Editing Puppetry (section)

===Europe===
====Ancient Greece and Rome====
[[File:5016 - Archaeological Museum, Athens - Dolls - Photo by Giovanni Dall'Orto, Nov 13 2009.jpg|thumb|Ancient Greek terracotta puppet dolls, 5th/4th century BC, [[National Archaeological Museum, Athens]]]]
Although there are few remaining examples of puppets from [[ancient Greece]], historical literature and archaeological findings shows the existence of puppetry. The [[Greek language|Greek]] word translated as "puppet" is "νευρόσπαστος" (''nevrospastos''), which literally means "drawn by strings, string-pulling",<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dneuro%2Fspastos νευρόσπαστος] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308014252/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dneuro%2Fspastos |date=2021-03-08 }}, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus</ref> from "νεῦρον" (''nevron''), meaning either "sinew, tendon, muscle, string", or "wire",<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dneu%3Dron νεῦρον] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308111113/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dneu%3Dron |date=2021-03-08 }}, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus</ref> and "σπάω" (''spaō''), meaning "draw, pull".<ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dspa%2Fw σπάω] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308023828/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dspa%2Fw |date=2021-03-08 }}, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus</ref><ref>[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/resolveform?type=start&lookup=neurospast&lang=greek List of Ancient Greek words related to puppetry] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308045759/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/resolveform?type=start&lookup=neurospast&lang=greek |date=2021-03-08 }}, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', on Perseus</ref> [[Aristotle]] referred to pulling strings to control heads, hands and eyes, shoulders and legs.<ref>Mulholland, John, ''Practical Puppetry'', p.9</ref> [[Plato]]'s work also contains references to puppetry. The ''[[Iliad]]'' and the ''[[Odyssey]]'' were presented using puppetry. The roots of European puppetry probably extend back to the Greek plays with puppets played to the "common people" in the 5th century BC. By the 3rd century BC these plays would appear in the Theatre of [[Dionysus]] at the [[Acropolis]].<ref name="blumenthal"/>

In ancient Greece and [[ancient Rome]] clay dolls, and a few of ivory, dated from around 500 BC, were found in children's tombs. These dolls had articulated arms and legs, and in some cases an iron rod extending up from the tops of their heads. This rod was used to manipulate the doll from above, as it is done today in Sicilian puppetry. A few of these dolls had strings in place of rods. Some researchers believe these ancient figures were simply toys and not puppets, due to their small size.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.sagecraft.com/puppetry/definitions/historical/chapter1.html|title=We've moved|website=Sagecraft.com}}</ref>

====Italy====
;Middle Ages and Renaissance
[[File:MS Bodl 264 54v margin detail puppet show (cropped).png|thumb|Illuminated border depicting a puppet show, 1338–1344]]
Italy is considered by many to be the early home of the marionette due to the influence of Roman puppetry. [[Xenophon]] and [[Plutarch]] refer to them.<ref name="Binyon">Binyon, Helen, ''Puppetry Today'', p.11</ref> The Christian church used marionettes to perform [[morality plays]].<ref name="Binyon" /> It is believed that the word '''[[marionette]]''' originates from the little figures of the [[Virgin Mary]], hence the word "marionette" or "Mary doll.<ref>Beaton, Mabel & Les, ''Marionettes: A Hobby for Everyone''.</ref> Comedy was introduced to the plays as time went by, and ultimately led to a church edict banning puppetry. Puppeteers responded by setting up stages outside cathedrals and became even more [[ribald]] and [[slapstick]]. Out of this grew the Italian comedy called [[Commedia dell'arte]]. Puppets were used at times in this form of theatre and sometimes [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]]'s plays were performed using marionettes instead of actors.<ref>Suib, Leonard Broadman, Muriel, ''Marionettes Onstage!'', p.ix</ref> An early depiction of a puppet show within a [[wikt:castelet|castelet]] (shown right) illustrates fol. 54v of ''Li romans du boin roi Alixandre'' ('The Romance of the Good King Alexander'), a Flemish manuscript illuminated by the workshop of [[Jehan de Grise]] between 1338 and 1344.<ref>[https://wepa.unima.org/en/jehan-de-grise/ "Jehan de Grise"]. ''World Encyclopedia of Puppetry Arts'' (online ed.). Union Internationale de la Marionnette. Retrieved 30 May 2023.</ref>

[[File:Alcamo-Pupi-bjs2007-01.jpg|Sicilian puppet theatre|thumb|right]]

In [[Sicily]], the sides of donkey carts are decorated with intricate, painted scenes from the Frankish romantic poems, such as ''[[The Song of Roland]]''. These same tales are enacted in traditional puppet theatres featuring hand-made marionettes of wood. In Sicilian this is called "[[Opera dei pupi]]", or "Opera of the puppets". The "Opera dei pupi" and the Sicilian tradition of cantastorie, the word for storyteller, are rooted in the [[troubadour|Provençal troubadour tradition]], in Sicily during the reign of [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor]], in the first half of the 13th century.

