Editing Self-esteem (section)

== Types of self-esteems ==

=== High ===
[[File:Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs.svg|thumb|300px|{{center|[[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow)]]}}]]
People with a healthy level of self-esteem:<ref>Adapted from {{cite book |first=D. E. |last=Hamachek |title=Encounters with the Self |url=https://archive.org/details/encounterswithse00done |url-access=registration |publisher=Rinehart |location=New York |year=1971 |isbn=978-0030777851 }}</ref>
* firmly believe in certain values and principles, and are ready to defend them even when finding opposition, feeling secure enough to modify them in light of experience.<ref name="Bonet"/>
* are able to act according to what they think to be the best choice, trusting their own judgment, and not feeling guilty when others do not like their choice.<ref name="Bonet" />
* do not lose time worrying excessively about what happened in the past, nor about what could happen in the future. They learn from the past and plan for the future, but live in the present intensely.<ref name="Bonet" />
* fully trust in their capacity to solve problems, not hesitating after failures and difficulties. They ask others for help when they need it.<ref name="Bonet" />
* consider themselves equal in [[dignity]] to others, rather than inferior or superior, while accepting differences in certain talents, personal prestige or financial standing.<ref name="Bonet" />
* understand how they are an interesting and valuable person for others, at least for those with whom they have a friendship.<ref name="Bonet" />
* resist [[Psychological manipulation|manipulation]], collaborate with others only if it seems appropriate and convenient.<ref name="Bonet" />
* admit and accept different internal feelings and drives, either positive or negative, revealing those drives to others only when they choose.<ref name="Bonet" />
* are able to enjoy a great variety of activities.<ref name="Bonet" />
* are sensitive to feelings and needs of others; respect generally accepted social rules, and claim no right or desire to prosper at others' expense.<ref name="Bonet" />
* can work toward finding solutions and voice discontent without belittling themselves or others when challenges arise.<ref name="KidsHealth">{{cite web |last=Araujo |first=Gabriel |date=September 2023 |title=Your Child's Self-Esteem |url=http://kidshealth.org/parent/emotions/feelings/self_esteem.html |url-status=live |archive-url= |archive-date= |access-date= |website=[[KidsHealth]]}}</ref>

=== Secure vs. defensive ===

Some people have a secure high self-esteem and can confidently maintain positive self-views without relying on external reassurance. However, others have defensive high self-esteem, and while they also report positive self-views on the Rosenberg Scale, these views are fragile and easily threatened by criticism. Defensive high self-esteem individuals internalize subconscious self-doubts and insecurities, causing them to react very negatively to any criticism they may receive. There is a need for constant positive feedback from others for these individuals to maintain their feelings of self-worth. The necessity of repeated praise can be associated with boastful, arrogant behavior or sometimes even aggressive and hostile feelings toward anyone who questions the individual's self-worth, an example of threatened egotism.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Jordan |first1=C. H. |last2=Spencer |first2=S. J. |last3=Zanna |first3=M. P. |year=2003 |chapter='I love me...I love me not': Implicit self-esteem, explicit self-esteem and defensiveness |editor1-first=S. J. |editor1-last=Spencer |editor2-first=S. |editor2-last=Fein |editor3-first=M. P. |editor3-last=Zanna |editor4-first=J. M. |editor4-last=Olsen |title=Motivated social perception: The Ontario symposium |volume=9 |pages=117–145 |location=Mahwah, NJ |publisher=Erlbaum |isbn=978-0805840360 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Jordan |first1=C. H. |last2=Spencer |first2=S. J. |last3=Zanna |first3=M. P. |last4=Hoshino-Browne |first4=E. |last5=Correll |first5=J. |year=2003 |title=Secure and defensive high self-esteem |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |volume=85 |issue=5 |pages=969–978 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.85.5.969 |pmid=14599258 |url=http://www.sakkyndig.com/psykologi/artvit/jordan2003.pdf }}</ref>

