Editing Pandemic (section)

== Notable pandemics and outbreaks ==
{{See also|List of epidemics|Columbian Exchange|Globalization and disease}}

=== Recent outbreaks ===
<!-- Please restrict this to the last 50 years -->

==== COVID-19 ====
{{Main|COVID-19|COVID-19 pandemic}}
[[File:Total-confirmed-cases-of-covid-19-per-million-people.png|thumb|Total confirmed cases of COVID-19 per million people<ref>{{cite web |title=Total confirmed cases of COVID-19 per million people |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/total-confirmed-cases-of-covid-19-per-million-people |website=Our World in Data |access-date=10 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200319163452/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/total-confirmed-cases-of-covid-19-per-million-people |archive-date=19 March 2020 |url-status=live }}</ref>]]
[[SARS-CoV-2]], a new strain of [[coronavirus]], was first detected in the city of [[Wuhan|Wuhan, Hubei Province]], China, in December 2019.<ref>{{cite web |date=31 December 2019 |title=WHO Statement Regarding Cluster of Pneumonia Cases in Wuhan, China |url=https://www.who.int/china/news/detail/09-01-2020-who-statement-regarding-cluster-of-pneumonia-cases-in-wuhan-china |access-date=12 March 2020 |publisher=WHO}}</ref> The outbreak was characterized as a [[Public health emergency of international concern|Public Health Emergency of International Concern]] (PHEIC) between January 2020 and May 2023 by WHO.<ref>{{cite web |date=11 March 2020 |title=WHO Director-General's opening remarks at the media briefing on COVID-19—11 March 2020 |url=https://www.who.int/dg/speeches/detail/who-director-general-s-opening-remarks-at-the-media-briefing-on-covid-19---11-march-2020 |access-date=12 March 2020 |publisher=WHO}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=WHO – Statement on the fifteenth meeting of the IHR (2005) Emergency Committee on the COVID-19 pandemic |url=https://www.who.int/news/item/05-05-2023-statement-on-the-fifteenth-meeting-of-the-international-health-regulations-(2005)-emergency-committee-regarding-the-coronavirus-disease-(covid-19)-pandemic |access-date=10 May 2023 |publisher=World Health Organization}}</ref> The number of people infected with COVID-19 has reached more than 767 million worldwide, with a death toll of 6.9 million.{{Efn|Statistics as of August 2023}}<ref>{{cite web |date=19 June 2023 |title=WHO Coronavirus (COVID-19) Dashboard |url=https://covid19.who.int/ |access-date=19 June 2023 |website=World Health Organization}}</ref> It is considered likely that the virus will eventually become endemic and, like the common cold, cause less severe disease for most people.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Harrison CM, Doster JM, Landwehr EH, Kumar NP, White EJ, Beachboard DC, Stobart CC | title = Evaluating the Virology and Evolution of Seasonal Human Coronaviruses Associated with the Common Cold in the COVID-19 Era | journal = Microorganisms | volume = 11 | issue = 2 | pages = 445 | date = February 2023 | pmid = 36838410 | pmc = 9961755 | doi = 10.3390/microorganisms11020445 | quote = After evaluating the biology, pathogenesis, and emergence of the human coronaviruses that cause the common cold, we can anticipate that with increased vaccine immunity to SARS-CoV-2, it will become a seasonal, endemic coronavirus that causes less severe disease in most individuals. Much like the common cold CoVs, the potential for severe disease will likely be present in those who lack a protective immune response or are immunocompromised. | doi-access = free }}</ref>