;18th and 19th centuries
The 18th century was a vital period in the development of all [[Italian theatre]], including the marionette theatre. The rod puppet was mainly of lower-class origin, but the marionette theatre was popular in [[aristocracy (class)|aristocratic]] circles, as a celebration of the [[Age of Enlightenment]]. The effects, and the artful and complex construction of the puppets, the puppet theatres, and the puppet narratives, were all popular, particularly in Venice.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.collezionemariasignorelli.it/inglese_01_inizio.htm|title=Collezione Maria Signorelli|website=Collezionemariasignorelli.it|access-date=23 August 2019}}</ref> In the 19th century, the marionettes of [[Pietro Radillo]] became more complex and instead of just the rod and two strings, Radillo's marionettes were controlled by as many as eight strings, which increased control over the individual body parts of the marionettes.{{Citation needed|date=May 2008}}

====France====
[[Guignol]] is the main character in the French puppet show which has come to bear his name. Although often thought of as children's entertainment, Guignol's sharp wit and linguistic verve have always been appreciated by adults as well, as shown by the motto of a prominent [[Lyon]] troupe: "Guignol amuses children… and witty adults". [[Laurent Mourguet]], Guignol's creator, fell on hard times during the French Revolution, and in 1797 started to practice [[dentistry]], which in those days was simply the pulling of teeth. To attract patients, he started setting up a puppet show in front of his dentist's chair.
[[File:Guignol de Lyon.JPG|thumb|Guignol de Lyon]]

His first shows featured [[Pulcinella|Polichinelle]], a character borrowed from the Italian [[commedia dell'arte]]. By 1804 the success was such that he gave up dentistry altogether and became a professional puppeteer, creating his own scenarios drawing on the concerns of his working-class audience and improvising references to the news of the day. He developed characters closer to the daily lives of his Lyon audience, first Gnafron, a wine-loving cobbler, and in 1808 Guignol. Other characters, including Guignol's wife Madelon and the [[Gendarmerie|gendarme]] Flagéolet soon followed, but these are never much more than foils for the two heroes. Guignol's inevitable victory is always the triumph of good over evil.

====Great Britain====
[[File:Burattini ca 1770.jpg|thumb|180px|British puppet theatre (Punch and Judy style), {{Circa|1770}}]]
The traditional British ''[[Punch and Judy]]'' puppetry traces its roots to the 16th century to the Italian [[commedia dell'arte]].<ref name="binyon">Binyon, Helen, ''Puppetry Today'', p.36</ref> The character of "Punch" derives from the character [[Pulcinella]], which was Anglicized to ''Punchinello''. He is a manifestation of the [[Lord of Misrule]] and [[Trickster]], figures of deep-rooted mythologies. Punch's wife was originally "Joan", but later became "Judy". In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, the familiar ''Punch and Judy'' puppet show which existed in Britain was performed in an easily transportable [[:wikt:booth|booth]]. The British Puppet and Model Theatre Guild in the early 20th century instigated a resurgence of puppetry. Two of the Guild's founders, H. W. Whanslaw and [[Waldo Lanchester]], both worked to promote and develop puppetry with publications of books and literature, mainly focusing on the art of the marionette. Lanchester had a touring theatre and a permanent venue in [[Malvern, Worcestershire]], regularly taking part in the Malvern Festival and attracting the attention of [[George Bernard Shaw]]. One of Shaw's last plays, ''[[Shakes versus Shav]]'', was written for and first performed in 1949 by the company.{{Citation needed|date=May 2008}}

From 1957 to 1969, [[Gerry Anderson]] produced many television series starring marionettes, starting with [[Roberta Leigh]]'s ''[[The Adventures of Twizzle]]'' and ending with ''[[The Secret Service]]''. Many of these series (the most famous of which was ''[[Thunderbirds (TV series)|Thunderbirds]]'') employed a technique called [[Supermarionation]], which automatically synchronized the pre-recorded character dialogue to the puppets' mouth movements. Anderson returned to puppetry in 1983 with ''[[Terrahawks]]'' and the unaired [[Pilot episode|pilot]] ''[[Space Precinct#Pilot|Space Police]]'' in 1987.

