210414012347/https://books.google.com/books?id=E30rCBeM8nkC&q=Stainless+Steel+Berthier&pg=PA10|url-status = live}}</ref>

In the 1840s, both Britain's [[Sheffield]] steelmakers and then [[Krupp]] of Germany were producing chromium steel with the latter employing it for cannons in the 1850s.<ref>{{Cite book|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=CAwyBgAAQBAJ&q=Chrome+Steel+Baur&pg=PA149|title = The Metallurgic Age: The Victorian Flowering of Invention and Industrial Science|isbn = 978-1476611136|last1 = Quentin r. Skrabec|first1 = Jr|date = 24 January 2015| publisher=McFarland |access-date = 1 October 2021|archive-date = 14 April 2021|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210414012546/https://books.google.com/books?id=CAwyBgAAQBAJ&q=Chrome+Steel+Baur&pg=PA149|url-status = live}}</ref> In 1861, [[Robert Forester Mushet]] took out a patent on chromium steel in Britain.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Waldo |first=Leonard |url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015014665320&view=1up&seq=902 |title=Chrome-Nickel Iron and Steel Products |magazine=Iron Age |volume=98 |date=October 1916 |pages=838–839 |publisher=David Williams Co. |location=New York City |via=Haithi Trust |access-date=1 October 2021 |archive-date=14 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210414010929/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015014665320&view=1up&seq=902 |url-status=live }}</ref>

These events led to the first American production of chromium-containing steel by J. Baur of the Chrome Steel Works of Brooklyn for the construction of bridges. A US patent for the product was issued in 1869.<ref name="CobbHistory2010">{{Cite book |last=Cobb |first=Harold M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E30rCBeM8nkC |title=The History of Stainless Steel |date=2010 |publisher=ASM International |isbn=978-1615030118 |location=Materials Park, OH |access-date=8 March 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729124003/https://books.google.com/books?id=E30rCBeM8nkC |archive-date=29 July 2020 |url-status=live}}</ref>{{rp|2261}}{{efn|{{cn span|text=Despite the evidence of the use of Baur's "chrome steel" in bridgeworks, others{{who|date=March 2020}} have argued that metallurgists of the 19th century were unable to produce anything but <!--the combination of low carbon and high chromium found in most modern stainless steels, and the--> high-chromium <!-- they could produce were-->alloys that were "too brittle to be practical".{{cite quote|date=December 2022}}{{according to whom|date=March 2020}}|date=March 2020}} }}<!--IF YOU WANT THESE ORIGINAL STATEMENTS TO APPEAR IN THE MAIN BODY, AS THEY DID EARLIER, FIND SOURCES, AND STATE WHAT THE SOURCES SAY, AND MAKE THE CITATIONS FULL ENOUGH AND CLEAR ENOUGH THAT WE CAN CHECK THEM.--> This was followed with recognition of the corrosion resistance of chromium alloys by Englishmen John T. Woods and John Clark, who noted ranges of chromium from 5–30%, with added tungsten and "medium carbon". They pursued the commercial value of the innovation via a British patent for "Weather-Resistant Alloys".<ref name = CobbHistory2010/>{{rp|261,11}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.airedalesprings.co.uk/its-complicated-the-discovery-of-stainless-steel/ |title=It's Complicated: The Discovery of Stainless Steel |publisher=Airedale Springs |date=September 2015 |access-date=1 October 2021 |archive-date=15 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415170555/https://www.airedalesprings.co.uk/its-complicated-the-discovery-of-stainless-steel/ |url-status=live }}{{full citation needed|date=March 2020}}{{verification needed|date=March 2020}}</ref>{{full citation needed|date=March 2020}}

Scientists researching steel corrosion in the second half of the 19th century didn't pay attention to the amount of carbon in the alloyed steels they were testing until in 1898 [[Adolphe Carnot]] and E. Goutal noted that chromium steels better resist to oxidation with acids the less carbon they contain.<ref>[[wikisource:fr:Page:Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l’Académie des sciences, tome 126, 1898.djvu/1243|s:fr:Page:Comptes rendus hebdomadaires des séances de l’Académie des sciences, tome 126, 1898.djvu/1243]]</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Monypenny |first=J. h g |url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.125041/page/n27/mode/1up |title=Stainless Iron And Steel |date=1923}}</ref>

