Editing Snow Crash (section)

==Literary significance and criticism==
''Snow Crash'' established Stephenson as a major science fiction writer of the 1990s. The book appeared on ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine's list of 100 all-time best English-language novels written since 1923.<ref name="time_top_100">{{cite magazine |url=https://entertainment.time.com/2005/10/16/all-time-100-novels/slide/snow-crash-1992-by-neal-stephenson/ |author=Lev Grossman and Richard Lacayo |magazine=TIME |title=All-Time 100 Novels |date=2005-10-16}}</ref> Some critics have considered it a parody of [[cyberpunk]]<ref>{{cite book | last = Nakamura | first = Lisa | year = 2002 | title = Cybertypes: Race, Ethnicity, and Identity on the Internet | publisher = Routledge | pages = 69–70 | isbn = 0-415-93836-8 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=pw0PK97lbrkC&pg=PA69 | access-date = 2009-12-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Brooker | first = M. Keith |author2=Thomas, Anne-Marie  | year = 2009 | title = The Science Fiction Handbook | publisher = John Wiley and Sons | pages = 278–286 | isbn = 978-1-4051-6206-7 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=uW9xST9UsOIC&pg=PT286 | access-date = 2009-12-05}}</ref> and mentioned its satiric or absurdist humor.<ref>{{cite book | last = Wolfe | first = Gary K. | year = 2005 | title = Soundings: Reviews 1992–1996 | publisher = Beccon | page = 130 | isbn = 1-870824-50-4}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last = Westfahl | first = Gary | year = 2005 | title = The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Science Fiction and Fantasy: Themes, Works, and Wonders, Vol. 3 | publisher = Greenwood Publishing | page = 1235 | isbn = 0-313-32953-2 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=M_3kNDKhxIcC&pg=PA1235 | access-date = 2009-12-05}}</ref>

In his book ''The Shape of the Signifier: 1967 to the End of History'', [[Walter Benn Michaels]] targets Stephenson's view that "languages are codes" rather than a grouping of letters and sounds to be interpreted.  Michaels contends that this basic idea of language as code is central to the construct of ''Snow Crash'' ("... a good deal of ''Snow Crash''<nowiki>'</nowiki>s plot depends upon eliding the distinction between hackers and their computers, as if—indeed, in the novel, just because—looking at code will do to the hacker what receiving it will do to the computer"<ref name="michaels">{{Cite book |author=Michaels, Walter Benn |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nW0iAQAAQBAJ |title=The Shape of the Signifier: 1967 to the End of History |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2004 |isbn=0691118728 |location=Princeton, N.J. |access-date=}}</ref>{{rp|68}}), but at the same time, trivializes the role of meaning in linguistic works.<blockquote>The body that is infected by a virus does not become infected because it understands the virus any more than the body that does not become infected misunderstands the virus. So a world in which everything—from bitmaps to blood—can be understood as a "form of speech" is also a world in which nothing actually is ''understood'', a world in which what a speech act does is disconnected from what it means.<ref name=michaels/>{{rp|69}}</blockquote>

Rorty's ''[[Achieving Our Country]]'' summarizes the content of ''Snow Crash'',<ref>{{cite book |last1=Van Grondelle |first1=Vincent |title=Reinventing The Leftist Movement |date=8 Jun 2018 |page=15 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325645824 |access-date=12 March 2024}}</ref> using it as an example of modern culture that "express the loss of what he [Rorty] calls 'national hope'... the problem with ''Snow Crash'' is not that it isn't true—after all, it's a story—but that it isn't inspirational".<ref name=michaels/>{{rp|74}} This lack of inspiration is offset by something else ''Snow Crash'' and other works like it offer:<blockquote>These books produce in their readers the 'state of soul' that Rorty calls 'knowingness', which he glosses as a 'preference for knowledge over hope' (37)";<ref name=michaels/>{{rp|74}} this preference for knowledge "contribute[s] to a more fundamental failure to appreciate the value of inspiration—and hence of literature—itself".<ref name=michaels/>{{rp|74}}</blockquote>