==== HIV/AIDS ====
{{Main|HIV/AIDS|Epidemiology of HIV/AIDS}}
[[File:HIV_prevalence_2022.png|thumb|A world map illustrating the proportion of population infected with HIV in 2019]]
[[HIV/AIDS]] was first identified as a disease in 1981, and is an ongoing worldwide [[public health]] issue.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |date=2 August 2023 |title=HIV/AIDS Factsheet |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/hiv-aids |access-date=2 August 2023 |website=World Health Organization |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Why the HIV epidemic is not over |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/spotlight/why-the-hiv-epidemic-is-not-over |access-date=2022-03-11 |website=www.who.int |language=en}}</ref> Since then, HIV/AIDS has killed an estimated 40 million people with a further 630,000 deaths annually; 39 million people are currently living with [[HIV]] infection.{{Efn|Statistics as at the end of 2022}}<ref name=":2" /> HIV has a [[zoonotic]] origin, having originated in nonhuman [[primate]]s in [[Central Africa]] and transferred to humans in the early 20th century.<ref name="Orgin2011">{{cite journal |vauthors=Sharp PM, Hahn BH |date=September 2011 |title=Origins of HIV and the AIDS pandemic |journal=Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine |volume=1 |issue=1 |pages=a006841 |doi=10.1101/cshperspect.a006841 |pmc=3234451 |pmid=22229120}}</ref> The most frequent mode of transmission of HIV is through sexual contact with an infected person. There may be a short period of mild, nonspecific symptoms followed by an asymptomatic (but nevertheless infectious) stage called [[clinical latency]] – without treatment, this stage can last between 3 and 20 years. The only way to detect infection is by means of a HIV test.<ref name="AIDS2010GOV">{{cite web |date=2017-05-15 |title=What Are HIV and AIDS? |url=https://www.hiv.gov/hiv-basics/overview/about-hiv-and-aids/what-are-hiv-and-aids/ |access-date=2 August 2023 |website=HIV.gov |publisher=U.S. Department of Health & Human Services |language=en}}</ref> There is no vaccine to prevent HIV infection, but the disease can be held in check by means of [[Management of HIV/AIDS|antiretroviral therapy]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 August 2021 |title=HIV Treatment: The Basics {{!}} NIH |url=https://hivinfo.nih.gov/understanding-hiv/fact-sheets/hiv-treatment-basics |access-date=2 August 2023 |website=hivinfo.nih.gov (a service of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services) |language=en}}</ref>

=== Pandemics in history ===
{{See also|List of epidemics and pandemics}}Historical accounts of epidemics are often vague or contradictory in describing how victims were affected. A rash accompanied by a fever might be smallpox, measles, scarlet fever, or [[varicella]], and it is possible that epidemics overlapped, with multiple infections striking the same population at once. It is often impossible to know the exact causes of mortality, although [[ancient DNA]] studies can sometimes detect residues of certain pathogens.<ref name="pest">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YiHHnV08ebkC&pg=PA62 |title=A Pest in the Land: New World Epidemics in a Global Perspective |vauthors=Alchon S |publisher=University of New Mexico Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-8263-2871-7 |page=62 |access-date=9 March 2019}}</ref>[[File:The Triumph of Death P001393.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|[[Pieter Brueghel the Elder|Pieter Bruegel]]'s ''[[The Triumph of Death]]'' ({{circa|1562}}) reflects the social upheaval and terror that followed the plague, which devastated medieval Europe.]]
[[File:1918 Headlines from Chicago newspapers - Spanish flu - 1918 influenza pandemic.jpg| thumb|upright=1.5|1918 Chicago newspaper headlines reflect mitigation strategies for the [[Spanish flu]], such as increased ventilation, arrests for "open-face sneezes and coughs", sequenced inoculations, limitations on crowd size, selective closing of businesses, curfews, and lockdowns.<ref name=USAtoday_20201122>{{cite news | vauthors = Hauck G |others=Graphics by Karl Gelles|title=We're celebrating Thanksgiving amid a pandemic. Here's how we did it in 1918 – and what happened next |url=https://www.usatoday.com/in-depth/news/nation/2020/11/21/covid-and-thanksgiving-how-we-celebrated-during-1918-flu-pandemic/6264231002/ |work=[[USA Today]] |date=22 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201121183814/https://eu.usatoday.com/in-depth/news/nation/2020/11/21/covid-and-thanksgiving-how-we-celebrated-during-1918-flu-pandemic/6264231002/ |archive-date=21 November 2020 |url-status=live }}</ref>]]