The ''[[Journal of Educational Psychology]]'' conducted a study in which they used a sample of 383 Malaysian undergraduates participating in [[work integrated learning]] (WIL) programs across five public universities to test the relationship between self-esteem and other psychological attributes such as self-efficacy and [[self-confidence]]. The results demonstrated that self-esteem has a positive and significant relationship with self-confidence and self-efficacy since students with higher self-esteem had better performances at university than those with lower self-esteem. It was concluded that higher education institutions and employers should emphasize the importance of undergraduates' self-esteem development.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Jaaffar|first1=Amar Hisham|last2=Ibrahim|first2=Hazril Izwar|last3=Rajadurai|first3=Jegatheesan|last4=Sohail|first4=M. Sadiq|date=2019-06-24|title=Psychological Impact of Work-Integrated Learning Programmes in Malaysia: The Moderating Role of Self-Esteem on Relation between Self-Efficacy and Self-Confidence|journal=International Journal of Educational Psychology|language=en-US|volume=8|issue=2|pages=188–213|doi=10.17583/ijep.2019.3389|issn=2014-3591|doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Implicit and explicit ===

[[Implicit self-esteem]] refers to a person's disposition to evaluate themselves positively or negatively in a spontaneous, automatic, or unconscious manner. It contrasts with [[explicit self-esteem]], which entails more conscious and reflective self-evaluation. Both explicit self-esteem and implicit self-esteem are theoretically subtypes of self-esteem proper.

However, the validity of implicit self-esteem as a construct is highly questionable, given not only its weak or nonexistent correlation with explicit self-esteem and informant ratings of self-esteem,<ref name=":5" /><ref name=":6" /> but also the failure of multiple measures of implicit self-esteem to correlate with each other.<ref name=":8" />

Currently, there is little scientific evidence that self-esteem can be reliably or validly measured through implicit means.<ref name=":9" />

=== Narcissism and threatened egotism ===
[[Narcissism]] is a disposition people may have that represents an excessive love for one's self. It is characterized by an inflated view of self-worth. Individuals who score high on narcissism measures, Robert Raskin's Narcissistic Personality Inventory, would likely respond "true" to such prompt statements as "If I ruled the world, it would be a much better place."<ref>Barbara Krahe, ''The Social Psychology of Aggression'' (Psychology Press, 2013), 75. {{ISBN?}}</ref> There is only a moderate correlation between narcissism and self-esteem;<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sedikieds |first1=C. |last2=Rudich |first2=E. A. |last3=Gregg |first3=A. P. |last4=Kumashiro |first4=M. |last5=Rusbult |first5=C. |year=2004 |title=Are normal narcissists psychologically healthy? Self-esteem matters |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |volume=87 |issue=3 |pages=400–416 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.87.3.400 |pmid=15382988 |s2cid=12903591 |url=https://research.vu.nl/en/publications/155e777a-4d9d-4417-8cf2-f6e6403e2ee7 }}</ref> that is to say that an individual can have high self-esteem but low narcissism or can be a conceited, obnoxious person and score high self-esteem and high narcissism.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.afterpsychotherapy.com/narcissism-vs-authentic-self-esteem/|title=Narcissism vs. Authentic Self-Esteem|date=17 January 2011|website=afterpsychotherapy.com|access-date=22 October 2017}}</ref> However, when correlation analysis is restricted to the sense of superiority or self-admiration aspects of narcissism, correlations between narcissism and self-esteem become strong.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":4" /> Moreover, self-esteem is positively correlated with a sense of superiority even when controlling for overall narcissism.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />

Narcissism is not only defined by inflated self-esteem, but also by characteristics such as entitlement, exploitativeness, and dominance. Additionally, while positive self-image is a shared characteristic of narcissism and self-esteem, narcissistic self-appraisals are exaggerated, whereas in non-narcissistic self-esteem, positive views of the self compared with others are relatively modest. Thus, while sharing positive self-regard as a main feature, and while narcissism is defined by high self-esteem, the two constructs are not interchangeable.

