Editing Pedro I of Brazil (section)

== Crises within and without ==

=== Portuguese dynastic affair ===
[[File:Antônio Joaquim Franco Velasco - Dom Pedro I, Imperador do Brasil.jpg|thumb|upright=1|left|alt=Painted half-length portrait showing a young man with curly hair and mustachios who is wearing an elaborate embroidered military tunic with gold epaulets and medals|Pedro&nbsp;I at age 27 during his trip to [[Salvador, Bahia|Salvador]], [[Bahia]] province, March 1826, by {{ill|Antônio Joaquim Franco Velasco|pt}}]]
After long negotiations, Portugal [[Treaty of Rio de Janeiro (1825)|signed a treaty]] with Brazil on 29 August 1825 in which it recognized Brazilian independence.<ref>See:
* {{harvnb|Barman|1988|p=128}},
* {{harvnb|Sousa 1972, Vol 2|p=193}},
* {{harvnb|Macaulay|1986|p=184}}.
</ref> Except for the recognition of independence, the treaty provisions were at Brazil's expense, including a demand for reparations to be paid to Portugal, with no other requirements of Portugal. Compensation was to be paid to all Portuguese citizens residing in Brazil for the losses they had experienced, such as properties which had been confiscated. John VI was also given the right to style himself emperor of Brazil.<ref>See:
* {{harvnb|Barman|1988|pp=140–141}},
* {{harvnb|Sousa 1972, Vol 2|pp=195–197}},
* {{harvnb|Macaulay|1986|pp=184–185}}.
</ref> More humiliating was that the treaty implied that independence had been granted as a beneficent act of John VI, rather than having been compelled by the Brazilians through force of arms.{{sfn|Barman|1988|p=140}}{{sfn|Sousa 1972, Vol 2|p=195}} Even worse, Great Britain was rewarded for its role in advancing the negotiations by the signing of a separate treaty in which its favorable commercial rights were renewed and by the signing of a convention in which Brazil agreed to abolish slave trade with Africa within four years. Both accords were severely harmful to Brazilian economic interests.{{sfn|Barman|1988|p=141}}{{sfn|Macaulay|1986|p=186}}

A few months later, the Emperor received word that his father had died on 10 March 1826, and that he had succeeded his father on the Portuguese throne as King Dom Pedro&nbsp;IV.{{sfn|Barman|1988|p=142}} Aware that a reunion of Brazil and Portugal would be unacceptable to the people of both nations, he hastily abdicated the crown of Portugal on 2 May in favor of his eldest daughter, who became Queen Dona Maria&nbsp;II.{{sfn|Morato|1835|p=26}}{{sfn|Branco|1838|p=XXXVII}}{{efn-ua|Pedro&nbsp;I gave up more than just the crowns of Portugal and Brazil. Less known is that he was also offered the crown of Greece in April 1822 (while he was still prince regent) by the Greek government which was embroiled in a [[Greek War of Independence|fight for national independence]]. Pedro&nbsp;I declined, and eventually [[Otto of Greece|Otto of Bavaria]] became [[Kingdom of Greece (Wittelsbach)|King of Greece]] {{harv|Costa|1995|pp=172–173}}. Pedro&nbsp;I also declined offers of the Spanish crown made in 1826 and 1829 by liberals who rebelled against the absolutist rule of his uncle, Don [[Ferdinand VII]]. The liberals in Portugal and Spain agreed in 1830 to make Pedro&nbsp;I the "Emperor of Iberia". He seems to have declined this offer also, since nothing came of it {{harv|Costa|1995|pp=195–197}}. Brazilian historian Sérgio Corrêa da Costa and Portuguese historian Antônio Sardinha have argued, however, with little supporting evidence, that one of the inducements which prompted Pedro&nbsp;I to abdicate the Brazilian crown was to dethrone his brother and his uncle and rule the entire [[Iberian Peninsula]] as its emperor {{harv|Costa|1995|pp=197, 199}}.}} His abdication was conditional: Portugal was required to accept the Constitution which he had drafted and Maria&nbsp;II was to marry his brother Miguel.{{sfn|Barman|1988|p=142}} Regardless of the abdication, Pedro&nbsp;I continued to act as an absentee king of Portugal and interceded in its diplomatic matters, as well as in internal affairs, such as making appointments.{{sfn|Barman|1988|p=148}} (Although Maria II had already been recognized as queen, all Portuguese coins for the period 1826-1828 bear the name and image of Pedro IV.)  He found it difficult, at the very least, to keep his position as Brazilian emperor separate from his obligations to protect his daughter's interests in Portugal.{{sfn|Barman|1988|p=148}}  On 3 March 1828, when his plans appeared to be secure, he finalized his earlier conditional abdication from the Portuguese throne with an additional decree.<ref>{{cite web |author=João Carlos Augusto de Oyenhausen-Gravenburg, Marquês de Aracati |date=1828-03-04 |title=Item documental Desp_408-5-40_1828-03-04 - Cópia de despacho n.4 enviado por João Carlos Augusto de Oyenhausen-Gravenburg (1776-1838), Marquês de Aracati, para Luiz de Souza Dias (s.d.), com data de 4 de março de 1828, encaminhando o decreto de 3 de março de 1828 em que D. Pedro I ordena que Portugal seja governado pela sua filha D. Maria II, concluindo a sua abdicação da coroa daquele reino, na forma da carta régia de 3 de maio de 1826. |url=https://atom.itamaraty.gov.br/index.php/desp-408-5-40-1828-03-04 |website=Itamaraty Digital |access-date=2025-04-01}}</ref>