It is assumed that, prior to the [[Neolithic Revolution]] around 10,000 BC, disease outbreaks were limited to a single family or clan, and did not spread widely before dying out. The domestication of animals increased human-animal contact, increasing the possibility of zoonotic infections. The advent of agriculture, and trade between settled groups, made it possible for pathogens to spread widely. As the population increased, contact between groups became more frequent. A history of epidemics maintained by the Chinese Empire from 243 B.C. to 1911 A.C. shows an approximate correlation between the frequency of epidemics and the growth of the population.<ref name=":03">{{cite journal | vauthors = Høiby N | title = Pandemics: past, present, future: That is like choosing between cholera and plague | journal = APMIS | volume = 129 | issue = 7 | pages = 352–371 | date = July 2021 | pmid = 33244837 | pmc = 7753327 | doi = 10.1111/apm.13098 }}</ref>

Here is an incomplete list of known epidemics which have spread widely enough to merit the title "pandemic".
* [[Plague of Athens]] (430 to 426 BC): During the [[Peloponnesian War]], an epidemic killed a quarter of the Athenian troops and a quarter of the population. This disease fatally weakened the dominance of [[Athens]], but the sheer virulence of the disease prevented its wider spread; i.e., it killed off its hosts at a rate faster than they could spread it. The exact cause of the plague was unknown for many years. In January 2006, researchers from the [[University of Athens]] analyzed [[teeth]] recovered from a [[mass grave]] underneath the city and confirmed the presence of [[bacteria]] responsible for [[typhoid fever]].<ref>[http://www.sciam.com/article.cfm?articleID=000BF619-9B78-13D6-9B7883414B7F0135&chanID=sa003 "Ancient Athenian Plague Proves to Be Typhoid"]. ''Scientific American.'' 25 January 2006.</ref>
* [[Antonine Plague]] (165 to 180 AD): Possibly measles or smallpox brought to the Italian peninsula by soldiers returning from the Near East, it killed a quarter of those infected, up to five million in total.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/4381924.stm Past pandemics that ravaged Europe]. ''BBC News'', 7{{nbsp}}November. 2005</ref>
* [[Plague of Cyprian]] (251–266 AD): A second outbreak of what may have been the same disease as the Antonine Plague killed (it was said) 5,000 people a day in [[Rome]].<ref>{{cite web | vauthors = Horgan J |title=Plague of Cyprian, 250–270 CE |url=https://www.worldhistory.org/article/992/plague-of-cyprian-250-270-ce/ |access-date=16 July 2023 |website=World History Encyclopedia }}</ref>
* [[Plague of Justinian]] (541 to 549 AD): Also known as the ''First Plague Pandemic''. This epidemic started in [[Egypt]] and reached [[Constantinople]] the following spring, killing (according to the Byzantine chronicler [[Procopius]]) 10,000 a day at its height, and perhaps 40% of the city's inhabitants. The plague went on to eliminate a quarter to half the [[human population]] of the known world and was identified in 2013 as being caused by [[bubonic plague]].<ref>{{cite web |date=20 May 2013 |title=Modern lab reaches across the ages to resolve plague DNA debate |url=http://phys.org/news/2013-05-modern-lab-ages-plague-dna.html |website=phys.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Little LK |title=Plague and the end of Antiquity: the pandemic of 541-750 |date=2007 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge (Mass.) |isbn=978-0-521-84639-4}}</ref>
* [[Black Death]] (1331 to 1353): Also known as the ''Second Plague Pandemic.'' The total number of deaths worldwide is estimated at 75 to 200 million. Starting in Asia, the disease reached the Mediterranean and western Europe in 1348 (possibly from Italian merchants fleeing fighting in [[Crimea]]) and killed an estimated 20 to 30 million Europeans in six years;<ref>[http://www.medhunters.com/articles/deathOnAGrandScale.html Death on a Grand Scale]. ''MedHunters.''</ref> a third of the total population,<ref>Stéphane Barry and Norbert Gualde, in ''[[L'Histoire]]'' No. 310, June 2006, pp. 45–46, say "between one-third and two-thirds"; Robert Gottfried (1983). "Black Death" in ''[[Dictionary of the Middle Ages]]'', volume 2, pp. 257–267, says "between 25 and 45&nbsp;percent".</ref> and up to a half in the worst-affected urban areas.<ref>{{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Plague |volume=21 |pages=693–705}}</ref> It was the first of a cycle of European [[Second plague pandemic|plague epidemics]] that continued until the 18th century;<ref>{{cite web |url=http://urbanrim.org.uk/plague%20list.htm |title=A List of National Epidemics of Plague in England 1348–1665 |publisher=Urbanrim.org.uk |date=4 August 2010 |access-date=26 August 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090508010316/http://urbanrim.org.uk/plague%20list.htm |archive-date=8 May 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref> there were more than 100 plague epidemics in Europe during this period,<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/may/16/health.books |title=Black Death blamed on man, not rats |newspaper=The Observer | vauthors = Revill J |date= 16 May 2004|access-date=3 November 2008 | location=London}}</ref> including the [[Great Plague of London]] of 1665–66 which killed approximately 100,000 people, 20% of London's population.<ref>[http://ocp.hul.harvard.edu/contagion/plague.html The Great Plague of London, 1665]. ''The Harvard University Library, Open Collections Program: Contagion.''</ref>
