Editing Resheph (section)

==Second millennium BCE sources==
Resheph continued to be worshiped in the second millennium BCE, and remained a popular deity in a number of areas bordering on the [[Mediterranean Sea]].{{sfn|Archi|2015|p=509}}

===Ugaritic texts===
The corpus of [[Ugaritic texts]] has been described as “one of the most abundant collections of data concerning Resheph”.{{sfn|Münnich|2013|p=124}} It has been proposed that he arose to prominence in this city in the late [[Bronze Age]].{{sfn|Buck|2019|p=265}} He was associated with both plague and war.{{sfn|Rahmouni|2008|p=299}} He was also connected to the underworld.{{sfn|Pardee|2002|p=282}} 

====Associations with other deities====
Ugaritic and Akkadian god lists from [[Ugarit]] indicate that the theological view that Resheph and [[Nergal]] were analogous to each other was also accepted in this city.{{sfn|Streck|2008|p=252}}

Some evidence exists for an association between Resheph and [[Ashtart]] reflecting their shared features, though it is not extensive.{{sfn|Smith|2014|pp=65-66}}

In the standard Ugaritic lists of deities, Resheph follows “auxiliary gods of [[Baal]]” ([[Ugaritic]]: ''il t‘ḏr b‘l'') and precedes [[Dadmiš]].{{sfn|Pardee|2002|p=15}} Manfred Krebernik suggests that she might have been linked to Resheph in some way, possibly as his spouse, and additionally points out her name might be related to the Mesopotamian goddess [[Tadmuštum]], who was associated with the underworld.{{sfn|Krebernik|2013|p=205}} Nicolas Wyatt argues that based on their placement in lists it can be assumed that they were counted among Baal's divine helpers,{{sfn|Wyatt|2007|pp=74-75}} but Dennis Pardee maintains that there is no evidence in favor of viewing either of them as closely linked to the weather god.{{sfn|Pardee|2000|p=315}}

====Worship====
The offering list corresponding to the standard deity lists assigns a [[sheep|ram]] to Resheph as a sacrifice, similarly as to most of the other deities mentioned.{{sfn|Pardee|2002|p=48}} In another offering list, he follows [[Shapash]], the sun goddess.{{sfn|Pardee|2002|p=19}} Yet another similar text places him after Tiraṯu (a deity representing young [[wine]]) and before a [[Hypostasis (philosophy and religion)|hypostasis]] of [[Anat]], designated by the term ''ḫbly''.{{sfn|Pardee|2002|p=21}} He received an ewe as a burnt sacrifice in this case.{{sfn|Pardee|2002|p=69}} He also appears in a ritual which took place in Ra’šu-Yêni,{{sfn|Pardee|2002|p=63}} “first of the wine”, the last month in the Ugaritic [[lunar calendar]], seemingly on the roof of the temple of [[El (deity)|El]], where shrines were set up for various deities in presence of the king.{{sfn|Pardee|2002|pp=56-57}} In this case, he received an ewe as a burnt offering, after a similar sacrifice made to [[Ṯukamuna-wa-Šunama]], and later separately a ram as a “peace offering”.{{sfn|Pardee|2002|p=63}} RS 19.013, a tablet describing one of the so-called “contemplation rituals” whose form and function remain uncertain, also involves Resheph.{{sfn|Pardee|2002|pp=72-74}} He is additionally mentioned alongside various other deities in a short prayer for well-being,{{sfn|Pardee|2002|p=152}} which according to Dennis Pardee might list gods viewed as the sons of El.{{sfn|Pardee|2002|p=150}} Furthermore, the only among the many votive objects found in Ugarit to be identified by an accompanying inscription as an offering to a specific deity is a drinking vessel shaped like a lion's head, which a certain Nūrānu dedicated to "Resheph-''guni''" (''ršp gn'').{{sfn|Pardee|2002|p=126}} Pardee assumes that the second element of the name is a toponym, Gunu, according to him a city located somewhere in [[Syria]],{{sfn|Pardee|2002|p=283}} though it has also been suggested that this term refers to the royal [[necropolis]] in Ugarit, and that it might be related to [[Eblaite language|Eblaite]] ''gunnum''.{{sfn|Streck|2008|p=253}}