Threatened [[egotism]] is a phenomenon in which narcissists respond to criticism with hostility and aggression, as it threatens their sense of self-worth.<ref name="BaumeisterSmartBoden1996" /><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Morf |first1=C. C. |last2=Rhodewalk |first2=F. |year=1993 |title=Narcissism and self-evaluation maintenance: Explorations in object relations |journal=Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin |volume=19 |issue=6 |pages=668–676 |doi=10.1177/0146167293196001 |s2cid=145525829 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Twenge |first1=J. M. |last2=Campbell |first2=W. K. |year=2003 |title='Isn't it fun to get the respect we're going to deserve?' Narcissism, social rejection, and aggression |journal=Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=261–272 |doi=10.1177/0146167202239051 |pmid=15272953 |s2cid=29837581 }}</ref>

=== Low ===

Low self-esteem can result from various factors, including genetic factors, physical appearance or weight, mental health issues, socioeconomic status, significant emotional experiences, [[social stigma]], [[peer pressure]] or [[bullying]].<ref>{{cite news |author=Jones FC |title=Low self esteem |newspaper=Chicago Defender|pages=33|year=2003 |issn=0745-7014}}</ref>

A person with low self-esteem may show some of the following characteristics:<ref>{{cite journal | author = Adapted, Gill J | title = Indispensable Self-Esteem | journal = Human Development | volume = 1 | page = 1980 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Low self-esteem and confidence: Signs, causes, and treatment |url=https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/i-have-lost-my-confidence-and-self-esteem#signs |website=www.medicalnewstoday.com |access-date=8 February 2024 |language=en |date=26 April 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=McClure |first1=Auden C. |last2=Tanski |first2=Susanne E. |last3=Kingsbury |first3=John |last4=Gerrard |first4=Meg |last5=Sargent |first5=James D. |title=Characteristics Associated With Low Self-Esteem Among US Adolescents |journal=Academic Pediatrics |date=July 2010 |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=238–244.e2 |doi=10.1016/j.acap.2010.03.007|pmid=20605547 |pmc=2914631 }}</ref>
* Heavy [[self-criticism]] and dissatisfaction.<ref name="Bonet" />
* Hypersensitivity to criticism with resentment against critics and feelings of being attacked.<ref name="Bonet" />
* Chronic indecision and an [[exaggerated]] fear of mistakes.<ref name="Bonet" />
* Excessive will to please and unwillingness to displease any petitioner.<ref name="Bonet" />
* [[Perfectionism (psychology)|Perfectionism]], which can lead to frustration when perfection is not achieved.<ref name="Bonet" />
* Neurotic guilt, dwelling on or exaggerating the magnitude of past mistakes.<ref name="Bonet" />
* Floating hostility and general defensiveness and irritability without any proximate cause.<ref name="Bonet" />
* [[Pessimism]] and a general negative outlook.<ref name="Bonet" />
* [[Envy]], invidiousness, or general resentment.<ref name="Bonet" />
* Sees temporary setbacks as permanent, intolerable conditions.<ref name="KidsHealth" />