* [[1817–1824 cholera pandemic]]. Previously endemic in the [[Indian subcontinent]], the pandemic began in [[Bengal]], then spread across India by 1820. The deaths of 10,000 British troops were documented - it is assumed that tens of thousands of Indians must have died.<ref name="cbc-cholera">[https://www.cbc.ca/news/science/cholera-s-seven-pandemics-1.758504 Cholera's seven pandemics], cbc.ca, December 2, 2008.</ref> The disease spread as far as China, [[Indonesia]] (where more than 100,000 people succumbed on the island of [[Java]] alone)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cholera - Pandemic, Waterborne, 19th Century {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/cholera/Cholera-through-history |access-date=2023-08-27 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> and the [[Caspian Sea]] before receding. Subsequent cholera pandemics during the 19th century are estimated to have caused many millions of deaths globally.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Pollitzer |first=R. |date=1954 |title=Cholera studies |journal=Bulletin of the World Health Organization |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=421–461 |issn=0042-9686 |pmc=2542143 |pmid=13160764}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=McNeill |first=William Hardy |title=Plagues and peoples |date=1998 |publisher=Anchor Books |isbn=978-0-385-12122-4 |edition=Reprint [der Ausg.] Garden City, NY, 1976 |location=New York}}</ref>[[File:Chevalier Roze à la Tourette - 1720.PNG|thumb|[[Great Plague of Marseille]] in 1720 killed a total of 100,000 people]]
* [[Third plague pandemic]] (1855–1960): Starting in China, it is estimated to have caused over 12 million deaths in total, the majority of them in India.<ref>{{cite web |title=History's Seven Deadliest Plagues {{!}} Gavi, the Vaccine Alliance |url=https://www.gavi.org/vaccineswork/historys-seven-deadliest-plagues |access-date=16 July 2023 |website=www.gavi.org }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.who.int/vaccine_research/diseases/zoonotic/en/index4.html |title=Zoonotic Infections: Plague |publisher=World Health Organization |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090420003315/http://www.who.int/vaccine_research/diseases/zoonotic/en/index4.html |archive-date=20 April 2009 |access-date=5 July 2014}}</ref> During this pandemic, the United States saw its first outbreak: the [[San Francisco plague of 1900–1904]].<ref>[https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/aso/databank/entries/dm00bu.html Bubonic plague hits San Francisco 1900–1909]. ''A Science Odyssey. Public Broadcasting Service (PBS).''</ref> The causative bacterium, ''[[Yersinia pestis]]'', was identified in 1894.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Yersin A |year=1894 |title=La peste bubonique à Hong-Kong |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/23590#page/692/mode/1up |journal=Annales de l'Institut Pasteur |volume=8 |pages=662–67 |language=fr}}</ref> The association with fleas, and in particular rat fleas in urban environments, led to effective control measures. The pandemic was considered to be over in 1959 when annual deaths due to plague dropped below 200. The disease is nevertheless present in the rat population worldwide and isolated human cases still occur.<ref>{{cite web |date=7 July 2022 |title=Plague |url=https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/plague |access-date=16 July 2023 |website=World Health Organization }}</ref>
* The 1918–1920 [[Spanish flu]] infected half a billion people<ref name="Taubenberger">{{cite journal |vauthors=Taubenberger JK, Morens DM |date=January 2006 |title=1918 Influenza: the mother of all pandemics |url=https://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/eid/vol12no01/05-0979.htm |url-status=dead |journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=15–22 |doi=10.3201/eid1201.050979 |pmc=3291398 |pmid=16494711 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091006002531/http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/eid/vol12no01/05-0979.htm |archive-date=6 October 2009 |access-date=7 September 2017}}</ref> around the world, including on remote [[Pacific islands]] and in the [[Arctic]]—killing 20 to 100 million.<ref name="Taubenberger" /><ref>{{cite web| title=Historical Estimates of World Population| url=https://www.census.gov/population/international/data/worldpop/table_history.php| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120709092946/https://www.census.gov/population/international/data/worldpop/table_history.php| url-status=dead| archive-date=9 July 2012| access-date=29 March 2013}}</ref> Most influenza outbreaks disproportionately kill the very young and the very old, but the 1918 pandemic had an unusually high mortality rate for young adults.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Gagnon A, Miller MS, Hallman SA, Bourbeau R, Herring DA, Earn DJ, Madrenas J | title = Age-specific mortality during the 1918 influenza pandemic: unravelling the mystery of high young adult mortality | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 8 | issue = 8 | pages = e69586 | year = 2013 | pmid = 23940526 | pmc = 3734171 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0069586 | bibcode = 2013PLoSO...869586G | doi-access = free }}</ref> It killed more people in 25 weeks than AIDS did in its first 25 years.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://virus.stanford.edu/uda/|title=The 1918 Influenza Pandemic|website=virus.stanford.edu}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100127100727/http://www.channel4.com/news/articles/world/spanish%20flu%20facts/111285 | archive-date = 27 January 2010 | url-status = dead | url = http://www.channel4.com/news/articles/world/spanish%20flu%20facts/111285 | title = Spanish flu facts | work = Channel 4 News }}</ref> Mass troop movements and close quarters during World War{{nbsp}}I caused it to spread and [[mutation|mutate]] faster, and the susceptibility of soldiers to the flu may have been increased by stress, [[malnourishment]] and [[chemical attack]]s.<ref>{{cite book| vauthors = Qureshi AI | title=Ebola Virus Disease: From Origin to Outbreak| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7zyXCgAAQBAJ&q=Ebola+Virus+Disease:+From+Origin+to+Outbreak+Adnan+1918+pandemic&pg=PA42| page=42| publisher=Academic Press| date=2016| isbn=978-0128042427}}</ref> Improved transportation systems made it easier for soldiers, sailors and civilian travelers to spread the disease.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20131211093810/http://www.xtimeline.com/evt/view.aspx?id=65022 Spanish flu strikes during World War I], 14 January 2010</ref>