A [[Dual (grammatical number)|dual]] or [[plural]] form of Resheph's name, ''ršpm'', is also attested in ritual texts.{{sfn|Krebernik|2013|p=200}} Sacrifices to this group of deities took place in the royal palace.{{sfn|Pardee|2002|p=215}} Manfred Krebernik presumes it can be connected to his various [[Hypostasis (philosophy and religion)|hypostases]] attested in Ugaritic texts, such as ''ršp idrm'' (meaning unknown), ''ršp bbt'' (“Resheph of Bibitta”), ''ršp mhbn'' (“Resheph of Mōhāban”), ''ršp mlk'' (“ Resheph of Mulukku”), ''ršp ṣbi'' (“Resheph of the army”) and  ''ršp ḥgb'' (possibly “Resheph of [[locusts]]”).{{sfn|Krebernik|2013|pp=199-200}} 

Eighty seven inhabitants of Ugarit bearing [[theophoric names]] invoking Resheph have been identified in known texts, with four of them being scribes.{{sfn|van Soldt|2016|p=100}} This makes him the third most common of the deities attested in this context,{{sfn|van Soldt|2016|p=105}} with El and [[Baal]] being more popular and Shapash and [[Teshub]] appearing with comparable frequency.{{sfn|van Soldt|2016|p=102}} The element ''ḥgb'' also appears in theophoric names on its own,{{sfn|Krebernik|2013|p=200}} with twenty five individual examples known, and Wilfred H. van Soldt proposed interpreting it as an attribute of Resheph in this context.{{sfn|van Soldt|2016|p=99}}

====Mythology====
Despite being frequently mentioned in ritual texts and theophoric names, Resheph does not play a large role in [[Ugaritic mythology]].{{sfn|van Soldt|2016|p=105}} In the ''[[Epic of Keret]]'', he is responsible for “carrying off” the fifth wife of the [[Kirta|eponymous king]].{{sfn|Münnich|2013|p=125}} The term used has a broad meaning and the exact way in which she died cannot be established.{{sfn|Münnich|2013|p=146}} Mark S. Smith has also proposed that Habayu, who in the literary text KTU 1.114 attacks drunk [[El (deity)|El]] and smears him with excrement, might be another name of Resheph.{{sfn|Smith|2014|p=50}}

In the text ''[[Hauron|Horon]] and the Mare'', Resheph is invoked from Bibitta,{{sfn|Pardee|2002|p=176}} a city in [[Anatolia]].{{sfn|Pardee|2002|p=283}} He is asked to remove poison alongside many other deities.{{sfn|Pardee|2002|p=176}} A thematically similar text dealing with removal of serpent venom focused on [[Shapash]]{{sfn|Pardee|2002|pp=179-180}} invokes him alongside [[Yarikh]] in a sequence of pairs of deities, after El and Horon, [[Baal]] and [[Dagan (god)|Dagan]], and [[Anat]] and [[Ashtart]].{{sfn|Pardee|2002|p=183}}

====Divination====
In an [[omen]] text, RS 12.061, Resheph is addressed as the doorkeeper of the sun goddess [[Shapash]].{{sfn|Pardee|2002|pp=131-132}}{{sfn|Krebernik|2013|p=200}} According to Dennis Pardee, it can be assumed that he functioned as an [[underworld]] deity, and that he was responsible for opening the gates of the underworld to let her undertake the nightly portion of her journey.{{sfn|Pardee|2002|p=133}} However, the text is likely an allusion to an [[astronomical]] phenomenon as well.{{sfn|Münnich|2013|p=148}} While attempts have been made to identify it as a report of a [[solar eclipse]], according to Pardee it describes a period of five days during which the planet [[Mars]], corresponding to Resheph, has been observed at sundown, before its [[heliacal setting]] made that impossible on the sixth day.{{sfn|Pardee|2002|p=131}} Maciej M. Münnich notes that based on Mesopotamian evidence it is possible that Mars was regarded as an ill omen in Ugarit.{{sfn|Münnich|2013|p=148}}

RS 24.247+, an Ugaritic omen compendium which deals with teratomancy (telling the future based on observation of malformed animal [[fetus]]es) in a manner similar to [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] ''[[Šumma Izbu]]'',{{sfn|Pardee|2002|p=135}} states that an animal born with short legs foretells a situation in which “Resheph will consume the progeny”.{{sfn|Pardee|2002|p=140}}

