Editing Rationality (section)

==== Normative and descriptive theories ====
The concept of normativity can also be used to distinguish different theories of rationality. Normative theories explore the normative nature of rationality. They are concerned with rules and ideals that govern how the [[mind]] should work. Descriptive theories, on the other hand, investigate how the mind actually works. This includes issues like under which circumstances the ideal rules are followed as well as studying the underlying psychological processes responsible for rational thought. Descriptive theories are often investigated in empirical [[psychology]] while [[philosophy]] tends to focus more on normative issues. This division also reflects how different these two types are investigated.<ref name="Knauff2021b"/><ref name="Sturm2021"/><ref name="Pinker2022"/><ref name="Over2004"/>

Descriptive and normative theorists usually employ different [[methodologies]] in their research. Descriptive issues are studied by [[empirical research]]. This can take the form of studies that present their participants with a cognitive problem. It is then observed how the participants solve the problem, possibly together with explanations of why they arrived at a specific solution. Normative issues, on the other hand, are usually investigated in similar ways to how the [[formal sciences]] conduct their inquiry.<ref name="Knauff2021b"/><ref name="Sturm2021"/> In the field of theoretical rationality, for example, it is accepted that [[deductive reasoning]] in the form of [[modus ponens]] leads to rational beliefs. This claim can be investigated using methods like [[rational intuition]] or careful deliberation toward a [[reflective equilibrium]]. These forms of investigation can arrive at conclusions about what forms of thought are rational and irrational without depending on [[empirical evidence]].<ref name="Knauff2021b"/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Pust |first1=Joel |title=Intuitions |date=2014 |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/5802/chapter-abstract/148988403?redirectedFrom=fulltext |chapter=3 Empirical Evidence for Rationalism? |access-date=2022-08-18 |archive-date=2022-08-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220818111248/https://academic.oup.com/book/5802/chapter-abstract/148988403?redirectedFrom=fulltext |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Daniels |first1=Norman |title=Reflective Equilibrium |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/reflective-equilibrium/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=28 February 2022 |date=2020 |archive-date=22 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220222215102/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/reflective-equilibrium/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

An important question in this field concerns the relation between descriptive and normative approaches to rationality.<ref name="Knauff2021b"/><ref name="Pinker2022"/><ref name="Over2004"/> One difficulty in this regard is that there is in many cases a huge gap between what the norms of ideal rationality prescribe and how people actually reason. Examples of normative systems of rationality are [[classical logic]], [[probability theory]], and [[decision theory]]. Actual reasoners often diverge from these standards because of [[cognitive biases]], heuristics, or other mental limitations.<ref name="Knauff2021b"/>

Traditionally, it was often assumed that actual human reasoning should follow the rules described in normative theories. In this view, any discrepancy is a form of irrationality that should be avoided. However, this usually ignores the human limitations of the mind. Given these limitations, various discrepancies may be necessary (and in this sense ''rational'') to get the most useful results.<ref name="Knauff2021b"/><ref name="Harman2013"/><ref name="Moser2006"/> For example, the ideal rational norms of decision theory demand that the agent should always choose the option with the highest expected value. However, calculating the expected value of each option may take a very long time in complex situations and may not be worth the trouble. This is reflected in the fact that actual reasoners often settle for an option that is good enough without making certain that it is really the best option available.<ref name="Moser2006"/><ref name="Bendor2009"/> A further difficulty in this regard is [[Hume's law]], which states that one cannot deduce what ought to be based on what is.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Cohon |first1=Rachel |title=Hume's Moral Philosophy: 5. Is and ought |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hume-moral/#io |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=21 May 2021 |date=2018 |archive-date=10 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180110170335/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/hume-moral/#io |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bloomfield |first1=P. |title=Two Dogmas of Metaethics |journal=Philosophical Studies |date=2007 |volume=132 |issue=3 |pages=439–466 |doi=10.1007/s11098-005-2509-9 |s2cid=170556071 |url=https://philpapers.org/rec/BLOTDO |access-date=2022-08-18 |archive-date=2022-08-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220814062403/https://philpapers.org/rec/BLOTDO |url-status=live }}</ref> So just because a certain heuristic or cognitive bias is present in a specific case, it should not be inferred that it should be present. One approach to these problems is to hold that descriptive and normative theories talk about different types of rationality. This way, there is no contradiction between the two and both can be correct in their own field. Similar problems are discussed in so-called [[naturalized epistemology]].<ref name="Knauff2021b"/><ref>{{cite web |last1=Rysiew |first1=Patrick |title=Naturalism in Epistemology |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology-naturalized/ |website=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=10 August 2022 |date=2021 |archive-date=17 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220817114504/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/epistemology-naturalized/ |url-status=live }}</ref>