Editing Saint Olaf (section)

=== Saint Olaf ===
==== Liturgical cult ====
[[File:Olav fra Austevold kirke.jpg|upright|thumb|Statue of St. Olav from [[Austevoll Church]], Norway.]]
[[File:St Olave, Seething Lane, London EC3 - East window - geograph.org.uk - 1077535.jpg|thumb|upright|St. Olaf in stained-glass window at [[St Olave's Church, Hart Street]] in London]]
[[File:Sankt Olof i Sankt Olof.jpg|thumb|upright|Medieval depictions of Saint Olaf adopted features from Thor. This wooden statue is from Sankt Olofs kyrka in [[Scania]], southern Sweden.]]
[[File:Ulvila.vaakuna.svg|thumb|upright|Saint Olaf in the coat of arms of [[Ulvila]], a medieval town in [[Satakunta]], [[Finland]].]]
[[Sigrid Undset]] noted that Olaf was baptised in [[Rouen]], the capital of [[Normandy]], and suggested that Olaf may have used priests of Norman descent for his missionaries. Normans were somewhat familiar with the culture of the people they were to convert and in some cases may have been able to understand the language. Among the bishops Olaf is known to have brought with him from England was [[Grimketel]] ({{langx|la|Grimcillus}}). He was probably the only one of the missionary bishops left in the country at the time of Olaf's death, and he stood behind the [[translation]] and [[beatification]] of Olaf on 3 August 1031.{{efn|name=beat}} Grimketel later became the first bishop of [[Sigtuna]] in Sweden.

At this time, local bishops and their people recognised and proclaimed a person a saint, and a formal [[canonisation]] procedure through the papal [[curia]] was not customary; in Olaf's case, this did not happen until 1888. But Olaf II died before the [[East-West Schism]] and a strict [[Roman Rite]] was not well-established in Scandinavia at the time. He is also venerated in the [[Eastern Orthodox Church]].{{citation needed|date=May 2023}}

Grimketel was later appointed bishop in the [[Bishop of Selsey|diocese of Selsey]] in southeastern England. This is probably why the earliest traces of a liturgical cult of Olaf are found in England. An [[Liturgy of the Hours|office]], or prayer service, for Olaf is found in the so-called ''[[Leofric, Earl of Mercia|Leofric collectar]]'' (c. 1050), which Bishop [[Leofric (bishop)|Leofric]] of [[Exeter]] bequeathed in his last will and testament to [[Exeter Cathedral]]. This English cult seems to have been short-lived.

Writing around 1070, [[Adam of Bremen]] mentions pilgrimage to [[St. Olav's shrine|St. Olaf's shrine]] in [[Nidaros]], but this is the only firm trace we have of a cult of St. Olaf in Norway before the mid-12th century. By this time he was also being called ''Norway's Eternal King''. In 1152/3, Nidaros was separated from Lund as the [[archbishopric of Nidaros]]. It is likely that whatever formal or informal veneration of Olaf as a saint may have existed in Nidaros before that was emphasised and formalised on this occasion.

Miracles performed by St. Olaf appear for the first time in [[Þórarinn loftunga]]'s skaldic poem ''Glælognskviða'', or "Sea-Calm Poem", from about 1030–34.<ref>Margaret Clunies Ross, {{'}}''Reginnaglar''{{'}}, in ''News from Other Worlds/''Tíðendi ór ǫðrum heimum'': Studies in Nordic Folklore, Mythology and Culture in Honor of John F. Lindow'', ed. by Merrill Kaplan and Timothy R. Tangherlini, Wildcat Canyon Advanced Seminars Occasional Monographs, 1 (Berkeley, CA: North Pinehurst Press, 2012), pp. 3–21 (p. 4); {{ISBN|0578101742}}.</ref> One is the killing and throwing onto a mountain of a sea serpent still visible on the cliffside.<ref>[http://kulturminneatlas.avinet.no/object/dbarticle_preview.aspx?id=745 Serpent image] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170320143322/http://kulturminneatlas.avinet.no/object/dbarticle_preview.aspx?id=745 |date=20 March 2017 }}</ref> Another took place on the day of his death, when a blind man regained his sight after rubbing his eyes with hands stained with Olaf's blood.