Miguel feigned compliance with Pedro&nbsp;I's plans. As soon as he was declared regent in early 1828, and backed by Carlota Joaquina, he abrogated the Constitution and, supported by those Portuguese in favor of absolutism, was acclaimed King Dom Miguel&nbsp;I.{{sfn|Macaulay|1986|p=226}} As painful as was his beloved brother's betrayal, Pedro&nbsp;I also endured the defection of his surviving sisters, [[Teresa, Princess of Beira|Maria Teresa]], [[Infanta Maria Francisca of Portugal|Maria Francisca]], [[Infanta Isabel Maria of Portugal|Isabel Maria]] and [[Infanta Maria da Assunção of Portugal|Maria da Assunção]], to Miguel&nbsp;I's faction.{{sfn|Macaulay|1986|p=295}} Only his youngest sister, [[Infanta Ana de Jesus Maria of Portugal|Ana de Jesus]], remained faithful to him, and she later traveled to Rio de Janeiro to be close to him.{{sfn|Macaulay|1986|pp=255, 295}} Consumed by hatred and beginning to believe rumors that Miguel&nbsp;I had murdered their father, Pedro&nbsp;I turned his focus on Portugal and tried in vain to garner international support for Maria&nbsp;II's rights.{{sfn|Macaulay|1986|p=239}}{{sfn|Barman|1988|pp=147–148}}

=== War and widowhood ===
[[File:Celebration for the return of Emperor Pedro&nbsp;I 1826.jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|alt=A large crowd of people and mounted horsemen fill a large public square before the steps of a twin-spired baroque church|Celebration in São Francisco de Paula square, [[Rio de Janeiro]] city, for the return of Pedro&nbsp;I from [[Bahia]], 4 April 1826 by [[Debret]]]]
Backed by the [[United Provinces of the Río de la Plata]] (present-day [[Argentina]]), a [[Thirty-Three Orientals|small band]] declared Brazil's southernmost province of [[Cisplatina]] to be independent in April 1825.{{sfn|Barman|1988|p=125}} The Brazilian government at first perceived the secession attempt as a minor uprising. It took months before a greater threat posed by the involvement of the United Provinces, which expected to annex Cisplatina, caused serious concern. In retaliation, the Empire declared war in December, triggering the [[Cisplatine War]].{{sfn|Barman|1988|p=128}} The Emperor traveled to [[Bahia]] province (located in [[northeastern Brazil]]) in February 1826, taking along his wife and daughter Maria. The Emperor was warmly welcomed by the inhabitants of Bahia.{{sfn|Sousa 1972, Vol 2|p=206}} The trip was planned to generate support for the war-effort.{{sfn|Macaulay|1986|p=190}}