===Other Syrian sources===
Many [[theophoric names]] invoking Resheph have been identified in texts from [[Emar]].{{sfn|Beckman|2002|p=54}} Examples include Ikūr-Rašap ([[Akkadian language|Akkadian]]: “Resheph has proven to be reliable”), Rašap-kabar ([[Amorite language|Amorite]]: “Resheph is great”), Rašap-lā’ī (Amorite: “Resheph is powerful”), as well as names where the theonym is abbreviated, such as Iddin-ra (Akkadian: “Resheph has given”) and Yakūn-ra (Amorite: “Resheph has proven to be reliable”).{{sfn|Streck|2008|p=252}} Overall he is the third most frequently invoked deity in them, after [[Dagan (god)|Dagan]] and [[Adad]].{{sfn|Feliu|2003|p=263}} 

It is sometimes assumed that Resheph is not directly attested in ritual texts from Emar.{{sfn|Torrecilla|2017|pp=10-11}} However, Ian Rutherford assumes that the deity referred to as “[[Nergal]] of the market (KI.LAM)” or “lord of the market” might be Resheph, which would indicate the name is to be read as ''Rašap/bel mahiri''; a connection to trade is not otherwise known for Nergal, but is well attested for Resheph in [[Hurrian religion|Hurrian]] tradition.{{sfn|Rutherford|2019|p=84}} This identification is also accepted by John Tracy Thames,{{sfn|Thames|2020|p=110}} who notes the epithet presumably reflected his importance in the eyes of a specific section of society, similarly as other titles derived from names of professions.{{sfn|Thames|2020|p=167}} He also proposes that the deity only mentioned under the epithet “Lord of Šagma” in texts from this city might be either Resheph or [[Erra (god)|Erra]].{{sfn|Thames|2020|p=173}} [[Gary Beckman]] tentatively considers interpreting the city god of Emar, represented by the [[Sumerogram]] <sup>d</sup>[[Ninurta|NIN.URTA]], as Resheph, but he notes caution is advised, and points out [[Joan Goodnick Westenholz]] instead suggested that <sup>d</sup>NIN.URTA in Emar designated a strictly local deity, known as Il Imarī or possibly Ḫamari, “the Emariote god”.{{sfn|Beckman|2002|p=54}} It is also sometimes proposed that the deity <sup>d</sup>U.GUR, who appears alongside [[Shuwala]] in a description of a festival, might be Resheph,{{sfn|Feliu|2003|p=222}} though this logogram might also be read phonetically as [[Ugur (god)|Ugur]] (a possibility supported by Hurrian sources from the site) or as Nergal.{{sfn|Fleming|1992|p=139}}

In addition to the evidence from Emar, Resheph is also attested in texts from [[Tell Hadidi|Azû]] and [[Mumbaqat|Ekalte]].{{sfn|Torrecilla|2017|pp=10-11}} All three of these sites are located in the proximity of each other, and were culturally similar.{{sfn|Torrecilla|2017|pp=1-2}} Amorite theophoric names invoking Resheph have also been identified in texts from [[Mari, Syria|Mari]] and from the [[kingdom of Khana]].{{sfn|Streck|2008|p=252}} However, in the former only seven examples are attested.{{sfn|Münnich|2013|p=76}} The proposal that some Mariote attestations of [[Nergal]] in personal names and elsewhere should be understood as references to Resheph are regarded as baseless.{{sfn|Münnich|2013|pp=77-78}} There is also no evidence that he was ever actively worshiped further south in [[Mesopotamia]].{{sfn|Münnich|2013|p=262}}