===Influence on the World Wide Web and computing===
''[[Habitat (video game)|Habitat]]'', the 1986 [[virtual environment]], applied the [[Sanskrit]] term ''[[avatar (virtual reality)|avatar]]'' to online virtual bodies before Stephenson. However, the success of ''Snow Crash'' popularized the term<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gerhard|first1=Michael|last2=Moore|first2=David|last3=Hobbs|first3=Dave|date=2004|title=Embodiment and copresence in collaborative interfaces|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1071581904000126|journal=International Journal of Human-Computer Studies|language=en|volume=61|issue=4|pages=453–480|doi=10.1016/j.ijhcs.2003.12.014|issn=1071-5819|quote=It was first used in the context of virtual worlds in the pioneering Habitat system of the mid 1980s (Morningstar and Farmer, 1991) and popularized by Stephenson's (1992) science-fiction novel Snow Crash.}}</ref> to the extent that ''avatar'' is now a term for this concept in computer games and on the [[World Wide Web]].<ref>{{cite dictionary |quote=''Computing'' and ''Science Fiction''. A graphical representation of a person or character in a computer-generated environment, ''esp''. one which represents a user in an interactive game or other setting, and which can move about in its surroundings and interact with other characters. |title=avatar, n. |dictionary=Oxford English Dictionary |url=http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/13624 |at=§Draft Additions September 2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2018}}</ref>

The novel's Central Intelligence Corporation—the result of a merger between the [[Library of Congress]] and [[Central Intelligence Agency]]—operates a wiki-like private knowledge base known as the Library. However, unlike [[Wikimedia]], contributors to the Library (stringers) are paid if their contributions are used, making the Library more of an information marketplace than a public knowledge repository.

Many [[virtual globe]] programs, including [[NASA World Wind]] and [[Google Earth]], bear a resemblance to the "Earth" software developed by the CIC in ''Snow Crash''. One Google Earth co-founder claimed that Google Earth was modeled after ''Snow Crash'', while another co-founder said that it was inspired by ''[[Powers of Ten (film)|Powers of Ten]]''.<ref name="google_earth1">[http://www.brownianemotion.org/2006/07/24/notes-on-the-origin-of-google-earth/ Avi Bar-Ze'ev (from Keyhole, the precursor to Google Earth) on origin of Google Earth]. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081012224315/http://www.brownianemotion.org/2006/07/24/notes-on-the-origin-of-google-earth/ |date=2008-10-12 }}.</ref> Stephenson later referenced this in another of his novels, ''[[Reamde]]''.<ref>{{cite book |title=Reamde |first=Neal |last=Stephenson |authorlink=Neal Stephenson |publisher=William Morrow |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-06-210642-1 |page=38|quote=The opening screen of T'Rain was a frank rip-off of what you saw when you booted up Google Earth. Richard felt no guilt about this, since he had heard that Google Earth, in turn, was based on an idea from some old science-fiction novel.}}</ref>

Stephenson's concept of the Metaverse has enjoyed continued popularity and influence in high-tech circles (especially [[Silicon Valley]]) ever since the publication of ''Snow Crash''.<ref name="Park">{{cite news |last1=Park |first1=Gene |title=Silicon Valley is racing to build the next version of the Internet. Fortnite might get there first. |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/video-games/2020/04/17/fortnite-metaverse-new-internet/ |access-date=9 October 2020 |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=17 April 2020}}</ref><ref name="Economist">{{cite news |title=Brain scan: A novelist's vision of the virtual world has inspired an industry |url=https://www.economist.com/technology-quarterly/2020/10/01/a-novelists-vision-of-the-virtual-world-has-inspired-an-industry |access-date=9 October 2020 |newspaper=The Economist |publisher=The Economist Newspaper Limited |date=1 October 2020 |location=London}} This article was published in print on page&nbsp;11 of ''the Economist's'' technology quarterly special section, which ran in the center pages of the printed issue dated 3&nbsp;October 2020.</ref> As a result, Stephenson has become "a sought-after futurist" and has worked as a futurist for [[Blue Origin]] and [[Magic Leap]].<ref name="Economist" />

