Editing Polish language (section)

==Orthography==
{{Main|Polish orthography|Polish Braille}}{{also|History of Polish orthography}}
The [[Polish alphabet]] derives from the [[Latin script]] but includes certain additional letters formed using [[diacritic]]s. The Polish alphabet was one of three major forms of Latin-based orthography developed for Western and some South Slavic languages, the others being [[Czech orthography]] and [[Croatian language|Croatian orthography]], the last of these being a 19th-century invention trying to make a compromise between the first two. [[Kashubian language|Kashubian]] uses a Polish-based system, [[Slovak language|Slovak]] uses a Czech-based system, and [[Slovene language|Slovene]] follows the Croatian one; the [[Sorbian languages]] blend the Polish and the Czech ones.

Historically, Poland's once diverse and multi-ethnic population utilized many forms of scripture to write Polish. For instance, [[Lipka Tatars]] and [[Muslims]] inhabiting the eastern parts of the former [[Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth]] wrote Polish in the [[Arabic alphabet|Arabic]] alphabet.<ref>{{cite book |author=Towarzystwo Miłośników Języka Polskiego |date=2006 |title=Język polski |volume=86 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nu4oAQAAIAAJ&q=j%C4%99zyk%20polski%20arabski%20alfabet |access-date=20 April 2021 |language=pl |page=228 |archive-date=7 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230407151944/https://books.google.com/books?id=nu4oAQAAIAAJ&q=j%C4%99zyk%20polski%20arabski%20alfabet |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Cyrillic script]] is used to a certain extent today by [[Poles in Belarus|Polish speakers]] in [[Western Belarus]], especially for religious texts.<ref>[[Tomasz Kamusella|Kamusella, T]] 2019, 'The new Polish Cyrillic in independent Belarus', Colloquia Humanistica, vol. 8, pp. 79–112. https://doi.org/10.11649/ch.2019.006 {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240427103826/https://journals.ispan.edu.pl/index.php/ch/article/view/ch.2019.006 |date=27 April 2024 }}</ref>

The diacritics used in the Polish alphabet are the {{Lang|pl|kreska}} (graphically similar to the [[acute accent]]) over the letters {{Lang|pl|ć, ń, ó, ś, ź}} and through the letter in {{Lang|pl|ł}}; the {{Lang|pl|kropka}} (superior dot) over the letter {{Lang|pl|ż}}, and the {{Lang|pl|[[ogonek]]}} ("little tail") under the letters {{Lang|pl|ą, ę}}. The letters ''q, v, x'' are used only in foreign words and names.<ref name="sjp.pwn.pl"/>