Also in the late 1890s, German chemist [[Hans Goldschmidt]] developed an aluminothermic ([[thermite]]) process for producing carbon-free chromium.<ref name="bssahist" /> Between 1904 and 1911, several researchers, particularly [[Leon Guillet]] of France, prepared alloys that would be considered stainless steel today.<ref name="bssahist">{{cite web |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120112001630/http://www.bssa.org.uk/about_stainless_steel.php?id=31 |archive-date=12 January 2012 |publisher=British Stainless Steel Association |url=http://www.bssa.org.uk/about_stainless_steel.php?id=31 |title=The Discovery of Stainless Steel }}</ref><ref name="chezeau97">{{cite journal |doi=10.1051/metal/199794050592|title=Léon Alexandre Guillet (1873–1946)|year=1997|last1=Chezeau|first1=N.|journal=Revue de Métallurgie|volume=94|issue=5|pages=592–596}}</ref>

In 1908, the [[Essen]] firm [[Friedrich Krupp Germaniawerft]] built the 366-ton sailing yacht ''[[Germania (yacht)|Germania]]'' featuring a chrome-nickel steel hull, in Germany. In 1911, [[Philip Monnartz]] reported on the relationship between chromium content and corrosion resistance.<ref name="outooyj"/> On 17 October 1912, [[Krupp]] engineers Benno Strauss and Eduard Maurer patented as [[Nirosta]] the [[austenitic stainless steel]]<ref name=nirostade>{{cite web |url=http://www.nirosta.de/History.22.0.html?&L=1 |title=ThyssenKrupp Nirosta: History |access-date=13 August 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070902202906/http://www.nirosta.de/History.22.0.html?&L=1 |archive-date=2 September 2007 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref name=patnet1>{{cite web |url=https://depatisnet.dpma.de/DepatisNet/depatisnet?action=pdf&docid=DE000000304126A |title=DEPATISnet-Dokument DE000000304126A |access-date=1 October 2021 |archive-date=13 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170813231441/https://depatisnet.dpma.de/DepatisNet/depatisnet?action=pdf&docid=DE000000304126A |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name=patnet2>{{cite web |url=https://depatisnet.dpma.de/DepatisNet/depatisnet?action=pdf&docid=DE000000304159A |title=DEPATISnet-Dokument DE000000304159A |access-date=1 October 2021 |archive-date=7 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807084553/https://depatisnet.dpma.de/DepatisNet/depatisnet?action=pdf&docid=DE000000304159A |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="outooyj">{{cite news |title=Handbook of Stainless Steel |publisher=Outokumpu Oyj |date=2013 |page=12}}</ref> known today as '''18/8''' or AISI type 304.<ref name=hmcname/>

Similar developments were taking place in the United States, where [[Christian Dantsizen]] of [[General Electric]]<ref name="hmcname">{{cite journal |last1=Cobb |first1=Harold M. |title=The Naming and Numbering of Stainless Steels |url=https://www.asminternational.org/home/-/journal_content/56/10192/AMP16509P039/PERIODICAL-ARTICLE |volume=165 |journal=Advanced Materials & Processes |issue=9 |publisher=ASM International |date=September 2007 |access-date=1 October 2021 |archive-date=27 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210627164956/https://www.asminternational.org/home/-/journal_content/56/10192/AMP16509P039/PERIODICAL-ARTICLE |url-status=live }}</ref> and [[Frederick Mark Becket|Frederick Becket]] (1875–1942) at [[Union Carbide]] were industrializing ferritic stainless steel.<ref name="ebbecket">{{cite news |title=Frederick Mark Becket American metallurgist |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Frederick-Mark-Becket |publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica |date=7 January 2021 |access-date=1 October 2021 |archive-date=7 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210607073125/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Frederick-Mark-Becket |url-status=live }}</ref> In 1912, [[Elwood Haynes]] applied for a US patent on a martensitic stainless steel alloy, which was not granted until 1919.<ref>Carlisle, Rodney P. (2004) [https://books.google.com/books?id=pDbQVE3IdTcC&pg=PA380 Scientific American Inventions and Discoveries] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413225151/https://books.google.com/books?id=pDbQVE3IdTcC&pg=PA380 |date=13 April 2021 }}, p. 380, John Wiley and Sons, {{ISBN|0-471-24410-4}}.</ref>

===Harry Brearley===
[[File:Harry Brearley.jpg|thumb|Monument to [[Harry Brearley]] at the former [[Firth Brown Steels|Brown Firth Research Laboratory]] in [[Sheffield]], England]]
While seeking a corrosion-resistant alloy for gun barrels in 1913, [[Harry Brearley]] of the [[Firth Brown Steels|Brown-Firth]] research laboratory in Sheffield, England, discovered and subsequently industrialized a [[martensitic stainless steel]] alloy, today known as AISI type 420.<ref name=hmcname/> The discovery was announced two years later in a January 1915 newspaper article in ''The New York Times''.<ref name="NYT" />