The imperial entourage included [[Domitila de Castro, Marchioness of Santos|Domitila de Castro]] (then-Viscountess and later Marchioness of Santos), who had been Pedro&nbsp;I's [[Royal mistress|mistress]] since their first meeting in 1822. Although he had never been faithful to Maria Leopoldina, he had previously been careful to conceal his sexual escapades with other women.{{sfn|Macaulay|1986|pp=168, 190}} However, his infatuation for his new lover "had become both blatant and limitless", while his wife endured slights and became the object of gossip.{{sfn|Barman|1988|p=146}} Pedro&nbsp;I was increasingly rude and mean toward Maria Leopoldina, left her short of funds, prohibited her from leaving the palace and forced her to endure Domitila's presence as her [[lady-in-waiting]].{{sfn|Lustosa|2006|pp=192, 231, 236}}{{sfn|Barman|1999|p=16}} In the meantime, his lover took advantage by advancing her interests, as well as those of her family and friends. Those seeking favors or to promote projects increasingly sought her help, bypassing the normal, legal channels.{{sfn|Barman|1988|p=136}}

On 24 November 1826, Pedro&nbsp;I sailed from Rio de Janeiro to [[São José, Santa Catarina|São José]] in the province of [[Santa Catarina (state)|Santa Catarina]]. From there he rode to [[Porto Alegre]], capital of the province of [[Rio Grande do Sul]], where the main army was stationed.{{sfn|Macaulay|1986|pp=201–202}} Upon his arrival on 7 December, the Emperor found the military conditions to be much worse than previous reports had led him to expect. He "reacted with his customary energy: he passed a flurry of orders, fired reputed grafters and incompetents, fraternized with the troops, and generally shook up military and civilian administration."{{sfn|Macaulay|1986|p=202}} He was already on his way back to Rio de Janeiro when he was told that Maria Leopoldina had died following a miscarriage.<ref>See:
* {{harvnb|Rangel|1928|pp=178–179}},
* {{harvnb|Macaulay|1986|p=202}},
* {{harvnb|Costa|1972|pp=123–124}}.
</ref> Unfounded rumors soon spread that purported that she had died after being physically assaulted by Pedro&nbsp;I.{{efn-ua|Rumors circulated at the time purporting that Pedro&nbsp;I had kicked Maria Leopoldina in the womb during a heated discussion. The quarrel was witnessed by Domitila de Castro and Wenzel Philipp Leopold, Baron von Mareschal. Then serving Maria Leopoldina's father as the Austrian minister in Brazil and thus inclined to reflect her interests, Mareschal was the sole eyewitness who left an account of what actually happened. According to him, the couple had a bitter argument in which they exchanged insults, but there is no mention of physical violence ({{harvnb|Rangel|1928|pp=162–163}}; {{harvnb|Calmon|1975|pp=14–15}}; {{harvnb|Costa|1995|p=86}}). Historians Alberto Rangel {{harv|Rangel|1928|p=163}}, Pedro Calmon ({{harvnb|Calmon|1950|p=137}}; {{harvnb|Calmon|1975|p=14}}), Octávio Tarquínio de Sousa {{harv|Sousa 1972, Vol 2|p=242}}, Sérgio Corrêa da Costa {{harv|Costa|1995|p=86}} and Roderick J. Barman {{harv|Barman|1999|p=17}} have rejected the possibility that Pedro&nbsp;I physically harmed his wife and all affirmed that the altercation was limited to harsh language. A later exhumation confirmed that Maria Leopoldina had died of natural causes.{{harv|Tavares|2013}} As late as 1831, however, aspersions on Pedro's conduct at the time of his wife's death were still being whispered, serving as a lasting reminder of what people actually believed, regardless of the unfounded nature of the allegations {{harv|Sousa 1972, Vol 2|p=242}}. Barman was categorical when he noted that Maria Leopoldina's death stripped Pedro&nbsp;I of "any remaining aura of sanctity, either at home or abroad" {{harv|Barman|1988|p=147}}.}} Meanwhile, the war continued on with no conclusion in sight. Pedro&nbsp;I relinquished Cisplatina in August 1828, and the province became the independent nation of [[Uruguay]].{{sfn|Macaulay|1986|p=211}}{{sfn|Barman|1988|p=151}}