The texts used for the liturgical celebration of St. Olaf during most of the Middle Ages were probably compiled or written by [[Eystein Erlendsson]], the second [[Archbishop of Nidaros]] (1161–1189).{{efn|Eysteinn Erlendsson is commonly believed to have written [[Passio Olavi|''Et Miracula Beati Olaui'']]. This Latin hagiographical work is about the history and work of St. Olaf, with particular emphasis on his missionary work.<ref>Eysteinn Erlendsson, Archbishop of Nidaros</ref>}} The nine miracles reported in ''Glælognskviða'' form the core of the catalogue of miracles in this office.

St. Olaf was widely popular throughout Scandinavia. Numerous churches in Norway, Sweden, and Iceland were dedicated to him. His presence was even felt in Finland and many travelled from all over the Norse world in order to visit his shrine.<ref>Orrman, Eljas. "Church and society". In: ''Prehistory to 1520''. Ed. Knut Helle. Cambridge University Press, 2003.</ref> Apart from the early traces of a cult in England, there are only scattered references to him outside the Nordic area.

Several churches in England were dedicated to him (often as ''St Olave''); the name was presumably popular with Scandinavian immigrants. [[St Olave's Church, York]], is referred to in the ''[[Anglo-Saxon Chronicle]]'' for 1055<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britannia.com/history/docs/1053-55.html |title=The AngloSaxon Chronicle |publisher=Britannia |access-date=21 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303193223/http://www.britannia.com/history/docs/1053-55.html |archive-date=3 March 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref> as the place of burial of its founder, [[Earl Siward]]. This is generally accepted to be the earliest datable church foundation dedicated to Olaf and is further evidence of a cult of St. Olaf in the early 1050s in England. [[St Olave Hart Street]] in the [[City of London]] is the burial place of [[Samuel Pepys]] and his wife. [[St Olave's Church, Southwark|Another St. Olave's Church]] south of [[London Bridge]] gave its name to [[Tooley Street]] and to the ''St Olave's [[Poor Law]] Union'', later the [[Metropolitan Borough of Bermondsey]]: its workhouse in [[Rotherhithe]] became [[St Olave's Hospital]] and then an old people's home a few hundred metres from ''St Olav's Church'', which is the [[Scandinavian churches in London|Norwegian Church in London]]. It also led to the naming of [[St Olave's Grammar School]], which was established in 1571 and was in Tooley Street until 1968, when it moved to [[Orpington]], Kent. The village of [[St Olaves]] in Norfolk bears the name as it is the location of the remains of a 13th-century Augustinian priory dedicated to Olaf.

St. Olaf was also, together with the [[Virgin Mary|Mother of God]], the patron saint of the chapel of the [[Varangians]], the Scandinavian warriors who served as the bodyguard of the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] emperor. This church is believed to have been near the church of [[Hagia Irene]] in Constantinople. The icon of the [[Madonna Nicopeia]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.umbc.edu/MA/index/number1/fenl1/fe1_8.htm |title=The invention of tradition |publisher=Umbc.edu |access-date=21 May 2012}}</ref> presently in [[St. Mark's Basilica]] in Venice, which is believed to have been traditionally carried into combat by the Byzantine military forces, is believed to have been kept in this chapel in times of peace. Thus St. Olaf was also the last saint venerated by both the Western and Eastern churches before the [[East–West Schism|Great Schism]].

The basilica of [[Sant'Ambrogio e Carlo al Corso]] in Rome has a Chapel of St Olav. Its altarpiece contains a painting of the saint, shown as a martyr king defeating a dragon, representing victory over his pagan past. It was originally a gift presented to Pope [[Leo XIII]] in 1893 for the golden jubilee of his ordination as a bishop by Norwegian nobleman and [[Papal Gentlemen|papal chamberlain]] Baron [[Wilhelm Wedel-Jarlsberg]]. The chapel was restored in 1980 and reinaugurated by Bishop [[John Willem Gran]], bishop of the [[Roman Catholic Diocese of Oslo]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.catholic-hierarchy.org/bishop/bgran.html |title=Bishop John Willem Nicolaysen Gran, O.C.S.O. Deceased |publisher=Catholic-Hierarchy |author=David M. Cheney |date=22 August 2015 |access-date=1 September 2017}}</ref>

