Editing Oman (section)

=== 18th and 19th centuries ===
[[File:Sultan's Palace, Zanzibar.JPG|thumb|left|The [[Palace Museum, Zanzibar|Sultan's Palace]] in [[Zanzibar]], which was once Oman's capital and residence of its sultans]]
After the Omanis expelled the [[Persians]], Ahmed bin Sa'id Albusaidi became the elected Imam of Oman on 20 November 1744, with [[Rustaq]] serving as the capital. Since the revival of the Imamate with the Yaruba dynasty, the Omanis continued with the elective system but, provided that the person is deemed qualified, gave preference to a member of the ruling family.<ref name=HTSHC>Salîl-ibn-Razîk. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x000054 History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân by Salîl-ibn-Razîk, from A.D. 661–1856 (83/612) ''British National Archive''.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210310085008/https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x000054 |date=10 March 2021 }} History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân. British National Archive. Page 83. QDL.</ref> Following Imam Ahmed's death in 1783, his son, Said bin Ahmed became the elected Imam. His son, Seyyid Hamed bin Said, overthrew the representative of his father the Imam in Muscat and obtained the possession of Muscat fortress. Hamed ruled as "Seyyid". Afterwards, Seyyid Sultan bin Ahmed, the uncle of Seyyid Hamed, took over power. Seyyid [[Said bin Sultan]] succeeded Sultan bin Ahmed.<ref name=HTSHC1>Salîl-ibn-Razîk. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x000057 History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân by Salîl-ibn-Razîk, from A.D. 661–1856 (86/612).] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707162506/https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x000057 |date=7 July 2022 }} History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân. British National Archive. Page 86. QDL.</ref><ref name=HTSHC3>Salîl-ibn-Razîk. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x00005d History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân by Salîl-ibn-Razîk, from A.D. 661–1856 (92/612) ''British National Archive''.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707160946/http://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x00005d |date=7 July 2022 }} History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân. British National Archive. Page 92. QDL.</ref> During the entire 19th century, in addition to Imam Said bin Ahmed who retained the title until he died in 1803, [[Azzan bin Qais]] was the only elected Imam of Oman. His rule started in 1868. However, the British refused to accept Imam Azzan as a ruler, as he was viewed as inimical to their interests. This view played an instrumental role in supporting the deposition of Imam Azzan in 1871 by his cousin, Sayyid Turki, a son of the late Sayyid Said bin Sultan, and brother of [[Barghash bin Said of Zanzibar|Sultan Barghash of Zanzibar]], who Britain deemed to be more acceptable.<ref name=ABQOLR>Robert Geran Landen. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/598849?read-now=1&seq=2#page_scan_tab_contents Oman Since 1856: Disruptive Modernization in a Traditional Arab Society.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220710035950/https://www.jstor.org/stable/598849?read-now=1&seq=2#page_scan_tab_contents |date=10 July 2022 }} Oman Since 1856: Disruptive Modernization in a Traditional Arab Society. Journal of the American Oriental Society. Pages 581–583. JSTOR. 1970. Vol. 90, No. 4.</ref>

Oman's Imam Sultan, defeated ruler of Muscat, was granted sovereignty over [[Gwadar]], an area of modern-day Pakistan.<ref group=note>In 1783, when Seyyid Said succeeded to the "masnad" of Muscat and Oman (an independent state founded in 1749), he fell out with his brother Imam Sultan, who fled to safety in Makran and entered into communication with Nasir Khan of Kalat. Said was granted the Kalat share of the revenues of Gwadar and lived there until 1797 when he came to rule over Muscat and Oman.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dawn.com.pk/weekly/cowas/20050911.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100609072245/http://www.dawn.com.pk/weekly/cowas/20050911.htm |archive-date=9 June 2010 |title=DAWN – Cowasjee Corner; September 11, 2005 |first=Ardeshir |last=Cowasjee |date=11 September 2005 |publisher=DAWN Group of Newspapers |access-date=27 July 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==== British de facto colonisation ====
The [[British empire]] was keen to dominate southeast Arabia to stifle the growing power of other European states and to curb the Omani maritime power that grew during the 17th century.<ref name=BOR/><ref name=OQ/> The British empire over time, starting from the late 18th century, began to establish a series of treaties with the sultans with the objective of advancing British political and economic interest in Muscat, while granting the sultans military protection.<ref name=OQ/><ref name=BOR>{{cite news |url=https://www.qdl.qa/en/close-relationship-britain-and-oman-1750|title=A Close Relationship: Britain and Oman Since 1750 |author=Dr Francis Owtram |publisher=QDL|date=11 December 2014 |access-date=27 July 2019 |archive-date=8 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308192336/https://www.qdl.qa/en/close-relationship-britain-and-omamn-1750 |url-status=live}} 2014.</ref> In 1798, the first treaty between the British [[East India Company]] and the Albusaidi dynasty was signed by Sayyid Sultan bin Ahmed. The treaty aimed to block commercial competition of the French and the Dutch as well as obtain a concession to build a British factory at [[Bandar Abbas]].<ref name=HOIOO>[Joseph A. Kechichian "Oman and the World: The Emergence of an Independent Foreign Policy" RAND 1995]</ref><ref name=OmanForeignPolicy/><ref name=HTSHC2>Salîl-ibn-Razîk. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x00005a History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân by Salîl-ibn-Razîk, from A.D. 661–1856 (89/612)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308153139/https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023697835.0x00005a |date=8 March 2021 }} History of the imâms and seyyids of 'Omân. British National Archive. Page 89. QDL.</ref> A second treaty was signed in 1800, which stipulated that a British representative shall reside at the port of Muscat and manage all external affairs with other states.<ref name=HTSHC2/> As the Omani Empire weakened, the British influence over Muscat grew throughout the nineteenth century.<ref name=OQCP/>

