Editing Renewable energy (section)

=== Solar energy ===
{{main|Solar energy|Solar power|Outline of solar energy}}
{| class="wikitable"
! Installed capacity and other key design parameters
! Value and year
|-
| Global electricity power generation capacity || 1419.0 GW (2023){{sfn|IRENA|2024|p=21}}
|-
| Global electricity power generation capacity annual growth rate || 25% (2014-2023)<ref>{{harvnb|IRENA|2024|p=21}}. Note: Compound annual growth rate 2014-2023.</ref>
|-
| Share of global electricity generation || 5.5% (2023)<ref name="Ember 2024" />
|-
| Levelized cost per megawatt hour || Utility-scale photovoltaics: USD 38.343 (2019){{sfn|NREL ATB|2021|loc=Utility-Scale PV}}
|-
| Primary technologies || [[Photovoltaics]], [[concentrated solar power]], [[solar thermal collector]]
|-
| Main applications || Electricity, water heating, heating, ventilation, air conditioning ([[Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning|HVAC]])
|}
{{multiple image | total_width=450
| image1= SolarFachwerkhaus.jpg |caption1= A small, rooftop [[PV system]] in [[Bonn]], Germany
| image2= Mount Komekura Photovoltaic power plant Jan2012.JPG |caption2= [[Komekurayama Solar Power Plant|Komekurayama]] [[photovoltaic power station]] in [[Kofu]], Japan
}}
Solar power produced around 1.3 terrawatt-hours (TWh) worldwide in 2022,<ref name=":5" /> representing 4.6% of the world's electricity. Almost all of this growth has happened since 2010.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023 |title=Data Page: Share of electricity generated by solar power |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/share-electricity-solar?tab=table |website=[[Our World in Data]]}}</ref> Solar energy can be harnessed anywhere that receives sunlight; however, the amount of solar energy that can be harnessed for electricity generation is influenced by [[Weather|weather conditions]], geographic location and time of day.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-10-27 |url=https://www.c2es.org/content/renewable-energy/|access-date=2021-11-22|title=Renewable Energy|website=Center for Climate and Energy Solutions|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211118150404/https://www.c2es.org/content/renewable-energy/|archive-date=18 November 2021}}</ref>

There are two mainstream ways of harnessing solar energy: [[Solar thermal energy|solar thermal]], which converts solar energy into heat; and [[photovoltaics]] (PV), which converts it into electricity.<ref name=":2" /> PV is far more widespread, accounting for around two thirds of the global solar energy capacity as of 2022.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book |last1=Weiss |first1=Werner |url=https://www.iea-shc.org/Data/Sites/1/publications/Solar-Heat-Worldwide-2023.pdf |title=Solar heat worldwide |last2=Spörk-Dür |first2=Monika |publisher=International Energy Agency |year=2023 |pages=12 |language=en}}</ref> It is also growing at a much faster rate, with 170 GW newly installed capacity in 2021,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Solar - Fuels & Technologies |url=https://www.iea.org/fuels-and-technologies/solar |access-date=2022-06-27 |website=IEA |language=en-GB}}</ref> compared to 25 GW of solar thermal.<ref name=":4" />

[[Passive solar]] refers to a range of construction strategies and technologies that aim to optimize the distribution of solar heat in a building. Examples include [[solar chimney]]s,<ref name=":2" /> orienting a building to the sun, using [[Thermal mass|construction materials that can store heat]], and designing spaces that [[Ventilation (architecture)|naturally circulate air]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zaręba |first1=Anna |last2=Krzemińska |first2=Alicja |last3=Kozik |first3=Renata |last4=Adynkiewicz-Piragas |first4=Mariusz |last5=Kristiánová |first5=Katarina |date=2022-03-17 |title=Passive and Active Solar Systems in Eco-Architecture and Eco-Urban Planning |journal=Applied Sciences |language=en |volume=12 |issue=6 |pages=3095 |doi=10.3390/app12063095 |doi-access=free |issn=2076-3417}}</ref>

From 2020 to 2022, solar technology investments almost doubled from USD 162 billion to USD 308 billion, driven by the sector's increasing maturity and cost reductions, particularly in solar photovoltaic (PV), which accounted for 90% of total investments. China and the United States were the main recipients, collectively making up about half of all solar investments since 2013. Despite reductions in Japan and India due to policy changes and [[COVID-19]], growth in China, the United States, and a significant increase from Vietnam's feed-in tariff program offset these declines. Globally, the solar sector added 714 gigawatts (GW) of solar PV and [[concentrated solar power]] (CSP) capacity between 2013 and 2021, with a notable rise in large-scale solar heating installations in 2021, especially in China, Europe, Turkey, and Mexico.<ref name=":1" />