Individuals with low self-esteem tend to be critical of themselves. Some depend on the approval and praise of others when evaluating self-worth. Others may measure their likability in terms of successes: others will accept themselves if they succeed but will not if they fail.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Baldwin |first1=M. W. |last2=Sinclair |first2=L. |year=1996 |title=Self-esteem and 'if...then' contingencies of interpersonal acceptance |journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology |volume=71 |issue=6 |pages=1130–1141 |doi=10.1037/0022-3514.71.6.1130 |pmid=8979382 |s2cid=7294467 }}</ref> People with chronic low self esteem are at a higher risk for experiencing psychotic disorders; and this behavior is closely linked to forming psychotic symptoms as well.<ref>Warman DM, Lysaker PH, Luedtke B, Martin JM (2010) "Self-esteem and delusionproneness". ''JNervMentDis.'' 198:455–457.</ref><ref>Smith B, Fowler DG, Freeman D, Bebbington P, Bashforth H, Garety P, Dunn G,Kuipers E (2006) "Emotion and psychosis: Links between depression, self-esteem,negative schematic beliefs and delusions and hallucinations". ''Schizophr Res.'' 86:181–188</ref><ref>Garety PA, Kuipers E, Fowler D, Freeman D, Bebbington PE (2001) "A cognitivemodel of the positive symptoms of psychosis". ''Psychol Med.'' 31:189–195.</ref><ref>Bentall RP, Kinderman P, Kaney S (1994) "The self, attributional processes andabnormal beliefs: Towards a model of persecutory delusions". ''Behav Res Ther.'' 32:331–341</ref><ref>Karatzias T, Gumley A, Power K, O'Grady M (2007) "Illness appraisals and self-esteemas correlates of anxiety and affective comorbid disorders in schizophrenia". ''ComprPsychiatry.'' 48:371–375.</ref><ref>Bradshaw W, Brekke JS (1999) "Subjective experience in schizophrenia: Factorsinfluencing self-esteem, satisfaction with life, and subjective distress." ''Am J Ortho-psychiatry.'' 69:254–260.</ref><ref>Blairy S, Linotte S, Souery D, Papadimitriou GN, Dikeos D, Lerer B, Kaneva R,Milanova V, Serretti A, Macciardi F, Mendlewicz J (2004) "Social adjust-ment and self-esteem of bipolar patients: A multicentric study." ''J Affect Disord.'' 79:97–103</ref><ref>Bowins B, Shugar G (1998) "Delusions and self-esteem." ''Can J Psychiatry.'' 43:154–158.</ref>

====Treatments====
[[Metacognitive therapy]], [[EMDR]] technique, [[mindfulness-based cognitive therapy]], [[rational emotive behavior therapy]], [[cognitive behavioral therapy]] and trait and construct therapies have been shown to improve the patient's self-esteem.<ref name="ORCID 2021">{{cite web | title=ORCID | website=orcid.org | date=2021-08-31 | url=https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5765-8776 | access-date=2021-09-07}}</ref>

=== The three states ===
This classification proposed by Martin Ross<ref name="Ross, Martín 2013">Ross, Martín. ''El Mapa de la Autoestima.'' 2013. Dunken. {{ISBN|978-9870267737}} {{page needed|date=December 2022}}</ref> distinguishes three states of self-esteem compared to the "feats" ([[wikt:triumph|triumph]]s, [[honor]]s, [[virtue]]s) and the "anti-feats" ([[wikt:defeat|defeat]]s, [[embarrassment]], [[shame]], etc.) of the individuals.<ref name="ecuador"/><ref name="Autoestima género">{{cite web|url=http://www.monografias.com/trabajos104/como-influye-genero-autoestima-adolescentes/como-influye-genero-autoestima-adolescentes.shtml|title=Como influye el genero en la Autoestima de los Adolescentes |first=Darcy |last=Leiva|website=Monografias.com|date=11 May 2015 |access-date=11 December 2017}}</ref>

==== Shattered ====
The individual does not regard themselves as valuable or lovable. They may be overwhelmed by defeat, or shame, or see themselves as such, and they name their "anti-feat". For example, if they consider that being over a certain age is an anti-feat, they define themselves with the name of their anti-feat, and say, "I am old". They express actions and feelings such as pity, insulting themselves, and they may become paralyzed by their sadness.<ref name="Ross, Martín 2013"/><ref name="digital activity">{{cite thesis|type=bachelor thesis|title=La retroalimentació entre l'autoestima i l'activitat digital al col·lectiu adolescent|language=es|trans-title=Feedback between self-esteem and digital activity in the adolescent group|last=Bonet Gallardo|first=L. |others=Advised by Huertas Bailén, Amparo|publisher=[[Universidad Autónoma de Barcelona]]|date=2015|url=http://ddd.uab.cat/record/142342?ln=en}}</ref>