===Hurrian reception===
Like a number of other deities originally worshiped in Ebla, such as [[Adamma (goddess)|Adamma]], [[Aštabi]], [[Ḫepat]] and [[Išḫara|Ishara]], Resheph was incorporated into the [[Hurrian pantheon]], as attested in texts from [[Ugarit]],{{sfn|Archi|2013|p=14}} [[Emar]]{{sfn|Streck|2008|p=252}} and [[Alalakh]].{{sfn|Münnich|2013|p=122}} He was regarded as the tutelary god of the [[marketplace]] in [[Hurrian religion]].{{sfn|Archi|2013|p=14}} He was referred to as ''damkarrassi'', “of commerce”, a [[loanword]] derived from [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]] DAM.GÀR.{{sfn|Rutherford|2019|p=82}} He belonged to the circle of deities associated with [[Teshub]], and in standard offering lists ({{ill|kaluti|de|Kaluti-Liste}}) he typically appears between [[Ḫešui]] and [[Tenu (god)|Tenu]].{{sfn|Taracha|2009|p=118}}

Three [[theophoric names]] invoking the Hurrian form of Resheph have been identified in the [[Ugaritic texts]].{{sfn|van Soldt|2016|p=105}} One example is Tagi-Irshappa, “Irshappa is beautiful”.{{sfn|Münnich|2013|p=166}} In Alalakh, the evidence for the worship of Resheph is limited to two certain and four dubious theophoric names, with both of the former, Irshappa (either an abbreviation or a personal name identical with the Hurrian variant of the theonym) and Irshapi-andi, being Hurrian.{{sfn|Münnich|2013|p=122-123}}

Manfred Krebernik has suggested that the fact that in a single Ugaritic text Resheph is invoked from Bibitta, elsewhere described as a cult center of the Hurrian god [[Nupatik]], might indicate that he was locally equated with that god.{{sfn|Krebernik|2013|p=201}} The existence of a connection between them is also accepted by Maciej M. Münnich.{{sfn|Münnich|2013|p=151}} Aicha Rahmouni notes that an epithet of Nupatik attested in [[Hittites|Hittite]] sources, <sup>d</sup>[[Lamassu|LAMMA]] KI.KAL.BAD, “Nupatik of the army”, is semantically a parallel of Resheph's Ugaritic title, “Resheph of the army”.{{sfn|Rahmouni|2008|p=299}}

The Hurrian form of Resheph was among the deities incorporated into the [[Hittite mythology and religion|Hittite pantheon]] in [[Samuha]] and the [[Hittite Empire|Hittite]] capital [[Hattusa]] under the influence of Hurrian religion.{{sfn|Archi|2013|p=14}} The evidence for the association between Resheph and trade is also present in Hittite texts, for example a festival tied to the cults of Samuha refers to him with the epithet ''damkarrassi''.{{sfn|Rutherford|2019|p=82}}

===Egyptian reception===
The [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] data pertaining to the worship of Resheph is considered difficult to collect and analyze due to being largely limited to dispersed royal and private monuments.{{sfn|Münnich|2013|p=80}} He most likely was already known in Egypt during the reign of the [[Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt|Thirteenth Dynasty]].{{sfn|Münnich|2013|pp=101-102}} He might have been originally introduced by the [[Hyksos]].{{sfn|Wilkinson|2003|p=126}} The oldest available evidence for his presence in Egypt is the [[theophoric name]] of a [[brewer]] originating in [[Syria]] or [[Canaan]], ‘Apra-Reshpu, who lived during the reign of [[Sobekhotep III]].{{sfn|Münnich|2009|p=54}} First direct references to the worship of Resheph occur during the reign of [[Amenhotep II]] (1425 - 1399 BCE), similarly as in the case of a number of other northern deities, such as [[Hauron]] and [[Astarte]].{{sfn|Zivie-Coche|2011|p=3}} The [[pharaoh]] himself mentions him on a stele found in the proximity of the [[Great Sphinx of Giza]], and in an inscription from a [[Egyptian temple|temple]] of [[Amun]] in [[Karnak]].{{sfn|Münnich|2009|p=54}} In another inscription he describes himself crossing the [[Orontes River]] in a manner comparable to Resheph, which is presumably meant to highlight his courage and mark him as a great warrior.{{sfn|Münnich|2013|p=111}} 