In [[Germany]], there used to be a shrine of St. Olaf in [[Koblenz]]. It was founded in 1463 or 1464 by [[Henrik Kalteisen|Heinrich Kalteisen]] at his retirement home, the [[Dominican Order|Dominican]] Monastery in the ''Altstadt'' ("Old City") neighborhood of Koblenz. He was the [[Archdiocese of Nidaros|Archbishop of Nidaros]] in Norway from 1452 to 1458. When he died in 1464, he was buried in front of the shrine's altar.<ref>{{in lang|no}} Audun Dybdahl, "[http://nbl.snl.no/Henrik_Kalteisen Henrik Kalteisen]", in: ''Norsk biografisk leksikon'' [''Norwegian Biographical Dictionary'']. Retrieved 24 October 2011.</ref> However, the shrine did not last: the Dominican Monastery was secularized in 1802 and bulldozed in 1955. Only the ''Rokokoportal'' ("[[Rococo]] Portal"), built in 1754, remains to mark the spot.<ref>See Harald Rausch, "''[http://www.weissergasse-koblenz.de/index.php?menuid=22&reporeid=40 Das Ende der Weißergasse]''", ''PAPOO'', posted 2 February 2011 {{in lang|de}}, and Reinhard Schmid, "''[http://www.klosterlexikon-rlp.de/mittelrhein-lahn-taunus/koblenz-dominikanerkloster.html Koblenz – Dominikanerkloster]''", ''Klöster und Stifte in Rheinland-Pfalz'' [''Monasteries and Churches in Rhineland-Palatinate''  {{in lang|de}} for more details.</ref>

In the [[Faroe Islands]], the day of St. Olaf's death is celebrated as [[Ólavsøka]], a nation-wide holiday.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11234a.htm |title=''St. Olaf Haraldson'' (Catholic Encyclopedia) |publisher=Newadvent.org |date=1 February 1911 |access-date=21 May 2012}}</ref>

Recently the [[pilgrimage]] route to [[Nidaros Cathedral]], the site of St. Olaf's tomb, has been reinstated. The route is known as The Pilgrim's Way (''Pilegrimsleden''). The main route, approximately 640&nbsp;km long, starts in the ancient part of [[Oslo]] and heads north, along [[Lake Mjosa]], up the [[Gudbrandsdal]] Valley, over [[Dovrefjell]] and down the [[Orkdalen]] Valley, ending at Nidaros Cathedral in [[Trondheim (city)|Trondheim]]. A Pilgrim's Office in Oslo gives advice to pilgrims, and a Pilgrim Centre in Trondheim, under the aegis of the Cathedral, awards certificates to pilgrims when they complete their journeys. However, the relics are no longer exposed in the cathedral, and it is not sure where exactly in the cathedral crypt his remains are buried.

==== Folklore ====
For centuries, Olaf figured in folk traditions as a slayer of [[troll]]s and giants, and as a protector against malicious forces. He was said to have healing power, which attracted people to his shrine, and various springs were claimed to have sprung forth where he or his body had been.<ref>{{cite book |last=Astås |first=Reidar |year=1993 |chapter=Óláfr, St. |title=Medieval Scandinavia, an Encyclopedia |editor-last=Pulsiano |editor-first=Phillip |location=NY and London |publisher=Garland |isbn=0-8240-4787-7 |page=446}}</ref> Around the 12th century, folk traditions and iconography of Olaf absorbed elements of the gods [[Thor]] and [[Freyr]] from [[Norse mythology]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Dumézil|first=Georges|author-link=Georges Dumézil|year=1973|title=Gods of the Ancient Northmen|publisher=[[University of California Press]]|isbn=0-520-02044-8|page=125}}</ref> Like Freyr, he became associated with fertility, which led to his adoption as a [[patron saint]] by farmers, fishermen, sailors and merchants of the [[Hanseatic League]], who turned to him for good yield and protection. From Thor, he inherited the quick temper, physical strength and merits of a giant-slayer.<ref name="medievalfolklore">{{cite book |year=2002 |chapter=Olaf, Saint |editor1-last=Lindahl |editor1-first=Carl |editor2-last=McNamara |editor2-first=John |editor3-last=Lindow |editor3-first=John |title=Medieval Folklore: A Guide to Myths, Legends, Tales, Beliefs, and Customs |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=9780195147711 |page=299}}</ref>