=== Pandemics in indigenous populations ===
{{See also|Native American disease and epidemics|Smallpox in Australia|History of smallpox in Mexico}}
[[File:FlorentineCodex BK12 F54 smallpox.jpg|thumb|Aztecs dying of smallpox, ''[[Florentine Codex]]'' (compiled 1540–1585)]]

Beginning from the Middle Ages, encounters between European settlers and native populations in the rest of the world often introduced epidemics of extraordinary virulence. Settlers introduced novel diseases which were endemic in Europe, such as [[smallpox]], [[measles]], [[pertussis]] and [[influenza]], to which the [[indigenous peoples]] had no immunity.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Story Of ... Smallpox—and other Deadly Eurasian Germs |url=https://www.pbs.org/gunsgermssteel/variables/smallpox.html |access-date=26 August 2010 |publisher=Pbs.org}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Stacy Goodling, "Effects of European Diseases on the Inhabitants of the New World" |url=http://www.millersville.edu/~columbus/papers/goodling.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080510163413/http://www.millersville.edu/~columbus/papers/goodling.html |archive-date=10 May 2008}}</ref> The Europeans infected with such diseases typically carried them in a [[Dormancy|dormant state]], were actively infected but [[asymptomatic]], or had only mild symptoms.<ref name="Francis 2005">{{cite book | vauthors = Francis JM |title=Iberia and the Americas culture, politics, and history: A Multidisciplinary Encyclopedia |publisher=ABC-CLIO |year=2005 |isbn=1851094210 |location=Santa Barbara, California}}</ref>