Polish orthography is largely [[phoneme|phonemic]]—there is a consistent correspondence between letters (or [[digraph (orthography)|digraph]]s and [[trigraph (orthography)|trigraph]]s) and phonemes (for exceptions see below). The letters of the alphabet and their normal phonemic values are listed in the following table.
[[File:Wyjscia wujek 1599.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Jakub Wujek Bible]] in Polish, 1599 print. The letters á and é were subsequently abolished, but survive in Czech.]]
{| class="wikitable"
! Upper<br />case
! Lower<br />case
! Phonemic<br />value(s)
! Upper<br />case
! Lower<br />case
! Phonemic<br />value(s)
|-
| {{Lang|pl|[[A]]}}
| {{Lang|pl|a}}
| {{IPAl-pl|a}}
| {{Lang|pl|[[Ń]]}}
| {{Lang|pl|ń}}
| {{IPAl-pl|ń}}
|-
| {{Lang|pl|[[Ą]]}}
| {{Lang|pl|ą}}
| {{IPAl-pl|ą}}, {{IPA|pl|ɔn|}}, {{IPA|pl|ɔm|}}
| {{Lang|pl|[[O]]}}
| {{Lang|pl|o}}
| {{IPAl-pl|o}}
|-
| {{Lang|pl|[[B]]}}
| {{Lang|pl|b}}
| {{IPAl-pl|b}} ({{IPAl-pl|p}})
| {{Lang|pl|[[Ó]]}}
| {{Lang|pl|ó}}
| {{IPAl-pl|u}}
|-
| {{Lang|pl|[[C]]}}
| {{Lang|pl|c}}
| {{IPAl-pl|c}}
| {{Lang|pl|[[P]]}}
| {{Lang|pl|p}}
| {{IPAl-pl|p}}
|-
| {{Lang|pl|[[Ć]]}}
| {{Lang|pl|ć}}
| {{IPAl-pl|ć}}
| {{Lang|pl|[[Q]]}}
| {{Lang|pl|q}}
| Only loanwords
|-
| {{Lang|pl|[[D]]}}
| {{Lang|pl|d}}
| {{IPAl-pl|d}} ({{IPAl-pl|t}})
| {{Lang|pl|[[R]]}}
| {{Lang|pl|r}}
| {{IPAl-pl|r}}
|-
| {{Lang|pl|[[E]]}}
| {{Lang|pl|e}}
| {{IPAl-pl|e}}
| {{Lang|pl|[[S]]}}
| {{Lang|pl|s}}
| {{IPAl-pl|s}}
|-
| {{Lang|pl|[[Ę]]}}
| {{Lang|pl|ę}}
| {{IPAl-pl|ę}}, {{IPA|pl|ɛn|}}, {{IPA|pl|ɛm|}}, {{IPAl-pl|e}}
| {{Lang|pl|[[Ś]]}}
| {{Lang|pl|ś}}
| {{IPAl-pl|ś}}
|-
| {{Lang|pl|[[F]]}}
| {{Lang|pl|f}}
| {{IPAl-pl|f}}
| {{Lang|pl|[[T]]}}
| {{Lang|pl|t}}
| {{IPAl-pl|t}}
|-
| {{Lang|pl|[[G]]}}
| {{Lang|pl|g}}
| {{IPAl-pl|ɡ}} ({{IPAl-pl|k}})
| {{Lang|pl|[[U]]}}
| {{Lang|pl|u}}
| {{IPAl-pl|u}}
|-
| {{Lang|pl|[[H]]}}
| {{Lang|pl|h}}
| {{IPAslink|x}} ({{IPAslink|ɣ}})
| {{Lang|pl|[[V]]}}
| {{Lang|pl|v}}
| Only loanwords
|-
| {{Lang|pl|[[I]]}}
| {{Lang|pl|i}}
| {{IPAl-pl|i}}, {{IPAl-pl|j}}
| {{Lang|pl|[[W]]}}
| {{Lang|pl|w}}
| {{IPAl-pl|w}} ({{IPAl-pl|f}})
|-
| {{Lang|pl|[[J]]}}
| {{Lang|pl|j}}
| {{IPAl-pl|j}}
| {{Lang|pl|[[X]]}}
| {{Lang|pl|x}}
| Only loanwords
|-
| {{Lang|pl|[[K]]}}
| {{Lang|pl|k}}
| {{IPAl-pl|k}}
| {{Lang|pl|[[Y]]}}
| {{Lang|pl|y}}
| {{IPAslink|ɨ}}, {{IPAslink|ɘ}}
|-
| {{Lang|pl|[[L]]}}
| {{Lang|pl|l}}
| {{IPAl-pl|l}}
| {{Lang|pl|[[Z]]}}
| {{Lang|pl|z}}
| {{IPAl-pl|z}} ({{IPAl-pl|s}})
|-
| {{Lang|pl|[[Ł]]}}
| {{Lang|pl|ł}}
| {{IPAl-pl|ł}}, {{IPAslink|ɫ}}
| {{Lang|pl|[[Ź]]}}
| {{Lang|pl|ź}}
| {{IPAl-pl|ź}} ({{IPAl-pl|ś}})
|-
| {{Lang|pl|[[M]]}}
| {{Lang|pl|m}}
| {{IPAl-pl|m}}
| {{Lang|pl|[[Ż]]}}
| {{Lang|pl|ż}}
| {{IPAl-pl|ż}} ({{IPAl-pl|sz}})
|-
| {{Lang|pl|[[N]]}}
| {{Lang|pl|n}}
| {{IPAl-pl|n}}
|}