==== Photovoltaics ====
{{Main|Growth of photovoltaics|Solar power by country|List of photovoltaic power stations}}
[[File:1975 – Price of solar panels as a function of cumulative installed capacity.svg|thumb |[[Swanson's law]]–stating that solar module prices have dropped about 20% for each doubling of installed capacity—defines the "[[Experience curve effects|learning rate]]" of [[photovoltaics|solar photovoltaics]].<ref name=SolarPVlearningCurve>{{cite web |title=Solar (photovoltaic) panel prices vs. cumulative capacity |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/solar-pv-prices-vs-cumulative-capacity |website=OurWorldInData.org |archive-url=https://archive.today/20250124235542/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/solar-pv-prices-vs-cumulative-capacity |archive-date=24 January 2025 |date=2024 |url-status=live }} OWID credits source data to: Nemet (2009); Farmer & Lafond (2016); International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA, 2024).</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.greentechmedia.com/articles/read/Is-there-really-a-Swansons-Law |title=Swanson's Law and Making US Solar Scale Like Germany |work=Greentech Media |date=2014-11-24}}</ref>]]
A [[photovoltaic system]], consisting of [[solar cell]]s assembled into [[Solar panel|panels]], converts light into electrical [[direct current]] via the [[photoelectric effect]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Dai |first1=Zhenbang |last2=Rappe |first2=Andrew M. |title=Recent progress in the theory of bulk photovoltaic effect |journal=Chemical Physics Reviews |date=1 March 2023 |volume=4 |issue=1 |doi=10.1063/5.0101513|arxiv=2206.00602 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Energy Sources: Solar|work=Department of Energy |url=https://www.energy.gov/energysources/solar.htm |access-date=19 April 2011|archive-date=14 April 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110414081047/http://www.energy.gov/energysources/solar.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> PV has several advantages that make it by far the fastest-growing renewable energy technology. It is cheap, low-maintenance and scalable; adding to an existing PV installation as demanded arises is simple. Its main disadvantage is its poor performance in cloudy weather.<ref name=":2" />

PV systems range from small, residential and commercial [[Rooftop solar power|rooftop]] or [[Building-integrated photovoltaics|building integrated]] installations,<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Petter Jelle |first1=Bjørn |last2=Breivik |first2=Christer |last3=Drolsum Røkenes |first3=Hilde |title=Building integrated photovoltaic products: A state-of-the-art review and future research opportunities |journal=Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells |date=May 2012 |volume=100 |pages=69–96 |doi=10.1016/j.solmat.2011.12.016|bibcode=2012SEMSC.100...69P |hdl=11250/2436844 |hdl-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Luthander |first1=Rasmus |last2=Widén |first2=Joakim |last3=Nilsson |first3=Daniel |last4=Palm |first4=Jenny |title=Photovoltaic self-consumption in buildings: A review |journal=Applied Energy |date=March 2015 |volume=142 |pages=80–94 |doi=10.1016/j.apenergy.2014.12.028|bibcode=2015ApEn..142...80L |url=http://urn.kb.se/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:liu:diva-113676 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Chung |first1=Hsien-Ching |title=The Long-Term Usage of an Off-Grid Photovoltaic System with a Lithium-Ion Battery-Based Energy Storage System on High Mountains: A Case Study in Paiyun Lodge on Mt. Jade in Taiwan |journal=Batteries |date=13 June 2024 |volume=10 |issue=6 |pages=202 |doi=10.3390/batteries10060202|doi-access=free |arxiv=2405.04225 }}</ref> to large utility-scale [[photovoltaic power station]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fereidooni |first1=Mojtaba |last2=Mostafaeipour |first2=Ali |last3=Kalantar |first3=Vali |last4=Goudarzi |first4=Hossein |title=A comprehensive evaluation of hydrogen production from photovoltaic power station |journal=Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews |date=February 2018 |volume=82 |pages=415–423 |doi=10.1016/j.rser.2017.09.060|bibcode=2018RSERv..82..415F }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Buerhop |first1=Claudia |last2=Bommes |first2=Lukas |last3=Schlipf |first3=Jan |last4=Pickel |first4=Tobias |last5=Fladung |first5=Andreas |last6=Peters |first6=Ian Marius |title=Infrared imaging of photovoltaic modules: a review of the state of the art and future challenges facing gigawatt photovoltaic power stations |journal=Progress in Energy |date=1 October 2022 |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=042010 |doi=10.1088/2516-1083/ac890b|bibcode=2022PrEne...4d2010B }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Solar Integrated in New Jersey |url=http://jcwinnie.biz/wordpress/?p=1724 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130719075405/http://jcwinnie.biz/wordpress/?p=1724 |archive-date=19 July 2013 |access-date=20 August 2013 |publisher=Jcwinnie.biz}}</ref> A household's solar panels can either be used for just that household or, if connected to an electrical grid, can be aggregated with millions of others.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sommerfeldt |first1=Nelson |last2=Madani |first2=Hatef |title=Revisiting the techno-economic analysis process for building-mounted, grid-connected solar photovoltaic systems: Part one – Review |journal=Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews |date=July 2017 |volume=74 |pages=1379–1393 |doi=10.1016/j.rser.2016.11.232|bibcode=2017RSERv..74.1379S }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Sommerfeldt |first1=Nelson |last2=Madani |first2=Hatef |title=Revisiting the techno-economic analysis process for building-mounted, grid-connected solar photovoltaic systems: Part two - Application |journal=Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews |date=July 2017 |volume=74 |pages=1394–1404 |doi=10.1016/j.rser.2017.03.010|bibcode=2017RSERv..74.1394S }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=Getting the most out of tomorrow's grid requires digitisation and demand response |url=https://www.economist.com/technology-quarterly/2022/06/23/getting-the-most-out-of-tomorrows-grid-requires-digitisation-and-demand-response |access-date=2022-06-24 |newspaper=[[The Economist]] |issn=0013-0613}}</ref>