Current British puppetry theatres include the [[Little Angel Theatre]] in [[Islington]], London, [[Puppet Theatre Barge]] in London, [[Norwich Puppet Theatre]], the [[Harlequin Puppet Theatre]], [[Rhos-on-Sea]], Wales, and the Biggar Puppet Theatre, [[Biggar, Lanarkshire]], [[Scotland]]. British puppetry now covers a wide range of styles and approaches. There are also a number of British theatre companies, including [[Horse and Bamboo Theatre]], and [[Green Ginger]], which integrate puppetry into highly visual productions. From 1984 to 1996, puppetry was used as a vehicle for political [[satire]] in the British television series ''[[Spitting Image]]''. Puppetry has also been influencing mainstream theatre, and several recent productions combine puppetry with live action, including ''[[War Horse (play)|Warhorse]]'', at the [[Royal National Theatre]] and ''[[Madama Butterfly|Madam Butterfly]]'' at the [[English National Opera]].{{Citation needed|date=May 2008}}

====Netherlands, Denmark, Romania, and Russia====
Many regional variants of Pulcinella were developed as the character spread across Europe. In the Netherlands it is ''Jan Klaassen'' (and Judy is ''Katrijn''); in Denmark ''Mester Jackel''; in Russia ''Petrushka''; and in Romania ''Vasilache''. In Russia, the Central Puppet Theatre in Moscow and its branches in every part of the country enhanced the reputation of the puppeteer and puppetry in general.<ref>''Practical Puppetry''/John Mullholland, p.10</ref>
<gallery mode="packed" heights="134">
PereDuchesneIllustre6 1 0.png|Polichinelle caricature, France
Teatro dei burattini.jpg|Puppet theater with Gioppino and Brighella, Bergamo Italy
Tchantches.jpg|Traditional puppets from Liège, Belgium
</gallery>

====Germany and Austria====
There is a long tradition of puppetry in Germany and Austria. Much of it derives from the 16th-century tradition of the Italian [[commedia dell'arte]].<ref name="binyon"/> The German version of the British character of 'Punch' is called [[Kasperle]] of Kaspar while Judy is called [[Grete]].<ref name="binyon"/> In the 18th century, operas were specifically composed for marionette puppets. [[Gluck]], [[Haydn]],<ref>''Practical Puppetry''/John Mulholland, p.9</ref> [[de Falla]] and [[Ottorino Respighi|Respighi]] all composed adult operas for marionettes.

In 1855, [[Count Franz Pocci]] founded the [[Münchner Marionettentheater|Munich Marionette Theatre]]. A German dramatist, poet, painter and composer, Pocci wrote 40 puppet plays for his theatre. [[Albrecht Roser]] has made a considerable impact with his marionettes in [[Stuttgart]]. His characters ''Clown Gustaf'' and ''Grandmother'' are well-known.<ref>''The Complete Book of Puppets'' by David Currell, p. 14</ref> ''Grandmother'', while outwardly charming, is savagely humorous in her observations about all aspects of society and the absurdities of life.

In [[Lindau]], [[Lindauer Marionettenoper|the Lindau Marionette Opera]] was founded in 2000 by [[Bernard Leismueller]] and [[Ralf Hechelmann]]. The company performs a large number of operas as well as a marionette ballet, ''[[Swan Lake]]''.

In Augsburg, the historic [[Augsburger Puppenkiste|Augsburg Marionette Theatre]] was founded in 1943 by [[Walter Oehmichen]]. It continues to this day along with an adjoining puppet museum under the grandsons of the founder, [[Klaus Marschall]] and [[Juergen Marschall]].

Much earlier in nearby [[Salzburg]], Austria, the [[Salzburg Marionette Theatre]] was founded in 1913 by Professor [[Anton Aicher]] and is world-famous. The Salzburg Marionette Theatre still continues the tradition of presenting full-length opera using marionettes in their own purpose built theatre until recently under the direction of [[Gretl Aicher]]. It performs mainly operas such as ''[[Die Fledermaus]]'' and ''[[The Magic Flute]]'' and a small number of ballets such as ''[[The Nutcracker]]''.<ref>''The Complete Book of Puppet Theatre'' by David Currell, p.12</ref> The Salzburg Marionette Theatre productions are aimed for adults although children are of course welcome.

There is also a marionette theatre at Schoenbrunn Palace in Vienna founded by Christine Hierzer-Riedler and Werner Hierzer over 40 years ago.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.marionettentheater.at/ueber-das-theater-wien-schoenbrunn?lang=en|title=Über uns &#124; Marionettentheater Schloss Schönbrunn|website=Marionettentheater.at}}</ref> The marionette theatre performs world famous operas, musicals and fairy tales.