{{multiple image
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| image1            = Muscat Squadron.png
| caption1          = A [[Royal Navy|British naval squadron]] in [[Muscat]]<ref name=BNSIM>Muscat and the Monsoon. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/muscat-and-monsoon British National Archive: Muscat and the Monsoon] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308145949/https://www.qdl.qa/en/muscat-and-monsoon |date=8 March 2021 }} British National Archive. QDL.</ref>
}}
In 1854, a deed of cession of the Omani [[Kuria Muria]] islands to Britain was signed by the sultan of Muscat and the British government.<ref name=KMITTB>A Collection of Treaties and Engagements. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023550810.0x000037 British National Archives: ''A Collection of Treaties and Engagements relating to the Persian Gulf Shaikhdoms and the Sultanate of Muscat and Oman in force up to the End of 1953' &#91;26v&#93; (54/92)''.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220706133302/https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023550810.0x000037 |date=6 July 2022 }} British National Archives. Page 54. QDL.</ref> The British government achieved predominating control over Muscat, which, for the most part, impeded competition from other nations.<ref name=BPCOM>Historical Summary of Events. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023415995.0x0000be British National Archive: Historical Summary of Events 189/222] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308180039/https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023415995.0x0000be |date=8 March 2021 }} British National Archive. Page 189. QDL.</ref> Between 1862 and 1892, the Political Residents, [[Lewis Pelly]] and Edward Ross, played an instrumental role in securing British supremacy over the Persian Gulf and Muscat by a system of indirect governance.<ref name=ABQOLR/> By the end of the 19th century, and with the loss of its African dominions and its revenues, British influence increased to the point that the sultans became heavily dependent on British loans and signed declarations to consult the British government on all important matters.<ref name=BOR/><ref name=QDLM>Muscat and Oman Internal Affairs History. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023415995.0x0000c0 British National Archive: Muscat and Oman Internal Affairs History] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308205414/https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023415995.0x0000c0 |date=8 March 2021 }} British National Archive. Page 191. QDL.</ref><ref name=GR/><ref name=HLBB>The Financial Troubles of Said bin Taimur.[https://www.qdl.qa/en/financial-troubles-said-bin-taimur British National Archive: The Financial Troubles of Said bin Taimur] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111194717/https://www.qdl.qa/en/financial-troubles-said-bin-taimur |date=11 November 2020 }} British National Archive. QDL.</ref> The Sultanate thus came ''de facto'' under the British sphere.<ref name=GR/><ref name=QoO/>

Zanzibar was a valuable property as the main [[Indian Ocean slave trade|slave market]] of the Swahili Coast as well as being a major producer of cloves, and became an increasingly important part of the Omani empire, a fact reflected by the decision of the Sayyid [[Sa'id ibn Sultan|Sa'id bin Sultan]], to make it the capital of the empire in 1837. In 1856, under British arbitration, Zanzibar and Muscat became two different sultanates.<ref name=YDAASD>[https://www.jstor.org/stable/20694640?read-now=1&seq=10#page_scan_tab_contents E. C. B. MacLaurin "Oman and the Trucial Coast"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117102818/https://www.jstor.org/stable/20694640?read-now=1&seq=10#page_scan_tab_contents |date=17 January 2023 }} Oman and the Trucial Coast. Pages 65–76. The Australian Quarterly. JSTOR. 1958.</ref>