Popular tradition also made marks in the ecclesiastical material. Early depictions of Olaf portray him as clean-shaven, but after 1200 he appears with a red beard, which may have been absorbed from Thor. The ''[[Passio Olavi|Passio a miracule beati Olavi]]'', the official record of Olaf's miracles, contains an episode where Olaf helps a man escape from the ''[[Hulder|huldrefolk]]'', the "hidden people" of [[Scandinavian folklore|Norwegian folklore]].<ref name="medievalfolklore" />

==== In Normandy ====
In [[Normandy]], Saint Olaf represents an important figure and was chosen unofficially as the [[patron saint]] of the [[Normans]], this term mainly designating the inhabitants of continental Normandy and of the [[Channel Islands]], but also on a larger scale the inhabitants of the former [[Vikings|Viking]] territories, namely the Scandinavian countries and, even more so, [[Norway]]. This choice can be explained by the time in which Olaf lived and when the exchanges between Normandy and the Scandinavian countries were common. There were also many kinships between the inhabitants of the brand new Norman state, as illustrated by the choice of Archbishop [[Robert II (archbishop of Rouen)|Robert II]] for the baptism of Olaf.

The [[:fr:Drapeau normand#Drapeaux à croix scandinave (ou croix de Saint Olaf)|normand flag]] with a Scandinavian cross, which recalls the Scandinavian origins of Normandy, has been baptized "Cross of Saint Olav" (or "Cross of Saint Olaf") in honor of the saint.

Baptized in [[Rouen]] by the brother of a Duke of Normandy, a church in Rouen is dedicated to Saint-Olaf.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Eglise Norvégienne|url=http://www.rouen-histoire.com/Eglises_Rouen/Eglise_Norvegienne.htm|access-date=2021-05-02|website=www.rouen-histoire.com}}</ref> The Norwegian Saint-Olaf Church was built in 1926, rue Duguay-Trouin, near the home of the Scandinavian sailors. The Norwegian Seamen's Mission wanted to build a Lutheran place of worship for visiting sailors.

A bone from Saint Olaf's arm is kept as a relic in the crypt of [[Rouen Cathedral]].<ref name="france3-regions.francetvinfo.fr">{{Cite web|title=Le millénaire du baptême de Saint-Olav à la cathédrale de Rouen|url=https://france3-regions.francetvinfo.fr/normandie/2014/10/19/le-millenaire-du-bapteme-de-saint-olav-la-cathedrale-de-rouen-574612.html|access-date=2021-05-02|website=France 3 Normandie|date=19 October 2014 |language=fr-FR}}</ref>

In 2014 the city and the diocese of Rouen celebrated the millennium of the baptism of Saint Olav with the Norwegian representatives of the [[Catholic Church]] and the [[Evangelical Lutheran Church of Norway]].<ref name="france3-regions.francetvinfo.fr"/>

In Normandy, July 29 is the occasion of local cultural festivals which generally highlight the Norse heritage of [[Normandy]]. In some Norman parishes, [[Mass (liturgy)|Mass]] is celebrated on this day in honor of the saint and to mark the historical links that unite [[Normandy]] and [[Scandinavia]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=GChapdelaine|title=Saint Olaf – Fraternité de l'Abbaye de La Lucerne|url=https://www.coutances.catholique.fr/pres-de-chez-vous/fraternite-de-l-abbaye-de-la-lucerne/spiritualite/saint-olaf|access-date=2021-05-02|website=www.coutances.catholique.fr|date=4 June 2017|language=fr|archive-date=17 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220217122400/https://www.coutances.catholique.fr/pres-de-chez-vous/fraternite-de-l-abbaye-de-la-lucerne/spiritualite/saint-olaf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==== In Epcot ====
A statue of a young Olaf Haraldsson can be found erected in front of the [[Stave Church]] replica in the [[Norway Pavilion at Epcot|Norway Pavilion]] in [[Walt Disney World]]'s [[Epcot]].