The metal was later marketed under the "Staybrite" brand by [[Vickers|Firth Vickers]] in England and was used for the new entrance canopy for the [[Savoy Hotel]] in London in 1929.<ref>Howse, Geoffrey (2011) ''A Photographic History of Sheffield Steel'', History Press, {{ISBN|0752459856}}.</ref> Brearley applied for a US patent during 1915 only to find that Haynes had already registered one. Brearley and Haynes pooled their funding and, with a group of investors, formed the [[American Stainless Steel Corporation]], with headquarters in [[Pittsburgh]], Pennsylvania.<ref name="CobbHistory2010" />{{rp|360}}

===Rustless steel===
Brearley initially called his new alloy "rustless steel". The alloy was sold in the US under different brand names like "Allegheny metal" and "Nirosta steel". Even within the metallurgy industry, the name remained unsettled; in 1921, one trade journal called it "unstainable steel".<ref>{{cite news |last=Moneypenny |first=J. H. G. |title=Unstainable Steel |pages=442, 463 |date=2 April 1921 |url=https://archive.org/details/miningscientific122sanfuoft |access-date=17 February 2013 |newspaper=Mining and Scientific Press}}</ref> 

Brearley worked with a local cutlery manufacturer, who gave it the name "stainless steel".<ref>{{cite web |title=The development of stainless steel |publisher=Korea Iron & Steel Association |work=Stainless Steel Club |location=[[Seoul, Korea]] |url=http://www.stainlesssteel.or.kr/english/stsinfo/develop.asp  |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050827005100/http://www.stainlesssteel.or.kr/english/stsinfo/develop.asp |archive-date=27 August 2005 |access-date=22 July 2011}}</ref> As late as 1932, [[Ford Motor Company]] continued calling the alloy "rustless steel" in automobile promotional materials.<ref>{{cite web |title=1932 – The Invention of the Ford V8 Engine |date=18 November 2015 |publisher=[[YouTube]] |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3RB3z1er9Sw |accessdate=5 February 2022}}</ref> However, stainless tended to predominate worldwide, and even in present-day Japan, Western cutlery is simply referred to as "stainless (without the steel) spoon/fork" etc. [ステンレス: sutenresu].

In 1929, before the Great Depression, over 25,000 tons of stainless steel were manufactured and sold in the US annually.<ref>{{cite magazine |title=New Steel Alloy is Rustproof |magazine=Popular Science |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sygDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA31 |date=December 1930 |publisher=Bonnier Corporation |pages=31– |issn=0161-7370 |access-date=1 October 2021 |archive-date=13 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210413225149/https://books.google.com/books?id=sygDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA31 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Major technological advances in the 1950s and 1960s allowed the production of large tonnages at an affordable cost:
* AOD process ([[argon oxygen decarburization]]), for the removal of carbon and sulfur
*[[Continuous casting]] and [[Rolling (metalworking)#Hot rolling|hot strip rolling]]<ref>{{Cite book |title=Primer on flat rolling |last=Lenard |first=John G. |date=2014 |publisher=Elsevier Science |isbn=978-0-08-099418-5 }}</ref>
* The [[Z-mill|Z-Mill]], or Sendzimir cold rolling mill<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.sendzimir.com/company/history/ | title=Sendzimir {{pipe}} Company Info {{pipe}} Company History | date=23 February 2021 | access-date=1 October 2021 | archive-date=15 April 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415165151/https://www.sendzimir.com/company/history/ | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.nipponsteel.com/en/tech/report/nsc/pdf/n9902.pdf |title=Technical Progress of Stainless Steel and its future trend |last=Ikeda |first=Satoshi |date=2010 |website= |publisher=Nippon Steel |access-date=1 October 2021 |archive-date=1 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210701021621/https://www.nipponsteel.com/en/tech/report/nsc/pdf/n9902.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>
* The [[Creusot-Loire Uddeholm]] (CLU) and related processes which use steam instead of some or all of the argon<ref>{{Cite book|last=India: National Institute of Industrial Research|title=The Complete Technology Book on Hot Rolling of Steel|publisher=Asia Pacific|year=2017|isbn=978-8190568586|location=Delhi |page=324|language=English}}</ref>