The following [[Digraph (orthography)|digraphs]] and [[Trigraph (orthography)|trigraphs]] are used:
{| class="wikitable"
! Digraph
! Phonemic value(s)
! Digraph/trigraph<br />(before a vowel)
! Phonemic value(s)
|-
| {{Lang|pl|ch}}
| {{IPAl-pl|h}}
| {{Lang|pl|ci}}
| {{IPAl-pl|ć}}
|-
| {{Lang|pl|cz}}
| {{IPAl-pl|cz}}
| {{Lang|pl|dzi}}
| {{IPAl-pl|dź}}
|-
| {{Lang|pl|dz}}
| {{IPAl-pl|dz}} ({{IPAl-pl|c}})
| {{Lang|pl|gi}}
| {{IPAl-pl|gi}}
|-
| {{Lang|pl|dź}}
| {{IPAl-pl|dź}} ({{IPAl-pl|ć}})
| {{Lang|pl|(c)hi}}
| {{IPAl-pl|hi}}
|-
| {{Lang|pl|dż}}
| {{IPAl-pl|dż}} ({{IPAl-pl|cz}})
| {{Lang|pl|ki}}
| {{IPAl-pl|ki}}
|-
| {{Lang|pl|rz}}
| {{IPAl-pl|ż}} ({{IPAl-pl|sz}})
| {{Lang|pl|ni}}
| {{IPAl-pl|ń}}
|-
| {{Lang|pl|sz}}
| {{IPAl-pl|sz}}
| {{Lang|pl|si}}
| {{IPAl-pl|ś}}
|-
| &nbsp;
| &nbsp;
| {{Lang|pl|zi}}
| {{IPAl-pl|ź}}
|}

Voiced consonant letters frequently come to represent voiceless sounds (as shown in the tables); this occurs at the end of words and in certain clusters, due to the neutralization mentioned in the ''[[#Phonology|Phonology]]'' section above. Occasionally also voiceless consonant letters can represent voiced sounds in clusters.

The spelling rule for the palatal sounds {{IPAl-pl|ś}}, {{IPAl-pl|ź}}, {{IPAl-pl|ć}}, {{IPAl-pl|dź}} and {{IPAl-pl|ń}} is as follows: before the vowel {{Lang|pl|i}} the plain letters {{Lang|pl|s, z, c, dz, n}} are used; before other vowels the combinations {{Lang|pl|si, zi, ci, dzi, ni}} are used; when not followed by a vowel the diacritic forms {{Lang|pl|ś, ź, ć, dź, ń}} are used. For example, the {{Lang|pl|s}} in {{Lang|pl|siwy}} ("grey-haired"), the {{Lang|pl|si}} in {{Lang|pl|siarka}} ("sulfur") and the {{Lang|pl|ś}} in  {{Lang|pl|święty}} ("holy") all represent the sound {{IPAl-pl|ś}}. The exceptions to the above rule are certain loanwords from Latin, Italian, French, Russian or English—where {{Lang|pl|s}} before {{Lang|pl|i}} is pronounced as {{Lang|pl|s}}, e.g. {{Lang|pl|sinus}}, {{Lang|pl|sinologia}}, {{Lang|pl|do re mi fa sol la si do}}, {{Lang|pl|Saint-Simon i saint-simoniści}}, {{Lang|pl|Sierioża}}, {{Lang|pl|Siergiej}}, {{Lang|pl|Singapur}}, {{Lang|pl|singiel}}. In other loanwords the vowel {{Lang|pl|i}} is changed to {{Lang|pl|y}}, e.g. {{Lang|pl|asymilacja}}.