Software developer [[Michael Abrash]] was inspired by ''Snow Crash''{{'}}s Metaverse and its networked 3D world. He left [[Microsoft]] for [[Id Software]] to write something in that direction, the result being ''[[Quake (video game)|Quake]]''.<ref name="Valve">{{cite web |url=http://blogs.valvesoftware.com/abrash/valve-how-i-got-here-what-its-like-and-what-im-doing-2/ |title=Valve: How I Got Here, What It's Like, and What I'm Doing |publisher=Valve}}</ref> The story for the [[3DO Interactive Multiplayer|3DO]] game ''[[Immercenary]]'' was also heavily influenced by ''Snow Crash''.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.gamedeveloper.com/design/making-a-prototype-of-the-future-the-development-of-i-immercenary-i- |title=Making a Prototype of the Future: The Development of Immercenary |website=Gamasutra |date=19 September 2012 |access-date=6 August 2013 |first=John |last=Szczepaniak}}</ref> A direct video-game adaptation of ''Snow Crash'' was in development in 1996,<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Snow Crash |magazine=[[GamePro]] |issue=95 |publisher=[[International Data Group|IDG]] |date=August 1996 |page=57}}</ref> but it was never released.

The online virtual worlds ''[[Active Worlds]]'' and ''[[Second Life]]'' were both directly inspired by the Metaverse in ''Snow Crash''.<ref name="usatoday-rosedale-interview">{{cite news
|url=https://www.usatoday.com/printedition/money/20070205/secondlife_cover.art.htm
|title=The king of alter egos is surprisingly humble guy |publisher=[[USA Today]] |access-date=2007-02-20 |first=Kevin |last=Maney |date=2007-02-04 }}</ref>

Former [[Microsoft]] Chief Technology Officer [[J Allard]] and former [[Xbox Live]] Development Manager Boyd Multerer claimed to have been heavily inspired by ''Snow Crash'' in the development of Xbox Live, and that it was a mandatory read for the Xbox development team.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Pitts |first1=Russ |title=the birth of xbox live |url=http://www.polygon.com/features/2013/11/11/4849940/xbox-live-millennium-e |website=Polygon |date=11 November 2013 |access-date=31 August 2016}}</ref>