The first utility-scale solar power plant was built in 1982 in [[Hesperia, California]] by [[ARCO]].<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.osti.gov/biblio/5049780 |title=Design, installation and performance of ARCO solar photovoltaic power plants |journal=Conf. Rec. IEEE Photovoltaic Spec. Conf.; (United States)|date=May 1984 |osti=5049780 |last1=Tolbert |first1=R. E. L. |last2=Arnett |first2=J. C. }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The History of Solar |url=https://www1.eere.energy.gov/solar/pdfs/solar_timeline.pdf |access-date=April 7, 2024 |website=U.S. Department of Energy}}</ref> The plant was not profitable and was sold eight years later.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lee |first=Patrick |date=1990-01-12 |title=Arco Sells Last 3 Solar Plants for $2 Million : Energy: The sale to New Mexico investors demonstrates the firm's strategy of focusing on its core oil and gas business. |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1990-01-12-fi-323-story.html |access-date=2024-04-07 |website=Los Angeles Times |language=en-US}}</ref> However, over the following decades, PV cells became significantly more efficient and cheaper.<ref name="deutsche-2015-chasm">{{cite web |date=27 February 2015 |title=Crossing the Chasm |url=https://www.db.com/cr/en/docs/solar_report_full_length.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150330174336/https://www.db.com/cr/en/docs/solar_report_full_length.pdf |archive-date=30 March 2015 |publisher=Deutsche Bank Markets Research}}</ref> As a result, PV adoption has grown exponentially since 2010.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ravishankar |first1=Rashmi |last2=AlMahmoud |first2=Elaf |last3=Habib |first3=Abdulelah |last4=de Weck |first4=Olivier L. |date=January 2022 |title=Capacity Estimation of Solar Farms Using Deep Learning on High-Resolution Satellite Imagery |journal=Remote Sensing |language=en |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=210 |doi=10.3390/rs15010210 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2022RemS...15..210R |issn=2072-4292|hdl=1721.1/146994 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Global capacity increased from 230 GW at the end of 2015 to 890 GW in 2021.<ref name="IRENA2018">{{cite web |title=Renewable Electricity Capacity And Generation Statistics June 2018 |url=http://resourceirena.irena.org/gateway/dashboard/?topic=4&subTopic=54 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181128034842/http://resourceirena.irena.org/gateway/dashboard/?topic=4&subTopic=54 |archive-date=28 November 2018 |access-date=27 November 2018}}</ref> PV grew fastest in China between 2016 and 2021, adding 560 GW, more than all advanced economies combined.<ref name="IEA-3" /> Four of the ten biggest solar power stations are in China, including the biggest, [[Huanghe Hydropower Golmud Solar Park|Golmud Solar Park]] in China.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ahmad |first=Mariam |date=2023-05-30 |title=Top 10: Largest Solar Power Parks |url=https://energydigital.com/top10/top-10-largest-solar-power-parks |access-date=2024-04-07 |website=energydigital.com |language=en}}</ref>