The following table shows the correspondence between the sounds and spelling:

[[Digraph (orthography)|Digraphs]] and [[Trigraph (orthography)|trigraphs]] are used:
{| class="wikitable"
! Phonemic value
! Single letter/Digraph<br />(in pausa or <br />before a consonant)
! Digraph/Trigraph<br />(before a vowel)
! Single letter/Digraph<br />(before the vowel {{Lang|pl|i}})
|-
| {{IPAl-pl|ć}}
| {{Lang|pl|ć}}
| {{Lang|pl|ci}}
| {{Lang|pl|c}}
|-
| {{IPAl-pl|dź}}
| {{Lang|pl|dź}}
| {{Lang|pl|dzi}}
| {{Lang|pl|dz}}
|-
| {{IPAl-pl|ś}}
| {{Lang|pl|ś}}
| {{Lang|pl|si}}
| {{Lang|pl|s}}
|-
| {{IPAl-pl|ź}}
| {{Lang|pl|ź}}
| {{Lang|pl|zi}}
| {{Lang|pl|z}}
|-
| {{IPAl-pl|ń}}
| {{Lang|pl|ń}}
| {{Lang|pl|ni}}
| {{Lang|pl|n}}
|}

Similar principles apply to {{IPAl-pl|ki}}, {{IPAl-pl|gi}}, {{IPAl-pl|hi}} and {{IPA|[[Palatalization (phonetics)|/lʲ/]]}}, except that these can only occur before vowels, so the spellings are {{Lang|pl|k, g, (c)h, l}} before {{Lang|pl|i}}, and {{Lang|pl|ki, gi, (c)hi, li}} otherwise. Most Polish speakers, however, do not consider palatalization of {{Lang|pl|k, g, (c)h}} or {{Lang|pl|l}} as creating new sounds.

Except in the cases mentioned above, the letter {{Lang|pl|i}} if followed by another vowel in the same word usually represents {{IPAl-pl|j}}, yet a palatalization of the previous consonant is always assumed.

The reverse case, where the consonant remains unpalatalized but is followed by a palatalized consonant, is written by using {{Lang|pl|j}} instead of {{Lang|pl|i}}: for example, {{Lang|pl|zjeść}}, "to eat up".

The letters {{Lang|pl|ą}} and {{Lang|pl|ę}}, when followed by plosives and affricates, represent an oral vowel followed by a nasal consonant, rather than a nasal vowel. For example, {{Lang|pl|ą}} in {{Lang|pl|dąb}} ("oak") is pronounced {{IPA|pl|ɔm|}}, and {{Lang|pl|ę}} in {{Lang|pl|tęcza}} ("rainbow") is pronounced {{IPA|pl|ɛn|}} (the nasal assimilates to the following consonant). When followed by {{Lang|pl|l}} or {{Lang|pl|ł}} (for example {{Lang|pl|przyjęli}}, {{Lang|pl|przyjęły}}),  {{Lang|pl|ę}} is pronounced as just {{Lang|pl|e}}. When {{Lang|pl|ę}} is at the end of the word it is often pronounced as just {{IPA|pl|ɛ|}}.

Depending on the word, the phoneme {{IPAl-pl|h}} can be spelt {{Lang|pl|h}} or {{Lang|pl|ch}}, the phoneme {{IPAl-pl|ż}} can be spelt {{Lang|pl|ż}} or {{Lang|pl|rz}}, and {{IPAl-pl|u}} can be spelt {{Lang|pl|u}} or {{Lang|pl|ó}}. In several cases it determines the meaning, for example: {{Lang|pl|może}} ("maybe") and {{Lang|pl|morze}} ("sea").

In occasional words, letters that normally form a digraph are pronounced separately. For example, {{Lang|pl|rz}} represents {{IPA|/rz/}}, not {{IPAl-pl|ż}}, in words like {{Lang|pl|zamarzać}} ("freeze") and in the name ''{{Lang|pl|[[Tarzan]]}}''.

Doubled letters are usually pronounced as a single, [[Gemination#Polish|lengthened]] consonant, however, some speakers might pronounce the combination as two separate sounds.

There are certain clusters where a written consonant would not be pronounced. For example, the {{Lang|pl|ł}} in the word {{Lang|pl|jabłko}} ("apple") might be omitted in ordinary speech, leading to the pronunciation {{Lang|pl|japko}}.