====Character====
Egyptians regarded Resheph primarily as a warlike god.{{sfn|Münnich|2013|p=111}} This aspect of his character is well attested in royal inscriptions.{{sfn|Münnich|2009|p=55}} Especially commonly, he appears in association with [[horseback]] or [[chariot warfare]].{{sfn|Münnich|2009|p=57}} A different side of Resheph is portrayed in private dedications, where he is never invoked in association with combat, and instead functions as a benevolent deity capable of securing the petitioner's health and welfare.{{sfn|Münnich|2013|p=115}} He was depicted as an armed warrior on accompanying images, but in this context these attributes most likely had an apotropaic purpose and reflected his protective qualities and his ability to overcome demons.{{sfn|Münnich|2013|p=116}} Akha, believed to cause [[abdominal pain]], was considered his enemy.{{sfn|Wilkinson|2003|p=127}} In the [[Chester Beatty Papyri|Chester Beaty papyrus]], which enumerates deities protecting specific body parts from poison, depending on translation Resheph is responsible either for [[bone marrow]], [[uterus]], a part of male genitals, or an unidentified body part.{{sfn|Münnich|2009|p=59}} 

Relatively few epithets were assigned to Resheph in Egyptian sources and the most common of them, “great god” (20 occurrences identified as of 2013) was not exclusive to him and does not highlight any of his individual traits.{{sfn|Münnich|2013|p=110}} He was also referred to as “hearer of prayer”, “healer” and “giver of health”, which reflects his association with healing.{{sfn|Cornelius|1994|p=258}}

====Iconography====
[[File:Reshef MET 89.2.215 EGDP011775.jpg|thumb|An Egyptian depiction of Resheph as a "menacing god" brandishing a weapon and holding a shield. [[Metropolitan Museum of Art]].]]
Christiane Zivie-Coche notes that as in the case of other foreign deities incorporated into the [[Egyptian pantheon]], Resheph's Egyptian iconography was primarily meant to illustrate his functions, rather than his place of origin.{{sfn|Zivie-Coche|2011|p=6}} However, it has been argued that the kilt with tassels he was usually depicted in marked him as a foreign deity.{{sfn|Cornelius|1994|p=240}} He was often portrayed as a so-called “menacing god”, with one arm raised above head and brandishing a weapon.{{sfn|Cornelius|1994|p=245}} His attributes include a shield, a bow and arrows.{{sfn|Zivie-Coche|2011|p=6}} Despite his character, he was never depicted attacking enemies, and seemingly art highlighted his protective aspect.{{sfn|Cornelius|1994|p=259}} Sometimes a [[lute]] could serve as one of his symbols.{{sfn|Hoffmeier|Kitchen|2007|p=133}} One example of a stele depicting him with this instrument on his back, presumed to originate in Hurbeit, has been identified in the collection of the [[Roemer- und Pelizaeus-Museum Hildesheim]].{{sfn|Cornelius|1994|p=28}}

Resheph could be depicted either with a fake beard similar to those known from depictions of [[Osiris]], or with a thick natural beard typical for depictions of foreigners.{{sfn|Cornelius|1994|p=248}} In the latter case he could also be shown with long hair.{{sfn|Hoffmeier|Kitchen|2007|p=133}} One of the inscriptions identified on objects originating in [[Deir el-Medina]] states that he had a “beautiful face”.{{sfn|Cornelius|1994|pp=39-40}}

For uncertain reasons, the [[gazelle]] was associated with Resheph in Egypt.{{sfn|Cornelius|1994|p=262}} However, the connection with this animal was not exclusive to him, as it also served as a symbol of [[Shed (deity)|Shed]].{{sfn|Zivie-Coche|2011|p=6}} The iconography of these two gods is however otherwise “totally different”.{{sfn|Cornelius|1994|p=16}} A gazelle head could be depicted on Resheph's [[white crown]] in place of an [[uraeus]],{{sfn|Zivie-Coche|2011|p=6}} though in some cases the latter decoration is attested too.{{sfn|Cornelius|1994|p=247}} In a single case similar headwear dedicated with a gazelle has been assigned to the god Keserty, who according to Izak Cornelius should be identified as [[Kothar-wa-Khasis]] rather than Resheph.{{sfn|Cornelius|1994|p=16}} An association between Resheph and horses is also attested, and presumably reflected his military prowess.{{sfn|Cornelius|1994|p=239}} Depictions of Resheph as a charioteer or horseman might represent an exclusively Egyptian tradition.{{sfn|Cornelius|1994|p=243}}