===Possible film or television adaptation===
The novel was [[Option (filmmaking)|optioned]] shortly after its publication and subsequent success, although to date, it has never progressed past pre-production.<ref>{{cite news |title=Joe Cornish to direct adaptation of sci-fi novel Snow Crash |newspaper=The Guardian |date=15 June 2012 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/film/2012/jun/15/joe-cornish-direct-adaptation-snow-crash |access-date=11 March 2024 |last1=Pulver |first1=Andrew }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Joe Cornish Bringing Snow Crash To TV |date=29 September 2017 |url=https://www.empireonline.com/movies/news/joe-cornish-bringing-snow-crash-tv/ |access-date=11 March 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Snow Crash (TV) Movie |date=October 2017 |url=https://www.movieinsider.com/m10389/snow-crash |access-date=11 March 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Evangelista |first1=Chris |title='Snow Crash' TV Series in the Works at HBO Max |website=[[IMDb]] |url=https://www.imdb.com/news/ni62722891/ |access-date=11 March 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=JOE CORNISH EXPLAINS WHY A SNOW CRASH MOVIE CRASHED, SAYS IT COULD BE REVIVED |date=22 January 2019 |url=https://www.syfy.com/syfy-wire/joe-cornish-explains-why-a-snow-crash-movie-crashed-says-it-could-be-revived |access-date=11 March 2024}}</ref> Canadian science fiction director [[Vincenzo Natali]] in particular has argued against a two-hour feature film adaptation because of a perceived lack of fit with the form; since the novel is "tonally all over the place", he feels that a mini-series would be a more suitable format for the material.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://blog.moviefone.com/2010/05/25/interview-vincenzo-natali-explains-how-to-crack-neuromancer/ |title=Interview: Vincenzo Natali Explains How to Crack 'Neuromancer', 'Snow Crash' and 'High Rise' |author=Peter Hall |date=25 May 2010 |work=AOL Moviefone |access-date=25 November 2012 |archive-date=15 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120115152458/http://blog.moviefone.com/2010/05/25/interview-vincenzo-natali-explains-how-to-crack-neuromancer |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In late 1996, it was announced that writer-director [[Jeffrey Nachmanoff]] would adapt the novel for [[The Kennedy/Marshall Company]] and [[Touchstone Pictures]]. [[Marco Brambilla]] was attached to direct the film.<ref>{{cite news | title = Nachmanoff to script 'Snow Crash' | publisher = '[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]]' | url = https://www.variety.com/vstory/VR1117466053.html?categoryid=38&cs=1 | access-date = 2009-11-27 | first=Ted | last=Johnson | date=1996-12-02}}</ref> In June 2012, it was announced that English director [[Joe Cornish (filmmaker)|Joe Cornish]], following his 2011 debut film ''[[Attack the Block]]'', had been signed as director of a future film adaptation for [[Paramount Pictures]].<ref>{{cite news | title = Joe Cornish signs up for 'Snow Crash' | website=[[Deadline Hollywood]] | url = https://deadline.com/2012/06/attack-the-blocks-joe-cornish-lands-snow-crash-at-paramount-286692/ | date=2012-06-15}}</ref> In 2013, Stephenson described Cornish's script as "amazing", but also warned that there was no guarantee that a film would be made.<ref>{{cite news | title=Neal Stephenson on tall towers and NSA cyber-spies | author=Leo Kelion | date=2013-09-17 |work=BBC News | url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-24116925}}</ref> In July 2016, producer [[Frank Marshall (producer)|Frank Marshall]] said that filming could start in 2017.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://collider.com/snow-crash-movie-update-joe-cornish/ | title='Snow Crash' Producer Frank Marshall Says Movie Could Start Shooting Next Year | date=July 27, 2016 | author=Adam Chitwood | website=[[Collider (website)|Collider]]}}</ref>

In August 2017, [[Amazon Studios]] announced that it was co-producing an hour-long science fiction drama television show based on ''Snow Crash'' with Paramount. The announcement stated that the television show would be executive produced by Cornish and the Kennedy/Marshall Company's [[Frank Marshall (producer)|Frank Marshall]].<ref>{{cite web | date=September 28, 2017 |author=Debra Birnbaum  |url=https://variety.com/2017/tv/news/amazon-studios-lazarus-snow-crash-ringworld-1202576048/ |title=Amazon Increases Production Spending for 2018, Developing Three New Sci-Fi Series |work=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]] }}</ref> In December 2019, it was announced that [[HBO Max]] had acquired the series with Paramount continuing to produce and Cornish remaining executive producer.<ref>[https://deadline.com/2019/12/snow-crash-sci-fi-drama-series-hbo-max-michael-bacall-joe-cornish-paramount-tv-1202809103/ 'Snow Crash' TV Series Adaptation From Michael Bacall & Joe Cornish In Works At HBO Max From Paramount TV], [[Deadline Hollywood]], December 13, 2019.</ref> HBO Max passed on the project in June 2021, and it reverted to Paramount and Kennedy/Marshall.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.cnbc.com/2021/11/14/neal-stephenson-on-termination-shock-geoengineering-metaverse-.html | title=Neal Stephenson on his new geoengineering climate change thriller and coining the term 'metaverse' | date=Nov 14, 2021 | first=Matt | last=Rosoff | publisher=[[CNBC]]}}</ref>