====Czech Republic and Slovakia====
[[File:Marionette Opera Prague.jpg|thumb|Marionette Theatre in [[Prague]]]]
[[File:Ostrava, Divadlo loutek.jpg|thumb|Puppet Theatre in [[Ostrava]]]]
Marionette puppet theatre has had a very long history in entertainment in [[Prague]], and elsewhere in the former [[Czechoslovakia]] and then in the [[Czech Republic]] and [[Slovakia]]. It can be traced deep into the early part of the Middle Ages.<ref name="dubska">''Czech Puppet Theatre'' by Alice Dubská, Jan Novák, Nina Malíková a Marie Zdeňková, p.6</ref> Marionettes first appeared around the time of the [[Thirty Years' War]].<ref name="dubska"/> The first noted Czech puppeteer was Jan Jiří Brat, who was born in 1724. He was the son of a local carpenter and created his own puppet theatre.<ref name="dubska"/> [[Matěj Kopecký]] was the most famous 19th-century Czech puppeteer,<ref name="dubska"/> and was responsible for communicating the ideas of national awareness.<ref name="dubska"/>

In 1911, [[Jindřich Veselý]] co-founded the Czech Association of Friends of Puppet Theatre and in 1912 advocated the publication of the oldest specialist puppet-theatre magazine still published today, ''[[Loutkář]]''.<ref>{{cite web |title=History of Czech Puppetry|url=https://unima.idu.cz/en/history-of-czech-puppetry/|website=unima.idu.cz|publisher=[[UNIMA]]|access-date=2021-06-12}}</ref> Veselý played a key role in founding [[UNIMA]] (International Puppetry Association) in 1929, and was elected its first president.<ref>{{cite web |title=Veselý, Jindřich|url=http://encyklopedie.idu.cz/index.php/Vesel%C3%BD,_Jind%C5%99ich|website=encyklopedie.idu.cz|publisher=Česká divadelní encyklopedie|language=cs|access-date=2021-06-12}}</ref>

In 1920 and 1926 respectively, [[Josef Skupa]] created his most famous puppet characters: [[Spejbl and Hurvínek]], comical father and his rascal son.<ref>''Practical Puppetry''/John Mulholland, p.19</ref> In 1930, he set up the first modern professional puppet theatre.<ref>Pavel Jirásek, "Josef Skupa: The Birth of a Modern Artist", ''Theatralia: Revue současného myšlení o divadelní kultuře'' [Revue of contemporary thought on theatre culture] 18/2 (2015): 174 [168-230]; online at http://cejsh.icm.edu.pl/cejsh/element/bwmeta1.element.99134286-36e9-4d9d-9de7-a0e94e73a9ea {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200215031423/http://cejsh.icm.edu.pl/cejsh/element/bwmeta1.element.99134286-36e9-4d9d-9de7-a0e94e73a9ea |date=2020-02-15 }}</ref> An important puppet organisation is the [[National Marionette Theatre]] in Prague. Its repertoire mainly features a marionette production of [[Mozart]]'s opera ''[[Don Giovanni]]''. The production has period costumes and 18th-century setting. There are numerous other companies, including Buchty a Loutky ("Cakes and Puppets"), founded by [[Marek Bečka]].<ref name="dubska"/> Puppets have been used extensively in animated films since 1946.<ref name="dubska"/> [[Jiří Trnka]] was an acknowledged leader in this area.<ref name="dubska"/> [[Miroslav Trejtnar]] is a master puppeteer and teacher of traditional Czech marionette-making skills.<ref>Puppets in Prague, www.puppetsinprague.eu</ref>

In 2016, Czech and Slovak Puppetry was included on the [[UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Slovakia and Czech Puppetry|url=https://www.unesco.org/archives/multimedia/document-4352|website=unesco.org|date=17 November 2016 |publisher=[[UNESCO]]|access-date=2021-06-12}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Puppetry in Slovakia and Czechia|url=https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/puppetry-in-slovakia-and-czechia-01202|website=unesco.org|publisher=[[UNESCO]]|access-date=2021-06-12}}</ref>

====19th century====
Throughout this period, puppetry developed separately from the emerging mainstream of actor theatres, and the 'ragged' puppeteers performed outside of theatre buildings at fairs, markets etc., continuing to be classified along with bandits and gypsies.<ref name="blumenthal"/> In the 19th century, puppetry faced competition from other forms of theatre such as [[vaudeville]] and [[music hall]], but it adapted to these challenges, for example: by developing stage acts and participating in the new forms of popular theatre, or reinventing itself in other ways and finding audiences at the newly fashionable seaside resorts.