Smallpox was the most destructive disease that was brought by Europeans to the Native Americans, both in terms of [[morbidity]] and mortality. The first well-documented smallpox epidemic in the Americas began in [[Hispaniola]] in late 1518 and soon spread to Mexico.<ref name="Francis 2005" /> Estimates of mortality range from one-quarter to one-half of the population of central Mexico.<ref name=":04">{{cite book | vauthors = Hays J |title=Epidemics and Pandemics: Their Impacts on Human History. |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing |year=2005 |isbn=9781851096589}}</ref> It is estimated that over the 100 years after European arrival in 1492, the indigenous population of the Americas dropped from 60 million to only 6 million, due to a combination of disease, war, and famine. The majority these deaths are attributed to successive waves of introduced diseases such as smallpox, measles, and typhoid fever.<ref>{{cite web | vauthors = Gunderman R |title=How smallpox devastated the Aztecs – and helped Spain conquer an American civilization 500 years ago |url=http://theconversation.com/how-smallpox-devastated-the-aztecs-and-helped-spain-conquer-an-american-civilization-500-years-ago-111579 |access-date=1 December 2022 |website=The Conversation |date=19 February 2019 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | vauthors = Koch A |date=1 December 2019 |title='Great Dying' in Americas disturbed Earth's climate |url=https://www.ucl.ac.uk/news/2019/feb/great-dying-americas-disturbed-earths-climate |access-date=26 July 2023 |website=University College London – News }}</ref><ref name="Agence France-Presse">{{cite news |date=18 January 2018 |title=500 years later, scientists discover what probably killed the Aztecs |work=The Guardian |agency=[[Agence France-Presse|AFP]] |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jan/16/mexico-500-years-later-scientists-discover-what-killed-the-aztecs |access-date=16 January 2018}}</ref>

In [[Australia]], smallpox was introduced by European settlers in 1789 devastating the [[Aboriginal Australians|Australian Aboriginal]] population, killing an estimated 50% of those infected with the disease during the first decades of colonisation.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Dowling P |title=Fatal contact: How epidemics nearly wiped out Australia's first peoples |publisher=Clayton, Victoria: Monash University Publishing |year=2021 |isbn=9781922464460 |pages=30–31, 60–63}}</ref> In the early 1800s, measles, smallpox and intertribal warfare killed an estimated 20,000 New Zealand [[Māori people|Māori]].<ref>{{cite web |date=31 March 1998 |title=New Zealand Historical Perspective |url=http://www.canr.msu.edu/overseas/nzenvironsci/infopart2.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100612021507/http://www.canr.msu.edu/overseas/nzenvironsci/infopart2.htm |archive-date=12 June 2010 |access-date=26 August 2010 |publisher=Canr.msu.edu}}</ref>

In 1848–49, as many as 40,000 out of 150,000 [[Hawaii]]ans are estimated to have died of [[measles]], [[whooping cough]] and [[influenza]]. Measles killed more than 40,000 [[Fiji]]ans, approximately one-third of the population, in 1875,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Derrick RA |date=18 April 1955 |title=Fiji's darkest hour – an account of the Measles Epidemic of 1875 |url=http://www.justpacific.com/fiji/full-text/Derrick%E2%80%94Measles.pdf |journal=Transactions and Proceedings of the Fiji Society |volume=for the years 1955–1957 |pages=6(1): 3–16}}</ref> and in the early 19th century devastated the [[Great Andamanese]] population.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/4987406.stm | title = Measles hits rare Andaman tribe | work = BBC News | date = 16 May 2006 }}</ref> In [[Hokkaido]], an epidemic of smallpox introduced by Japanese settlers is estimated to have killed 34% of the native [[Ainu people|Ainu]] population in 1845.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Walker BL |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D5iOcHB3h5AC |title=The Conquest of Ainu Lands: Ecology and Culture in Japanese Expansion, 1590–1800 |date=2001 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-93299-9 }}</ref>