====Associations with other deities====
[[File:Stele of Qadesh upper-frame.jpg|250px|thumb|Egyptian limestone stele depicting [[Qetesh]] standing on a lion and wearing the headdress of [[Hathor]], flanked by [[Min (god)|Min]] (left) and  Resheph (right)]]
Due to his warlike character, Resheph could be associated with [[Montu]]{{sfn|Münnich|2009|p=54}} and [[Set (deity)|Set]].{{sfn|Wilkinson|2003|p=126}} One of the reliefs from the temple of [[Amun]] in [[Karnak]] from the reign of [[Amenhotep II]] directly refers to “Montu-Resheph”.{{sfn|Münnich|2009|p=55}} It has been suggested that Resheph was also identified with [[Heryshaf]].{{sfn|Xella|1999|p=701}} An inscription from [[Byblos]] dated to the period between 1900 and 1600 BCE which mentions the latter deity has been interpreted as an example of his name being used to refer to Resheph, though this proposal is regarded as unlikely.{{sfn|Münnich|2013|p=120}}{{sfn|Colonna|2018|pp=72-73}} No certain attestations of Resheph have been identified in sources from this city.{{sfn|Colonna|2018|p=81}} It has also been noted that in Egypt, Resheph and Herishef could be mentioned together without necessarily being identified.{{sfn|Münnich|2013|p=120}}

Multiple references to Resheph being worshiped as a member of a triad which also included [[Min (god)|Min]] and [[Qetesh|Qadesh]] are known.{{sfn|Wilkinson|2003|p=127}} These three deities are depicted for example on the stele of Ramose.{{sfn|Zivie-Coche|2011|p=7}} In this context, Resheph was seemingly primarily invoked as a protective deity of specific individuals.{{sfn|Cornelius|1994|pp=260-261}}

The Leiden Magical Papyrus, dated to the [[Ramesside Period]], mentions a deity identified as the wife of Resheph, Itum, but while attempts have been made to connect her with [[Ebla]]ite [[Adamma (goddess)|Adamma]] or less plausibly with the toponym [[Edom]], her identity remains uncertain.{{sfn|Münnich|2013|p=90}}

====Worship====
Excavations revealed evidence of veneration of Resheph in [[Deir el-Medina]].{{sfn|Münnich|2013|p=103}} Many of his worshipers living in this area were workers, though there is no indication that most of them were foreigners, as Egyptian names predominate.{{sfn|Cornelius|1994|p=239}} A total of twelve steles inscribed with his name have been discovered at this site.{{sfn|Münnich|2013|p=103}} They belonged to the sphere of domestic cult, and based on their size it is assumed that they were originally held in household shrines, presumably with tables for offerings placed in front of them.{{sfn|Cornelius|1994|p=239}} In 2006, a stele depicting Resheph and [[Astarte]] was also discovered in [[Tell el-Borg]].{{sfn|Münnich|2009|p=63}} It is presumed that it dates to the reign of [[Amenhotep II]] or earlier.{{sfn|Hoffmeier|Kitchen|2007|p=136}} It was erected by an overseer of horses, Betu, whose name is not common in Egyptian sources and might have [[Hurrian language|Hurrian]] origin.{{sfn|Hoffmeier|Kitchen|2007|p=132}} The inscription refers to Resheph with the otherwise unknown epithet, “lord of the estate of the stable of horses”.{{sfn|Hoffmeier|Kitchen|2007|p=131}} Presumably it was meant to highlight the devotee's close link to him.{{sfn|Hoffmeier|Kitchen|2007|p=136}}

According to [[Richard H. Wilkinson]], a temple dedicated to Resheph existed in [[Memphis, Egypt|Memphis]].{{sfn|Wilkinson|2003|p=127}} Izak Cornelius instead interprets the available evidence as an indication that he was venerated within a sanctuary located in the temple of [[Ptah]].{{sfn|Cornelius|1994|pp=239-240}}

The worship of Resheph is also attested in [[Nubia]], possibly as a result of religious policies of Amenhotep II.{{sfn|Münnich|2013|p=102}} A stele from [[Wadi es-Sebua]], while discovered in a historically Nubian area, was dedicated to Resheph by a certain Mati-Ba’al, presumed to be a merchant traveling through this area rather than a local inhabitant.{{sfn|Münnich|2013|p=104}}