[[Solar cell#Recycling|Solar panels are recycled]] to reduce [[electronic waste]] and create a source for materials that would otherwise need to be mined,<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2021-08-23 |title=Solar Panel Recycling |url=https://www.epa.gov/hw/solar-panel-recycling |access-date=2022-05-02 |website=www.epa.gov |language=en}}</ref> but such business is still small and work is ongoing to improve and scale-up the process.<ref name="techrev">{{cite web |title=Solar panels are a pain to recycle. These companies are trying to fix that. |url=https://www.technologyreview.com/2021/08/19/1032215/solar-panels-recycling/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211108103705/https://www.technologyreview.com/2021/08/19/1032215/solar-panels-recycling/ |archive-date=8 November 2021 |access-date=8 November 2021 |website=MIT Technology Review}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Heath |first1=Garvin A. |last2=Silverman |first2=Timothy J. |last3=Kempe |first3=Michael |last4=Deceglie |first4=Michael |last5=Ravikumar |first5=Dwarakanath |last6=Remo |first6=Timothy |last7=Cui |first7=Hao |last8=Sinha |first8=Parikhit |last9=Libby |first9=Cara |last10=Shaw |first10=Stephanie |last11=Komoto |first11=Keiichi |last12=Wambach |first12=Karsten |last13=Butler |first13=Evelyn |last14=Barnes |first14=Teresa |last15=Wade |first15=Andreas |date=July 2020 |title=Research and development priorities for silicon photovoltaic module recycling to support a circular economy |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41560-020-0645-2 |url-status=live |journal=Nature Energy |volume=5 |issue=7 |pages=502–510 |bibcode=2020NatEn...5..502H |doi=10.1038/s41560-020-0645-2 |issn=2058-7546 |s2cid=220505135 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210821071335/https://www.nature.com/articles/s41560-020-0645-2 |archive-date=21 August 2021 |access-date=26 June 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Domínguez |first1=Adriana |last2=Geyer |first2=Roland |date=1 April 2019 |title=Photovoltaic waste assessment of major photovoltaic installations in the United States of America |journal=Renewable Energy |volume=133 |pages=1188–1200 |bibcode=2019REne..133.1188D |doi=10.1016/j.renene.2018.08.063 |issn=0960-1481 |s2cid=117685414}}</ref>

==== Solar thermal ====
{{Main|Solar thermal energy}}
Unlike photovoltaic cells that convert sunlight directly into electricity, solar thermal systems convert it into heat. They use mirrors or lenses to concentrate sunlight onto a receiver, which in turn heats a water reservoir. The heated water can then be used in homes. The advantage of solar thermal is that the heated water can be stored until it is needed, eliminating the need for a separate energy storage system.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Coren |first=Michael |date=February 13, 2024 |title=Meet the other solar panel |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/climate-environment/2024/02/13/solar-thermal-water-heater/ |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]}}</ref> Solar thermal power can also be converted to electricity by using the steam generated from the heated water to drive a [[turbine]] connected to a generator. However, because generating electricity this way is much more expensive than photovoltaic power plants, there are very few in use today.<ref>{{Cite news |last1=Kingsley |first1=Patrick |last2=Elkayam |first2=Amit |date=October 9, 2022 |title='Eye of Sauron': The Dazzling Solar Tower in the Israeli Desert |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/10/09/world/middleeast/israel-solar-tower.html |work=The New York Times}}</ref>

==== Floatovoltaics ====
{{Main article|Https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floating solar}}
Floatovoltiacs, or floating solar panels, are solar panels floating on bodies of water. There are both positive and negative points to this. Some positive points are increased efficiency and price decrease of water space compared to land space. A negative point is that making floating solar panels could be more expensive.

==== Agrivoltiacs ====
{{Main|https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agrivoltaics}}
Agrivoltiacs is where there is simultaneous use of land for energy production and agriculture. There are again both positive and negative points. A positive viewpoint is there is a better use of land, which leads to lower land costs. A negative viewpoint is it the plants grown underneath would have to be plants that can grow well under shade, such as [[Polka Dot Plant]], [[Pineapple Sage]], and [[Begonia]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=19 Top Shade Plants - Shade-Loving Plants for Your Garden |url=https://www.provenwinners.com/learn/top-ten-lists/10-plants-for-your-shade-garden |access-date=2025-02-13 |website=Proven Winners}}</ref> Agrivoltaics not only optimizes land use and reduces costs by enabling dual revenue streams from both energy production and agriculture, but it can also help moderate temperatures beneath the panels, potentially reducing water loss and improving microclimates for crop growth. However, careful design and crop selection are crucial, as the shading effect may limit the types of plants that can thrive, necessitating the use of shade-tolerant species and innovative management practices. <ref>{{Cite web |title=Agrivoltaics: Producing Solar Energy While Protecting Farmland |url=https://cbey.yale.edu/research/agrivoltaics-producing-solar-energy-while-protecting-farmland |access-date=2025-03-30 |website=Yale Center for Business and the Environment |language=en}}</ref>