==== Vulnerable ====
The individual has a generally positive [[self-image]]. However, their self-esteem is also vulnerable to the perceived risk of an imminent anti-feat (such as defeat, embarrassment, shame, discredit), consequently, they are often nervous and regularly use defense mechanisms.<ref name="digital activity"/> A typical protection mechanism of those with vulnerable self-esteem may consist in avoiding decision-making.  Although such individuals may outwardly exhibit great self-confidence, the underlying reality may be just the opposite: the apparent self-confidence is indicative of their heightened fear of anti-feats and the fragility of their self-esteem.<ref name="ecuador"/> They may also try to blame others to protect their self-image from situations that would threaten it. They may employ defense mechanisms, including attempting to lose at games and other competitions in order to protect their self-image by publicly dissociating themselves from a need to win, and asserting an independence from social acceptance which they may deeply desire. In this deep fear of being unaccepted by an individual's peers, they make poor life choices by making risky decisions.<ref name="Autoestima género"/><ref name="digital activity"/>

==== Strong ====
People with strong self-esteem have a positive [[self-image]] and enough strength so that anti-feats do not subdue their self-esteem. They have less fear of failure. These individuals appear humble, cheerful, and this shows a certain strength not to boast about feats and not to be afraid of anti-feats.<ref name="Autoestima género"/><ref name="digital activity"/>
They are capable of fighting with all their might to achieve their goals because, if things go wrong, their self-esteem will not be affected.  They can acknowledge their own mistakes precisely because their self-image is strong, and this acknowledgment will not impair or affect their self-image.<ref name="digital activity"/> They live with less fear of losing social prestige, and with more happiness and general well-being.<ref name="digital activity"/>
However, no type of self-esteem is indestructible,<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Baumeister |first1=Roy F. |last2=Campbell |first2=Jennifer D. |last3=Krueger |first3=Joachim I. |last4=Vohs |first4=Kathleen D. |date=May 2003 |title=Does High Self-Esteem Cause Better Performance, Interpersonal Success, Happiness, or Healthier Lifestyles? |journal=Psychological Science in the Public Interest |language=en |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=1–44 |doi=10.1111/1529-1006.01431 |pmid=26151640 |issn=1529-1006|doi-access=free }}</ref> and due to certain situations or circumstances in life, one can fall from this level into any other state of self-esteem.<ref name="Ross, Martín 2013"/><ref name="digital activity"/>

=== Contingent vs. non-contingent ===
A distinction is made between contingent (or conditional<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thesaurus.com/browse/contingent|title=Contingent Synonyms, Contingent Antonyms |website=thesaurus.com|access-date=22 October 2017}}</ref>)  and non-contingent (or unconditional<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.thefreedictionary.com/unconditional|title=Unconditional|access-date=11 December 2017|dictionary=[[The Free Dictionary]]}}</ref>) self-esteem.

''Contingent self-esteem'' is derived from external sources, such as what others say, one's success or failure, one's competence,<ref name="Koivula-et-al-2002">{{Cite journal  | last1 = Koivula | first1 = Nathalie  | last2 = Hassmén | first2 = Peter  | last3 = Fallby | first3 = Johan  | title = Self-esteem and perfectionism in elite athletes: effects on competitive anxiety and self-confidence  | journal = Personality and Individual Differences  | volume = 32 | issue = 5  | year = 2002  | pages = 865–875  | doi = 10.1016/S0191-8869(01)00092-7}}</ref> or [[relationship-contingent self-esteem]].