==== Other references to St. Olaf ====
{{Further|List of churches dedicated to St Olav|label1=List of churches dedicated to St. Olav}}
[[File:Jomala.vapen.svg|thumb|upright|Saint Olaf in the coat of arms of [[Jomala]], [[Åland]]]]
* [[File:StOlaf.jpg|alt=Saint Olaf in Orkney Cathedral, Kirkwall, Scotland|thumb|Saint Olaf in Orkney Cathedral, Kirkwall, Scotland]][[St. Olav's Cathedral, Oslo]], the main cathedral of the [[Roman Catholic Church in Norway]]
* St. Olav's Chapel, in Covarrubias, Spain<ref>{{cite web|title=Saint Olav's chapel in Spain|website=pilgrim.info|url=http://www.pilgrim.info/en/index.aspx?id=714273|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080102084629/http://www.pilgrim.info/en/index.aspx?id=714273|archive-date=2008-01-02}}</ref>
* [[Olavshallen Concert Hall]] in Trondheim
* [[St. Olaf's Church, Balestrand]] in Sogn og Fjordane, Norway
* [[Sankt Olof]] situated in [[Simrishamn Municipality]], [[Skåne County]], [[Sweden]]
* St. Oluf's Church, now [[St. Oluf's Cemetery]] in [[Aarhus]], Denmark, originates from before 1203, but has been in ruins since 1548.
* [[St. Olaf's Church, Jomala|St. Olaf's Church]] in [[Jomala]], [[Åland]]
* [[St. Olaf's Church, Tallinn|St. Olaf's Church]], the tallest and possibly oldest church in [[Tallinn]], [[Estonia]]
* St. Olaf's Church in [[Nõva, Lääne County|Nõva]], Estonia
* St. Olaf's Church in [[Vormsi]], Estonia
* St. Olaf's Church ruins in [[Väike-Pakri]], Estonia
* St. Olaf's Chapel ruins in [[Suur-Pakri]], Estonia
* [[Saint Olav's Church, Kirkjubøur|Saint Olav's Church]] in [[Kirkjubøur]], [[Faroe Islands]]
* [[St. Olaf's Church, Tyrvää]] in [[Sastamala]], [[Finland]]
* [[St. Olaf's Castle]] (''Olavinlinna'') in [[Savonlinna]], Finland
* [[St. Olaf College]] was founded by Norwegian-American immigrant [[Bernt Julius Muus]] in [[Northfield, Minnesota]] during 1874.
* Saint Olaf Catholic Church in downtown [[Minneapolis]]<ref>[http://saintolaf.org/ Church website]; [http://saintolaf.org/wp-content/uploads/2.jpg Statue of the saint from the sanctuary] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110727232741/http://saintolaf.org/wp-content/uploads/2.jpg |date=27 July 2011 }}</ref>
* Saint Olaf Catholic Church in [[Norge, Virginia]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.stolaf.cc/ |title=St. Olaf Church, Patron of Norway Catholic Church |website=stolaf.cc |access-date=12 January 2017}}</ref>
* Saint Olaf Catholic Church and School in [[Bountiful, UT]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://stolafut.org/home.html |title=St Olaf Home Page |website=Saint Olaf Catholic Church}}</ref>
* St. Olave's Anglican Church, Toronto, ON, Canada<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://stolaves.ca/ |title=St. Olave's Anglican Church – Beauty and Tradition in Toronto's Bloor West Village  |access-date=11 April 2019}}</ref>
* The primary school and GAA club in Balally, Dublin, Ireland, both named for St. Olaf<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.stolafs.ie/ |title=St. Olaf's National School |website=St. Olaf's National School}}</ref>
* [[Tower of St. Olav]], the only remaining tower of [[Vyborg Castle]]
* The [[coat of arms]] of the [[Church of Norway]] contains two axes, the instruments of St. Olaf's martyrdom.
* The oldest picture of St. Olaf is painted on a column in the [[Church of the Nativity]] in Bethlehem.
* [[The Royal Norwegian Order of St. Olav]] was founded in 1847 by [[Oscar I of Sweden|Oscar I]], king of Norway and Sweden, in memory of the king.{{sfn|Chisholm |1911|p=62}}
* {{ill|T.S.C. Sint Olof|nl}}, a Dutch student organisation with St. Olaf as its patron.
* St Olaf St a secondary street in Lerwick, Shetland
* St Olaf is a character in the Norwegian TV series Beforeigners.
* St Olaf’s Church in Wasdale which is England’s smallest parish church. [https://wasdalehead.church/]
* St Olaf Hotel in [[Cruden Bay]], [[Scotland]] (near site of 1012 battle)