==== Treaty of Seeb ====
[[File:Maskat & Oman map.png|thumb|left|The split between the interior region (orange) and the coastal region (red) of Oman and Muscat]]
The [[Hajar Mountains]], of which the [[Jebel Akhdar (Oman)|Jebel Akhdar]] is a part, separate the country into two distinct regions: the interior, and the coastal area dominated by the capital, Muscat.{{citation needed|date=January 2023}} The British imperial development over Muscat and Oman during the 19th century led to the renewed revival of the cause of the Imamate in the interior of Oman, which has appeared in cycles for more than 1,200 years in Oman.<ref name=OQ/> The British Political Agent, who resided in Muscat, owed the alienation of the interior of Oman to the vast influence of the British government over Muscat, which he described as being completely self-interested and without any regard to the social and political conditions of the locals.<ref name=Conditions>Muscat State Affairs. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100070535087.0x000015 British National Archive: File 8/67 Muscat State Affairs: Muscat– Oman Treaty] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220708103001/https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100070535087.0x000015 |date=8 July 2022 }} British National Archive. File 8/67. Page 20. QDL.</ref> In 1913, Imam Salim Alkharusi instigated an anti-Muscat rebellion that lasted until 1920 when the Sultanate established peace with the Imamate by signing the [[Treaty of Seeb]]. The treaty was brokered by Britain, which had no economic interest in the interior of Oman during that point of time. The treaty granted autonomous rule to the Imamate in the interior of Oman and recognized the sovereignty of the coast of Oman, the [[Muscat and Oman|Sultanate of Muscat]].<ref name=BOR/><ref name="smallwars">{{cite web |title=Jebel Akhdar |publisher=Britain's Small Wars |access-date=10 April 2012 |url=http://www.britains-smallwars.com/SAS/JebelAkhdar.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130917071704/http://www.britains-smallwars.com/SAS/JebelAkhdar.html |archive-date=17 September 2013 }}</ref><ref name=TOSNT>Muscat Rising. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100070535087.0x000033 British National Archive: Muscat Rising, from April 1917 to January 1918 & resumed from April 1920 to Oct 1920] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220707112144/https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100070535087.0x000033 |date=7 July 2022 }} British National Archive QDL</ref><ref name=OAOI>Oman profile – Timeline. {{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-14654492|title=BBC Middle East: Oman profile – Timeline (25 April 2018)|publisher=BBC News|date=25 April 2018|access-date=2 August 2019|archive-date=11 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220611185919/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-14654492|url-status=live}} 25 April 2018.</ref> In 1920, Imam Salim Alkharusi died and Muhammad Alkhalili was elected.<ref name=OmanForeignPolicy/>

On 10 January 1923, an agreement between the Sultanate and the British government was signed in which the Sultanate had to consult with the British [[Political officer (British Empire)|political agent]] residing in Muscat and obtain the approval of the [[British Raj|High Government of India]] to extract oil in the Sultanate.<ref name=agreement>Undertaking by Sultan Taimur Regarding Oil. [https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023550810.0x00003d ''Undertaking by Sultan Taimur Regarding Oil''.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210309043538/https://www.qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023550810.0x00003d |date=9 March 2021 }} British National Archives page 60 QDL</ref> On 31 July 1928, the [[Red Line Agreement]] was signed between Anglo-Persian Company (later renamed British Petroleum), Royal Dutch/Shell, Compagnie Française des Pétroles (later renamed Total), Near East Development Corporation (later renamed ExxonMobil) and Calouste Gulbenkian (an Armenian businessman) to collectively produce oil in the post-[[Ottoman Empire]] region, which included the Arabian peninsula, with each of the four major companies holding 23.75 percent of the shares while [[Calouste Gulbenkian]] held the remaining 5 percent shares. The agreement stipulated that none of the signatories was allowed to pursue the establishment of oil concessions within the agreed on area without including all other stakeholders. In 1929, the members of the agreement established [[Iraq Petroleum Company]] (IPC).<ref name=RLA>The 1928 Red Line Agreement. [https://history.state.gov/milestones/1921-1936/red-line United States Office of the Historian: The 1928 Red Line Agreement] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190717191817/https://history.state.gov/milestones/1921-1936/red-line |date=17 July 2019 }} United States Office of the Historian.</ref> On 13 November 1931, Sultan Taimur bin Faisal abdicated.<ref name=AOST>Muscat Rising. [http://qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023415995.0x0000bf British National Archive: Muscat Rising, from April 1917 to January 1918 & resumed from April 1920 to Oct 1920] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210225054303/https://qdl.qa/en/archive/81055/vdc_100023415995.0x0000bf |date=25 February 2021 }} British National Archive page 190 QDL</ref>