Therefore, contingent self-esteem is marked by instability, unreliability, and vulnerability. Persons lacking a non-contingent self-esteem are "predisposed to an incessant pursuit of self-value".<ref>{{cite web|author=Victoria Blom|title='Striving for Self-esteem' (Department of Psychology, Stockholm University, 2011)|page=17|url=http://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:406035/FULLTEXT01.pdf}}</ref> However, because the pursuit of contingent self-esteem is based on receiving approval, it is doomed to fail, as no one receives constant approval, and disapproval often evokes depression. Furthermore, fear of disapproval inhibits activities in which failure is possible.<ref name="psychologytoday.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/201112/the-boom-and-bust-ego|title=The Boom and Bust Ego|website=Psychology Today|access-date=11 December 2017}}</ref>

{{Quote box|width=20em|fontsize = 90%|bgcolor = #F0F0F0|quote="The courage to be is the courage to accept oneself, in spite of being unacceptable.... This is the Pauline-Lutheran doctrine of 'justification by faith.'" [[Paul Tillich]]<ref>Paul Tillich, ''Terry Lectures: Courage to Be'' (Yale University, 2000) 164.</ref>}}
''Non-contingent self-esteem'' is described as true, stable, and solid.<ref>Christopher J. Mruk, ''Self-esteem Research, Theory, and Practice'' (Springer, 1995), 88.</ref> It springs from a belief that one is "acceptable period, acceptable before life itself, ontologically acceptable".<ref>Terry D. Cooper, ''Paul Tillich and Psychology: Historic and Contemporary Explorations in Theology, Psychotherapy, and Ethics'' (Mercer University, 2006). 7. {{ISBN?}}</ref> Belief that one is "ontologically acceptable" is to believe that one's acceptability is "the way things ''are'' without contingency".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ahpcc.org.uk/includes/articles/selfesteem.pdf|title=Self-esteem/OKness: a personal story|website=Ahpcc.org.uk|access-date=11 December 2017}}</ref> In this belief, as expounded by theologian [[Paul Tillich]], acceptability is not based on a person's virtue. It is an acceptance given "in spite of our guilt, not because we have no guilt".<ref>Terry D. Cooper, ''Paul Tillich and Psychology: Historic and Contemporary Explorations in Theology, Psychotherapy, and Ethics'' (Mercer University,2006). 5. {{ISBN?}}</ref>

Psychiatrist [[Thomas A Harris]] drew on Tillich for his classic ''[[I'm OK – You're OK]]'' that addresses non-contingent self-esteem. Harris translated Tillich's "acceptable" by the vernacular ''OK'', a term that means "acceptable".<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.thefreedictionary.com/OK|title=OK|access-date=11 December 2017|dictionary=[[The Free Dictionary]]}}</ref> The Christian message, said Harris, is not "YOU CAN BE OK, IF"; it is "YOU ARE ACCEPTED, unconditionally".<ref>Thomas A. Harris, ''I'm OK – You're OK'' (Harper and Row), 1969, 235.</ref>

A secure non-contingent self-esteem springs from the belief that one is ontologically acceptable and accepted.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://academic.udayton.edu/jackbauer/PGSG/Kernis%2003%20opt%20s-esteem%20authenticity%20copy.pdf|title=Toward a Conceptualization of Optimal Self-Esteem|author=Michael H. Kernis|website=Academic.udayton.edu|access-date=11 December 2017|archive-date=17 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180417183904/http://academic.udayton.edu/jackbauer/PGSG/Kernis%2003%20opt%20s-esteem%20authenticity%20copy.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Domain-specific self-esteem ===
Whereas global self-esteem addresses how individuals appraise themselves in their entirety, domain-specific self-esteem facets relate to how they appraise themselves in various pertinent domains of life. Such functionally distinct facets of self-esteem may comprise self-evaluations in social, emotional, body-related, school performance-related, and creative-artistic domains.<ref name="Burger et al"/><ref>
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They have been found to be predictive of outcomes related to psychological functioning, health, education, and work.<ref>
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Low self-esteem in the social domain (i.e., self-perceived social competence), for example, has been repeatedly identified as a risk factor for bullying victimization.<ref>
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 }} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]]  Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/  Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License].</ref>