=== Second marriage ===
[[File:Second marriage of S.M.I. D. Pedro I.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.5|alt=Under a red canopy in a baroque church, a man in uniform places a ring on the finger of a woman in an elaborate white dress, attended by 4 small children, bishops and other onlookers|Marriage of Pedro&nbsp;I to [[Amélie of Leuchtenberg]]. Next to him, in [[order of precedence]], are his children with Maria Leopoldina: [[Pedro II of Brazil|Pedro]], [[Princess Januária of Brazil|Januária]], [[Princess Paula of Brazil|Paula]] and [[Princess Francisca of Brazil|Francisca]]. Painting by [[Debret]].]]
After his wife's death, Pedro&nbsp;I realized how miserably he had treated her, and his relationship with Domitila began to crumble. Maria Leopoldina, unlike his mistress, was popular, honest and loved him without expecting anything in return. The Emperor greatly missed her, and even his obsession with Domitila failed to overcome his sense of loss and regret.{{sfn|Barman|1999|p=24}} One day Domitila found him weeping on the floor and embracing a portrait of his deceased wife, whose sad-looking ghost Pedro&nbsp;I claimed to have seen.<ref>See:
* {{harvnb|Rangel|1928|p=193}},
* {{harvnb|Lustosa|2006|p=250}},
* {{harvnb|Costa|1995|p=88}},
* {{harvnb|Sousa 1972, Vol 2|p=260}}.
</ref> Later on, the Emperor left the bed he shared with Domitila and shouted: "Get off of me! I know I live an unworthy life of a sovereign. The thought of the Empress does not leave me."{{sfn|Costa|1995|p=88}}{{sfn|Rangel|1928|p=195}} He did not forget his children, orphaned of their mother, and was observed on more than one occasion holding his son, the young Pedro, in his arms and saying: "Poor boy, you are the most unhappy prince in the world."{{sfn|Lustosa|2006|p=250}}

At the insistence of Pedro&nbsp;I, Domitila departed from Rio de Janeiro on 27 June 1828.{{sfn|Lustosa|2006|p=262}} He had resolved to marry again and to become a better person. He even tried to persuade his father-in-law of his sincerity, by claiming in a letter "that all my wickedness is over, that I shall not again fall into those errors into which I have fallen, which I regret and have asked God for forgiveness".{{sfn|Lustosa|2006|p=252}} Francis&nbsp;I was less than convinced. The Austrian emperor, deeply offended by the conduct his daughter endured, withdrew his support for Brazilian concerns and frustrated Pedro&nbsp;I's Portuguese interests.{{sfn|Barman|1988|p=147}} Because of Pedro&nbsp;I's bad reputation in Europe, owing to his past behavior, princesses from several nations declined his proposals of marriage one after another.{{sfn|Macaulay|1986|p=226}} His pride thus wounded, he allowed his mistress to return, which she did on 29 April 1829 after having been away nearly a year.{{sfn|Lustosa|2006|p=252}}{{sfn|Sousa 1972, Vol 2|p=320}}

However, once he learned that a betrothal had finally been arranged, the Emperor ended his relationship to Domitila. She returned to her native province of São Paulo on 27 August, where she remained.{{sfn|Sousa 1972, Vol 2|p=326}} Days earlier, on 2 August, the Emperor had been married by proxy to [[Amélie of Leuchtenberg]].{{sfn|Costa|1995|p=94}}{{sfn|Sousa 1972, Vol 3|p=8}} He was stunned by her beauty after meeting her in person.{{sfn|Lustosa|2006|p=285}}{{sfn|Sousa 1972, Vol 3|p=15}} The vows previously made by proxy were ratified in a Nuptial Mass on 17 October.{{sfn|Macaulay|1986|p=235}}{{sfn|Rangel|1928|p=274}} Amélie was kind and loving to his children and provided a much needed sense of normality to both his family and the general public.{{sfn|Barman|1988|p=156}} After Domitila's banishment from court, the vow the Emperor made to alter his behavior proved to be sincere. He had no more affairs and remained faithful to his spouse.<ref>See:
* {{harvnb|Sousa 1972, Vol 3|pp=10, 16–17}},
* {{harvnb|Macaulay|1986|pp=231, 241}},
* {{harvnb|Costa|1995|p=94}}.
</ref> In an attempt to mitigate and move beyond other past misdeeds, he made peace with José Bonifácio, his former minister and mentor.{{sfn|Macaulay|1986|p=236}}{{sfn|Lustosa|2006|p=283}}